Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of Chapter 2, you will be able to:
I. Basic Vocabulary
A frequency distribution is the organization of raw data into a table using categories for the
data in one column and the frequencies for each category in the second column.
Frequency (f) is the tally or count of the number of data values in each class.
Relative frequency (f/n) is the tally or count of the number of data values in each class
divided by the total number of data values.
Cumulative Frequency is the tally or count of the number of data values in a class plus the
frequencies for all lower classes.
Cumulative relative fequency is the cumlative frequency divided by the totally number of
data values.
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Create a table with level of Employment (none, part time, full time) in the first
column and the count of the number of students in the class in each category in the
second column.
In the first column, list the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 representing the number of cars
in your family. In the second column, list the count of the number of students with
that many cars in their family.
The lower class limit represents the smallest data value that can be included in the
class.
The upper class limit represents the largest value that can be included in the class.
Range (R): largest data value minus the smallest data value.
Class boundaries are the numbers used to separate classes but without the gaps
created by class limits.
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Less than 16
16 - 31
32 - 63
64 - 127
128 - 255
256 511
512 - 1023
10
IV.Graphs
A. The Role of Graphs
B. Types of Graphs
Bar graph graph of the frequency distribution for qualitative or categorical data.
Histograph graph of the frequency distribution for quantitative data.
Ogive graph of the cumulative frequency for quantitative data.
Frequency polygon graph of the frequency for quantitative data.
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C. Histogram
Scale: class boundaries or class midpoints
Vertical (or horizontal) bars are proportional to the frequencies for each class.
Class
Boundaries
0.5 20.5
20.5 40.5
40.5 60.5
60.5 80.5
80.5 100.5
Frequency
4
9
20
40
24
Note: The scale on the non-frequency axis is either the class boundaries or class midpoints.
Class midpoints are located in the middle of the bars and class boundaries are
located at the ends of the bars.
D. Frequency Polygon
Scale: class midpoints
Plot the frequency of each class at its midpoint, i.e., (class midpoint, class frequency.)
The scale is sequential midpoints.
Extend the midpoint scale once below the first class midpoint and once above the last
class midpoint. Label the extensions.
Plot a point at each extension with a frequency of zero (extension, 0).
Connect all of the points with line segments forming a polygon.
Note: Remember a polygon is a many sided closed figure. The extension points and the
axis make the figure closed.
Things to Remember About Frequency Polygons
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Class
0.5 20.5
20.5 40.5
40.5 60.5
60.5 80.5
80.5 100.5
Midpoint
10.5
30.5
50.5
70.5
90.5
Frequency
4
9
20
40
24
Note: Cumulative frequency for each upper boundary is the sum of the frequency in that
class plus all lower class frequencies.
Frequency
4
9
20
40
24
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Cumulative Frequency
4
13
33
73
97
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Number of Students
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.5
20.5
40.5
60.5
80.5
100.5
Note: The line segments connect at (.5, 0), (20.5, 4), (40.5, 13), (60.5, 33), (80.5, 73),
(100.5, 97) which are the (lowest lower boundary, 0), (first upper boundary, frequency for
first class), (second upper boundary, frequency for second class),(last upper boundary,
total frequency).
Frequency
Auto
Bus
Trolley
Train
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Walk
Page 7
III. A time series graph is used for data that occur over a specific period of time; it is a graph
of time on the x-axis and frequency on the y-axis ( time, quantity) connected with line
segments:
Temperature
Time
IV. A pie graph is a circle divided into sections proportional to the percentage in each category.
Favorite American Snacks
Snack
Nuts
8%
Popcorn
13%
Pretzels
14%
Potato
Chips
38%
Tortilla
Chips
27%
Note: The degree for a segment is the relative frequency for the segment times 360.
V. A stem-and-leaf plot
Use for quantitative data
Vertically ordered list of the left part of the data digits (or stem)
The right most digit of the data digits (called the leaf) listed horizontally and
sequentially to the right
Retains actual data while showing it in graphic form.
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a) Process:
1. Split the digits in the number into right most digit called the leaf and any
remaining digits to the left called the stems
2. List all possible stem values once in increasing order
3. Draw a vertical line to the right of the stems
4. List the leaves sequentially and horizontally to the right of the vertical line with
their respective stems as often as occurs
Note: A stem value is listed once while leaves are listed as often as they occur in
a data value
b) Example:
Data: 123 125 131 113 101 102 104 111
114 111 132 133 141 142 143 132
Stem Plot:
10
1 2
11
1 1
12
3 5
13
1 2
14
1 2
4
3 4
2 3
3
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Histogram.
Frequency polygon.
Ogive.
All of the above.
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VI.Summary
Histograms, frequency polygons and ogives are used for quantitative data in a grouped
frequency distribution.
Pareto charts and bar graphs are frequency graphs for qualitative variables.
Time series graphs are used to show a pattern or trend that occurs over time.
Pie graphs are used to show the relationship between the parts and the whole for
qualitative or categorical data.
Data can be organized in meaningful ways using frequency distributions and graphs.
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