COM 100 Final Exam Study Guide

Chapter 1
Importance of Studying Human Communication

Differs from other social science disciplines because it focus is on message exchange and the
creation of meaning
Can help one to attain goals, establish relationships, and develop ones identity
Functional
Can be used to meet people, develop professional or personal relationships, and terminate
dissatisfying relationships
Allows one to establish who they are to a person with whom they are interacting
o The other persons communication also shapes how one views oneself
o Creates self-identity and identity as perceived by others

Components of Human Communication

1. Message creation messages = building blocks of communication
o Encoding = process of taking ideas and converting them into messages
o Decoding = receiving a message and interpreting its meaning
o When communicating, one encodes and exchanges 2 types of messages: verbal & nonverbal
most are symbols = something that represents something else and conveys meaning (e.g.
Valentines Day heart)
COMMUNICATION IS SYMBOLIC
2. Meaning creation the goal of exchanging symbols is to create meaning
o Content meaning = the denotative (i.e. concrete) meaning and the connotative (i.e. suggested)
meaning of a message
o Relationship meaning = what a message conveys about a relationship between the parties in
question
3. Setting = the location where the communication occurs, environmental conditions (e.g. temperature,
noise, light), time of day / day of week, and the proximity of the communicators
4. Participants = the people interacting during communication
o The more characteristics (e.g. cultural values, history) participants share, the easier it is to
communicate
5. Channels = the means through which a message is transmitted
o EX:
Face-to-face
Letters
Telephone calls
Television
o The channel through which one communicates a message can affect how the message is
perceived and its impact on the relationship
6. Noise = any stimulus that can interfere with, or degrade, the quality of a message
o External signals such as loud music or voices are noise
7. Feedback = the response to a message
o Lets the sender know if the message was received and how it was interpreted

Linear and Transactional Models of Communication

In a Linear model, communication occurs when a sender encodes a message which is then sent to a
receiver who decodes it
Human Communication in Society = transactional model that depicts communication as occurring
when 2+ people create meaning as they respond to each other and their environment

o Describing communication as a transaction captures fact that:

Each communicator is a sender and receiver simultaneously
Meaning is created as people communicate
Communication is an ongoing process
Previous communication events and relationships influence meaning

Chapter 2
Perception

Perception = the processes of selection, organization, and interpretation of the information one
collects through their senses
o Selection = the process of choosing which sensory information to focus on
Selective attention = consciously / unconsciously attending to just a narrow range of
the full array of sensory information available
o Organization = the process by which one recognizes what sensory input represents
Cognitive representation = the ability to form mental models of the world
Prototype = an idealized schema
Interpersonal script = relatively fixed sequence of events that functions as a guide or
template for communication or behavior
Categorization = cognitive process used to organize information by placing it into
larger groupings of information
Label = a name assigned to a category based on ones perceptions of the
category
Stereotyping = creating schemas that overgeneralize attributes of a specific
group
o Interpretation = the act of assigning meaning to sensory information
Frames = structure that shapes how people interpret their perceptions

Attribution theory = explanation of the processes we use to judge our own and others
behavior
Attributional bias = the tendency to attribute ones own negative behavior to
external causes and ones positive actions to internal states
Self-serving bias = the tendency to give ones self more credit than is due
when good things happen and to accept too little responsibility for those
things that go wrong
Fundamental attribution error = the tendency to attribute others negative
behavior to internal causes and their positive behavior to external causes

Identity

Identity = who a person is, composed of individual and social categories a person identifies with, as
well as the categories that others identify with that person
Exists at both the individual and societal levels not necessarily exclusive, can be individual and
societal simultaneously
Both fixed and dynamic
Created through interaction
Must be seen in context historical, cultural, and social
Reflected appraisals = idea that peoples self-images arise primarily from the ways in which others
view the many from the many messages they have received from others about who they are
o AKA Looking glass self
o Particular others = the important people in an individuals life whose opinions and behavior
influence the various aspects of identity
o Generalized others = the collection of roles, rules, norms, beliefs, and attitudes endorsed by
the community in which a person lives

Self-Concept

Self-concept = the understanding of ones unique characteristics as well as the similarities to, and
differences from, others
Self-esteem = how one evaluates oneself overall
o Functions as lens through which reflected appraisals and social comparisons are interpreted

Primary & Secondary Identity

Primary identity = identities such as race, ethnicity, or age that have a consistent and enduring
impact on ones life
Secondary identity = identities such as occupation and marital status that are changeable over ones
lifespan and from situation to situation

Chapter 3
Function of Language
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Instrumental = use of language to obtain what one needs or desires

Regulatory = use of language to control or regulate the behavior of others
Informative = use of language to communicate information or report facts
Heuristic = use of language to acquire knowledge and understanding
Interactional = use of language to establish and define social relationships
Personal language = use of language to express individuality and personality
Imaginative = use of language to express oneself artistically or creatively

Components of Language
1. Phonology = the study of sounds of language and how these sounds communicate in meaning in
various languages
2. Syntax = the rules that govern word order
3. Semantics = the study of meaning
o Denotative meaning = the dictionary / literal meaning of a word
o Connotative meaning = interpretive meanings attached to words
4. Pragmatics = field of study that emphasizes how language is used in specific situations to
accomplish goals
o Speech act theory = branch of pragmatics that suggests that when people communicate they
do not just say things, they also do things with their words
An example of a speech act is a request
o Includes idea of conversational rules
o Includes contextual rules

Language Discrimination

Language discrimination occurs when a person is treated differently because of that persons native
languages or other characteristics of that persons speech

Power & Identity Labels

Cocultural theory explores role of power in daily interactions based on 5 assumptions

1. In each society, a hierarchy exists that privileges certain groups of people
2. One of the privileges these groups enjoy, if subconsciously, is the ability to set norms for what
types of communication are acceptable
3. Language maintains and reinforces the power of these dominant groups
4. In the relationship realm, society tends to value a more-female communication style, and men
may be critiqued for failing to communicate appropriately with their intimates
5. These dominant communication structures impede the progress of persons whose communication
practices do not conform to the norms

Supportive and Defensive Communication

Communication scholars have argued that one of the best strategies for communicating effectively in
interpersonal and group situations is to use supportive rather than defensive language
Defensive communication tends to prevent the listener from concentrating on the message and thus
elicits more defensive communication
o It threatens others self-image or persona

I Statements

I statements allow one to express ones feelings (including negative ones) by focusing on ones
own experiences rather than making negative generalizations
Conveyed through 3-part message describing:
1. The other persons behavior
2. Your feelings about that behavior
3. The consequences the others behavior has for you

Chapter 4
Cross-cultural Nonverbal Communication

When entering a new culture, set aside ones normal understanding of nonverbal signals and
anticipate the unexpected
o Assume you do not know rules, and observe members of the culture to determine patterns of
behavior
If you are uncertain, mirror the behaviors you see others in the culture displaying
Be aware that cultures vary in how people use time and space
Use nonverbal emblems cautiously
Confirm interpretations and attributions

Nonverbal Codes

Nonverbal codes = distinct, organized means of expression that consist of symbols and rules for their
use
1. Kinesics = nonverbal communication sent by the body, including gestures, posture, movement, facial
expressions, and eye behavior
o Gestures = includes actions such as pointing, waving, or holding up a hand to direct peoples
attention
o Illustrators = signals that accompany speech to clarify or emphasize verbal messages
o Emblems = gestures that stand for a specific verbal meaning
o Adaptors = gestures used to manage emotions
o Regulators = gestures used to control conversation
o Immediacy = how close or involved people appear to be with each other
o Relaxation = the degree of tension displayed by ones body
2. Paralinguistics = all aspects of spoken language except the words themselves, including rate,
volume, pitch, and stress
o Voice qualities = qualities such as speed, pitch, rhythm, vocal range, and articulation that
make up the music of the human voice
o Vocalizations = uttered sounds that do not have the structure of language, including laughing,
crying, and whining
3. Time and space
o Chronemics = the study of the way in which people use time as a message
EX: In US, lateness can communicate thoughtlessness, irresponsibility, or selfishness
Monochronically = engaging in one task or behavior at a time
Polychronically = engaging in multiple activities simultaneously
o Proxemics = the study of how people use spatial cuesincluding interpersonal distance,
territoriality, and other space relationshipsto communicate

Intimate distance = (0-18 inches) the space used when interacting with those with
whom one is very close
Personal distance = (18 inches-4 feet) the space used when interacting with friends
and acquaintances
Social distance = (4-12 feet) the distance most US Americans use when they interact
with unfamiliar others
Public distance = (12-25 feet) the distance used for public ceremonies such as lectures
and performances
4. Haptics = the study of the communicative function of touch
o Professional touch = type of touch used by certain workers, such as dentists, hairstylists, and
hospice workers, as part of their livelihood
Least intimate type of touch
AKA Functional touch
o Social-polite touch = touch that is part of daily interaction in the US
More intimate than professional touch, but still impersonal
o Friendship touch = touch that is more intimate than social touch and usually conveys warmth,
closeness, and caring
o Love-intimate touch = touch most often used with ones romantic partners and family
o Demand touching = a type of touch used to establish dominance or power
5. Appearance & Artifacts
o Artifacts = clothing and other accessories

Functions of Nonverbal Messages

1. Communicating information = using nonverbal behaviors to help clarify verbal messages and reveak
attitudes and moods; does this in 5 ways
a. By repeating a message
b. By highlighting / emphasizing a message
c. By complimenting or reinforcing a message
d. By contradicting a message
e. By substituting for a message
2. Regulating interaction = using nonverbal behaviors to help manage turn-taking during conversation
3. Expressing and managing intimacy = using nonverbal behaviors to help convey attraction and
closeness
4. Establishing social control = using nonverbal behavior to exercise influence over other people
5. Service-task function = using nonverbal behavior to signal close involvement between people in
impersonal relationships and contexts

Chapter 5
Influences on Listening
1. Listening styles = set of attitudes, beliefs, and predispositions about the how, where, when, who, and
what of the information receiving and encoding process
o Action-oriented style = reflects preference for error-free and well-organized speaking
Informational listening = listening skills that are useful in situations requiring
attention to content
Attend to what speaker is saying
Dont judge speaker prematurelu
Paraphrase
Clarify

 Review and summarize

o Content-oriented style = reflects interest in detailed and complex information, simply for the
content
Critical listening = listening skills that are useful in a wide variety of situations
particularly those involving persuasive speaking
Consider speakers credibility
Listen between the lines
Evaluate the messages being sent and their implications
Weigh the evidence
Periodically review and summarize
o People-oriented style = associated with friendly, open communication and an interest in
establishing ties with others
o Time-oriented style = prefers brief, concise speech
2. Gender scholars think that, in general, men and women differ in their listening styles, and women
tend to be better listeners than men
o Men are supposedly logical, judgmental, interrupting, inattentive, self-centered, and
impatient
o Women are supposedly emotional, non-interrupting, attentive, empathetic, other-centered,
responsive, and patient
3. Age ones potential for effective listening seems to increase as one grows into adulthood
4. Nationality

Barriers to Listening
1. Physical and Physiological barriers
o Physical:
Noisy environment
Physical discomforta
Tiredness
o Physiological
Hearing disability
2. Psychological barriers
o Boredom
o Preoccupation
Strong emotions
o Prejudices
3. Conflicting objectives
4. Poor listening habits

Social Hierarchy

Societal norms and social hierarchy have strong influence on much of ones communication
behaviors, including listening
People consider social status, i.e., Is this person worthy of my time or attention?
Society sets norms for physical attractiveness, and thus people find it difficult to communicate with
people who significantly deviate from these norms

Chapter 6
Culture

Culture = learned patterns of perceptions, values, and behaviors shared by a group of people
Dynamic
Heterogeneous
Operates within societal power structures

Intercultural Communication

Intercultural communication = communication that occurs in interactions between people who are
culturally different

Intercultural Communication on the Borders

Border dwellers = people who live between cultures and often experience contradictory cultural
patterns
Voluntary short term travelers = people who are border dwellers by choice and for a limited time,
such as corporate personnel or study abroad students
Voluntary long term travelers = people who are border dwellers by choice and for an extended time,
such as immigrants
Involuntary short term travelers = people who are border dwellers not by choice and only for a
limited time, such as refugees forced to move
Involuntary long term travelers = people who are border dwellers permanently but not by choice,
such as those who relocate to escape war
Culture shock = a feeling of disorientation or discomfort due to the lack of familiar environmental
cues
o Reverse culture shock = culture shock experienced by travelers upon returning to their home
countries
Marginal people
o Encapsulated marginal people = people who feel disintegrated by having to shift cultures
o Constructive marginal people = people who thrive in a border dweller life, while recognizing
its tremendous challenges

Value Orientations
1. Individualism & Collectivism
o Individualist orientation = a value orientation that respects the autonomy and independence
of individuals
o Collectivistic orientation = a value orientation that stresses the needs of the group
2. Preferred personality = a value orientation that expresses whether it is more important for a person to
do or to be
3. View of human nature = a value orientation that expresses whether humans are fundamentally good,
evil, or a mixture of both
4. Human-nature value orientation = the perceived relationship between humans and nature
5. Power distance = refers to the extent to which less powerful members of institutions and
organizations within a culture expect and accept an unequal distribution of power
6. Long term vs. Short term orientation = the dimension of a societys values orientation that reflects its
attitude toward virtue or truth
o Short term orientation = stresses the importance of possessing one fundamental truth
Seen in monotheistic beliefs

o Long term orientation = stresses the importance of virtue

Seen in polytheistic beliefs

Dialectic Approach

Dialectic approach = recognizes that things need not be perceived as either / or, but may be seen as
both / and
o Helps when responding to the complexities of intercultural communication
Dichotomous thinking = thinking in which things are perceived as either / or for example, good or
bad, right or wrong
Cultural-individual
Personal-contextual
Differences-similarities
Static-dynamic
History / past-present / future
Privilege-disadvantage

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism = the tendency to view ones own group as the standard against which all other
groups are judged

Chapter 7
Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC)

CMC = the exchange of messages carried through an intervening system of digital electronic storage
and transmitted between two or more people
Key Channels of CMC:
o Internet / World Wide Web (WWW)
o MMOGs
o Social Media

Media Deficit approach

Media deficit approach = a theoretical perspective sees mediated communication as deficient in

comparison to face-to-face communication
Filtered communication = lacks nonverbal cues
Social presence theory = suggests that face-to-face communication is generally high in social
presence that media vary in the amount of social presence they convey
Media richness theory = describes the potential information-carrying capacity of a communication
medium
Some media communication is synchronous = messages are sent and received at same time
Some media communication is asynchronous = messages are sent and then received at a later time

Media Augmentation approach

The Media Augmentation approach suggests that CMC (computer mediated communication)
complements / augments face-to-face encounters

Social Network theory

Social network theory = proposes that the patterns of connections among people affect their social
behavior and communication

Relationship Development

Field of availables = the field of potential partners and friends accessible through CMC that is much
larger than face-to-face relationships

Chapter 8
Dyad

Dyad = two people

Quantitative definitions suggest that interpersonal communication occurs within a dyad
Uncertainty reduction theory = argues that much early interaction is dedicated to reducing
uncertainty about others and determining if one wishes to interact with them again

Models of Relationship Development

Stage model = conceptualizes relationships as occurring in a stair-step fashion, with some steps
leading toward commitment and other stages leading toward dissolution
Relational trajectory model = view relationship development as more variable than do stage models
1. Social penetration theory = proposes that relationships develop through increases in self-disclosure
o Breadth = the number of topics dyads willingly discuss
o Depth = how profound or personal communication exchanges are
o Frequency = how often self-disclosure occurs
o Altman Taylor Stage Model

2. Knapp & Vangelistis Stage model conceptualizes relationship development as a staircase with
five steps leading upward toward commitment and five steps leading downward toward termination

5 STEPS TO COMMITMENT
a. Initiating = both people behave so as to appear pleasant and likeable
b. Experimenting = both people seek to learn about each other
c. Intensifying = both people seek to increase intimacy and connectedness
d. Integrating = both people portray themselves as a couple
e. Bonding = characterized by public commitment
5 STEPS TO TERMINATION
a. Differentiating = couples increase their interpersonal disrance
b. Circumscribing = couples discuss safe topics
c. Stagnating = couples try to prevent change
d. Avoiding = couples try not to interact with each other
e. Terminating = couples end the relationship

3. Turning point model = couples move both toward and away from commitment over the course of the
relationship
o Relational trajectory model

4. Dialectical model
o Autonomy / connection = dialectical tension in relationships that refer to ones need to
connect with others and the simultaneous need to feel independent or autonomous
o Expressiveness / privacy = dialectical tension in relationships that describes the need to be
open and to self-disclose while also maintaining some sense of privacy
o Change / predictability = dialectical tension in relationships that describes the human desire
for events that are new, spontaneous, and unplanned while simultaneously needing some
aspects of life to be stable and predictable

Romance Termination Strategies

Negative identity management = communicating in ways that arouse negative emotions in order to
make the other person upset enough to agree to break off the relationship
De-escalation = attempts to reframe or change the definition of the relationship
Justification = providing a reason or excuse for why the relationship should end
Positive-tone strategies = address the feelings and concerns of the partner
Behavioral de-escalation = avoiding the partner

Ethics and Interpersonal Communication

Inauthentic communication = attempts to manipulate an interaction or person for personal goals

o 3 pitfalls:
Topic avoidance
Meaning denial
Disqualification

Chapter 9
Developing Social Influence Skills

Social influence = the ability to influence others

Primary influence goals = goals that are related to the outcome you want to take place, including
gaining assistance, sharing an activity, changing behavior, and changing the terms of a relationship
Secondary influence goals = goals that constrain or enhance the message they use to accomplish
their goal

Identity goals = goals that are related to ones self concept and involve issues, values, and ethics
Interaction goals = goals related to rules for how a person should behave when communicating with
others
Relational resource goals = refer to the desire to maintain or increase ones relational assets the
emotional support and affection that others provide
Personal resource goals = goals related to the desire to maintain material assets
Arousal maintenance goals = goals relating to an individuals need to avoid feeling uncomfortable,
nervous, or embarrassed when making a request
Compliance-gaining messages = communication strategies people use to influence one another
Weapons of influence = the six ways in which the click, whirr response is triggered
a. Reciprocation = a rule that states we should repay others for what they have given us
b. Consistency principle = influence tactic that relies on the human desire to appear consistent
Foot-in-the-door technique = practice of asking for something small then requesting
something larger
Low balling = the practice of making a request, but once the person agrees to it, the
requestor reveals that compliance is more costly than it first seemed
c. Social proof = influence tactic that relies on the tendency people have to behave in a
particular way because others are doing so
d. Liking = we tend to comply with the requests of people we like

Relationship Challenges

Relationship threats = challenges that are most likely to negatively impact relationships and have
serious effects
1. Relational transgressions = takes place when fundamental relationship rules are violated

o Relational temptations = enticements such as flirting and mate poaching from third parties
that threaten ones current romantic relationship
o Mate guarding = attempts to protect your partner from falling victim to poaching by others
o Relational infidelity = a severe transgression in which one or both partners engage in extradyadic behaviors that violate relationship rules of monogamy and exclusivity
Emotional infidelity = refers to behaviors such as flirting, dating, spending time
together, and falling in love with someone other than ones partner
Physical infidelity = sexual activities that are committed with someone other than
ones partner and include acts ranging from kissing to sexual intercourse
2. Interpersonal violence = physical violence against a partner or child
o Situational couple violence = conflict that is characterized by less-intense forms of violence
and tends to be more mutual in its performance, although this does not mean that men and
women engage in acts of equal severity
3. Sexual Coercion = physically nonviolent pressure to engage in unwanted sex
o Rape = sexual activity that is against the victims will / without the victims consent and
includes some degree of force or threat as well as penetration
o Unwanted sex = occurs when one person does not want to have sexual relations but does so
without the offender exerting physical force or threats

Society, Emotion, and Relationship Challenges

Emotional norms = societal rules that suggest which emotions are good or bad to experience
Feeling rules = rules defined by society that determine how one should feel when experiencing
specific events
Display rules = societal rules that govern how people should react when they experience a given
emotion

Improving your Interpersonal Communication Skills

Regarding apologizing
o Dont wait
o Be genuine
o Identify what you did wrong
o Dont offer justifications / excuses
o Explain how you will ensure that the injury does not occur again
o Accept the other persons anger

Chapter 10
Problematic Conflict Interactions

Cascade model of relational conflict = explains how conflict escalates in a cascade of negativity that,
if left unchecked, will lead to relationship dissolution
o Cascade = the way in which one persons negative conflict behavior can trigger another
persons negative behavior in such a way that their conflict patterns escalate and worsen,
eventually leading to a decline in relationship satisfaction
o 4 horsemen:
1. Criticism = attacking the partners personality or character (rather than a specific
behavior)

2. Defensiveness = attempts by the partner to protect or defend his / her identity and
character through excuses, explanations, denying responsibility for the truth of the attack,
whining, and counterattacking
3. Contempt = behavior that is designed to insult and psychologically harm the partner
4. Stonewalling = occurs when one or both partners stop communicating, refuse to respond
to each others communication efforts, and withdraw from interaction
Meta-communication = talking about the ways in which you and your partner communicate with one
another

The Individual, Conflict Management, and Society

Power = a persons ability to influence the behavior, thoughts, or feelings of another

Culture = learned patterns of perceptions, values, and behaviors shared by a group of people
o Individualistic cultures = emphasize individual identities, goals, and rights over those of the
group
o Collectivistic cultures = emphasize group identity, goals, and concerns over individual
desires
o Low context cultures = prefer communication that is explicit and direct and relatively easy to
decode
o High context cultures = convey intention or meaning through the communication context and
through nonverbals
o Low power distance = tend to see people as relatively equal and deemphasize status
differences
o High power distance = emphasize hierarchy, social position, and status differences

Strategic Approach to Conflict Management

The more thoughtful and strategic one is during conflict interactions, the more effective one is likely
to be
What do you want to occur as the result of the interaction?
Is the issue worth confronting?
What are the other partys goal
When / where should the conversation take place, and what tactics will be most effective?

Competence Model of Conflict

Competence model of conflict = emphasizes appropriateness and effectiveness

Appropriateness = following the relevant rules, norms, and expectations for specific relationships
and situations
Effectiveness = achieving ones goals successfully
Conflict strategies = decisions people make based on how direct or indirect they want to be and how
cooperative or competitive they will be
o Strategy control = behaving mindfully, assessing information and options, and acquiring
increased understanding of the conflict and the partner

Conflict Styles

Conflict style = the pattern of tactics an individual uses repetitively across parties and contexts
o Conflict tactic = the individual behavior a person uses when engaged in conflict (such as
shouting, threatening, persuading, or withdrawing)

Competitive styles = focuses on advancing ones own interests without consideration for the
partners interests
Cooperative styles = focuses on the partners interests as well as ones own
Direct conflict style = focuses on discussing issues of incompatibility
o Competing / dominating style = represents a high concern for ones own interests and a low
concern for the partners interests and is characterized by direct communication
o Collaborating / problem-solving style = high concern for self and the other party
o Compromising style = moderate concern for self and other
Indirect conflict style = avoids discussing issues of incompatibility
o Indirect fighting = conflict style that represents high concern for ones own goals and low
concern for ones partners goals
o Yielding / accommodating style = entails low concern for self and a high concern for the
other person
o Avoiding style = involves strategies such as withdrawing, joking around, and ignoring; can
be cooperative or uncooperative, depending on the situation

Chapter 11
Importance of Small Group Communication

Reasons to study small group communication:

a. Fact of life
o Grouphate = the distaste and aversion that people feel toward working in groups
o Primary groups = groups that provide members with a sense of belonging and affection
o Secondary groups = groups that meet principally to solve problems
b. Enhanced college performance
c. Enhanced career success
d. Enhanced personal life

Task & Relational Roles

Task roles = directly related to the accomplishment of group goals

Relational roles = help establish a groups social atmosphere

Effective Small Group Communication

Equal participation
A consensus decision-making style
A cooperative conflict style
A respectful communication style

Problem-solving agenda
a. Define and delineate the problem
b. Analyze the problem
o Analysis paralysis = potential pitfall in small group interaction; occurs when excessive
analysis prevents a group from moving toward a solution
c. Identify alternative solutions
o Brainstorm = to generate as many ideas as possible without critiquing them
d. Evaluate proposed solutions
e. Choose the best solution
o Decision-making process = four phase process used by a group to evaluate information and
arrive at a decision or solution
1. Orientation
Primary tension = the uncertainty commonly felt in the beginning phase of decisionmaking
2. Conflict
Secondary (recurring) tension = the underlying tension group members experience as
they struggle over member roles; generally surfaces in the second stage, but can
reoccur throughout the lifetime of the group
3. Emergence = occurs when group members express a cooperative attitude
4. Reinforcement = group members reach a consensus and members feel a sense of
accomplishment
o Avoid groupthink = a negative, and potentially disastrous, group process characterized by
excessive concurrence thinking

Chapter 12
Role of Communication in Leadership

Most experts agree that communication is key to being an effective leader, regardless of the
particular leadership style or the context in which one provides leadership
Strategic communication = communication that is purpose directed it directs everyones attention
toward vision, values, and desired outcomes and persuades people to act in a way that helps to
achieve the vision

Influences on Leadership

Gender plays important role in the perceptions of leadership qualities

o Glass ceiling = informal barriers, like discrimination and prejudice, that prevent women (and
minorities) from advancing in organizations
Personality traits 5 overall dimensions in leadership area
o Trait theory = leadership theory that suggests that leaders are born
1. Extroversion: active, assertive, talkative
2. Agreeableness: appreciative, forgiving, sympathetic, trusting
3. Conscientiousness: efficient, organized, responsible, thorough
4. Emotional stability: well-adjusted, calm, secure
5. Open to experience: curious, introspective, insightful, has wide range of interests
o Historians have rated openness to experience as one of the most important personality
characteristics of successful US Presidents

Theories of Leadership
1. Functional theory = assumes that leadership behaviors can be learned

2.

3.

4.
5.

o Whatever the group needs at a particular time can be supplied by a set of behaviors any
group member can contribute
o Does not need a designated leader
o Shared (collaborative / distributed) leadership = functional leadership is extended to an
organizational level; all members are equal partners and share responsibility for the work of
the group
o Mentor = and advocate and guide who nurtures growth, helping the mentee to realize the
potential within usually through a combination of methods: by modeling new behavior, by
having the mentee assist in a new task, or by allowing the mentee to work individually with
guidance
Style theory = asserts that a leaders manner or style determines his or her success
a. Authoritarian = takes charge, has a high level of intellect and expertise, makes all the
decisions, and dictates strategies and work tasks
Appropriate in the military, sports, or crisis situations
EX: Cesar Chavez
b. Democratic = characterized by considerable input from group members
EX: FDR
c. Laissez-faire = characterized by complete freedom for the group in making decisions
EX: Thomas Jefferson
Transformational leadership theory = empowers group members to work independently from the
leader by encouraging group cohesion
o Transformational leaders are generally extroverted
o Often confused with charismatic leadership = style in which extremely self-confident leaders
inspire unusual dedication to themselves by relying upon their strong personalities and charm
Servant leadership theory = seeks to ensure that other peoples highest-priority needs are being
served in order to increase teamwork and personal involvement
Toxic leadership = leadership behavior that poisons and is disruptive, destructive, exploitative,
dysfunctional, and abusive

Cultural Intelligence (CQ)

Cultural intelligence = a persons ability to interpret unfamiliar gestures and situations and create
appropriate behavioral responses

Becoming an Effective Leader

Conduct a leadership self-assessment

Search for leadership opportunities
Improve your strategic communication skills
o Create an open communication climate
o Promote dialogue
o Recognize the importance of emotion

Chapter 13
Identifying Your General and Specific Purpose

General purposes:
o Informative speech = explains, instructs, defines, clarifies, demonstrates, or teaches
o Persuasive speech = aim of convincing the audience

o Special occasion speech = evocative speeches include presentations given at retirement

dinners, award ceremonies, weddings, graduations, and funerals
Specific purpose = what a speaker wants to inform or persuade an audience about, or the type of
feelings the speaker wants to evoke

Determining your Main Points

A speech should be organized around 3-5 main points

Divide main points into subpoints, 3-5 for each main point

Organizational Patterns

Organizational pattern = the pattern that structures the material in a speech

Chronological pattern = an organizational pattern in which the main points are arranged in a timeorder sequence
Spatial organization = pattern that arranges points by location
Topical organization = arranged by main points / topics and presented in the order that seems that
seems most suitable
Problem-solution = the speaker describes various aspects of a problem and then proposes solutions
Cause-effect = used to create understanding and agreement, and sometimes to argue for a specific
action

Developing Transitions, Introduction, and Conclusion

Transitions are words, phrases, or sentences that show the connection between the points in your
speech
Introduction = opening material of a speech from which the audience members gain a first
impression of the speechs content and of the speaker
o Should immediately grab the attention of your audience
Anecdote or personal narrative
Quote
Humor
Powerful statistic
Powerful image or other audiovisual aid
o Focuses audiences attention on your topic by relating it to the listeners
o It gives the audience an overview of your organizational pattern
o It helps the audience understand your thesis
o Focus audiences attention on your topic by relating it to them
o Give audience an overview of your organizational pattern
o Help audience understand your thesis
Conclusion = closing material of a speech where the speaker reviews the main points, may challenge
the audience to act, and leaves the audience with a positive view of the speaker and topic
o Quote
o Anecdote or personal narrative
o Gesture toward the future
o Should:
Review 3-5 main points
Challenge the audience to act
State a clear conclusion, leave audience with positive view of you and your topic

Chapter 14
Considering Language & Style

Style = the type of language and phrasing a speaker uses and the effect it creates
Clarity = the use of language to increase precision and reduce ambiguity
o Precise language = the use of language to give more specificity and exactness in
communicating
Appropriateness = following the relevant rules, norms, and expectations for specific relationships
and situations
Jargon = technical terminology associated with a specific topic
Stylistic devices = figures of speech and tropes that are used to shape the style of a message
o Metaphors = a figure of speech that compares 2 things or ideas to highlight a particular point
o Hyperbole = a figure of speech that exaggerates a characteristic to capture audience attention
and interest

Choosing a Delivery Method

Impromptu speech = delivered with little or no preparation

Manuscript speech = written out word for word and read to the audience
Extemporaneous speech = written ahead of time but only in outline form

Ethos, Pathos, and Logos

Artistic proofs = artistic skill of a rhetor that influence effectiveness

Ethos = credibility
o Not linked solely to speech content and delivery
o Connected to concept of persona
Logos = rational appeals; the use of rhetoric to help the audience see the rationale for a particular
conclusion
o Capitalizes on high quality information
Pathos = the rhetorical use of emotions to affect audience decision making
o Typically most effective in persuasive settings

Chapter 15
What is Informative Speaking

Informative speaking = speaking with the aim of educating the audience

o Rhetor = a person or institution that addresses a large audience; the originator of a
communication message but not necessarily the one delivering it

Informative vs. Persuasive Speaking

The aim of an informative speech is to inform / educate, while the goal of a persuasive speech is to
persuade / convince

Tips for Effective Informative Speaking

Include information that is accurate and objective

Include facts that are truthful and can be corroborated
Include ideas that are accessible to your audience
Include visual aids that clearly and accurately describe facts
Respect the ideas of the audience