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Fundamentals of Aerodynamics
Pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted on a surface due to the time
rate of change of momentum of the gas molecules impacting on or crossing that
surface.
dF
as dA 0
dA
p lim
dm
as dv 0
dv
The temperature
of a gas is directly proportional to the molecular kinetic
energy of the molecules of the fluid.
KE 32 kT where k is the Boltzmann constant.
Temperature and density are point properties that can vary from point to point
in a fluid.
Flow velocity is the velocity of flowing gas at any fixed point B in space is the
velocity of an infinitesimally small fluid element as it sweeps through B. The flow
velocity V has both magnitude and direction and is therefore a vector quantity.
The aerodynamic forces and moments exerted on a body are due to only two
basic sources:
o Pressure distribution over the body surface
Acts normal to the surface
o Shear stress distribution over the body surface
Acts tangential to the surface
Relationship between lift and drag
L N cos A sin
D N sin A cos
where
o The total normal and axial forces per unit span are obtained by integrating the
equations above from the leading edge (LE) to the trailing edge (TE).
Shear stress in a streamline
dFf
dA
lim
dV
dy
The TOTAL normal and axial forces per unit span are obtained by integrating from
the leading edge (LE) to the trailing edge (TE).
The moment per unit span about the leading edge due to
dS
elemental area
on
o The upper surface
and
on the
The sources of the aerodynamic lift, drag, and moments on a body are the
pressure and shear stress distributions integrated over the body.
Free stream dynamic pressure has the units of pressure.
q 12 V2
The drag coefficient for a cone is equal to its surface pressure coefficient.
CD 2sin 2 c
Center of Pressure
xcp
M LE
N
The standard convention is that aerodynamic moments are positive if they tend to
increase the angle of attack.
The center of pressure is the location where the resultant of a distributed load
effectively acts on the body.
o If moments were taken about the center of pressure, the integrated effect of the
distributed loads would be zero.
o Alternate definition: the point on the body about which the aerodynamic
moment is zero.
sin 0
cos 0
In cases where the angle of attack of the body is small,
and
, which
leads
M
xcp LE
L
xcp
N
L
As
and
decrease,
increases. As the forces approach zero, the center of
pressure moves to infinity.
To define the force-and-moment system due to a distributed load on a body, the
resultant force can be placed at any point on the body, as long as the value of the
moment about that point is also given.
R f , V , c, , a
CR f 6 Re, M
Force coefficient
CR
1
2
R
R
2
V S q S
Mach number
o The Mach number is the ratio of the flow velocity to the speed of sound.
V
M
a
and
CD
CL
Vstall
CL
2W
SCL,max
The maximum velocity for a given airplane with a given maximum thrust from the
CD ,min
engine is determined by the value of minimum drag coefficient,
.
2Tmax
SCD ,min
L W ...
CL
L
W
2W
q S q S V2 S
V
T D...
CD
D
T
2T
q S q S V2 S
V
2W
SCL
2T
SCD
D q SCD CD
Hydrostatic equation
dp g dy
p2 p1 g h2 h1 g h
p2 gh2 p1 gh1
p gh constant
F l (1) g dy
h2
Chapter 2
A B A B cos
Dot Product:
Cross Product:
Cartesian Coordinate System:
o
o
r xi yj zk
A Ax i Ay j Az k
A B A B sin e = G
A Ar e r A e Az e z
o
o Transformation between Cartesian and cylindrical:
x r cos
y r sin
zz
o Inversely:
r x2 y 2
arctan
zz
y
x
A Ar e r A e A e
o
o Transformation between Cartesian and spherical:
x r sin cos
y r sin sin
z r cos
o Inversely:
r x2 y2 z 2
z
z
arccos arccos
2
r
x y2 z2
arccos
Scalar fields:
Vector fields:
x2 y 2
p p1 x, y, z p2 r , , z p3 r , ,
p p r , , z
o Cylindrical:
p
1 p
p
p e r
e e z
r
r
z
p p r , ,
o Spherical:
p
1 p
1 p
er
e
e
r
r
r sin
V
o
can represent any quantity, but think of it as a flow velocity.
o Visualize a small fluid element of fixed mass moving along a streamline at
V
velocity .
o The time rate of change of the volume of a moving fluid element of fixed mass,
V V
per unit volume of that element, is equal to the divergence of ,
.
o The divergence of a vector is a scalar quantity, and is one of two ways that the
derivative of a vector field can be defined.
V V x, y, z Vx i Vy j Vz k
Cartesian:
V V V
V x y z
x
y
z
V V r , , z Vr e r V e Vz e z
Cylindrical:
1
1 V V
V
rVr z
r r
r
z
V V r , , Vr er V e Ve
Spherical:
1
1
1 V
V 2 r 2Vr
V sin
r r
r sin
r sin
Cartesian:
Cylindrical:
Spherical:
A ds A dS
C
o Divergence Theorem:
A dS
A d V
o Gradient Theorem:
p dS
p d V
S
The control volume is defined as a closed volume drawn within a finite region
of the flow.
The control surface is defined as the closed surface which bounds the control
volume.
The control volume is a reasonably large, finite region of the flow.
The fundamental physical principles are applied to the fluid inside the control
volume, and to the fluid crossing the control surface, thus limiting our
attention to just the fluid in the finite region of the volume itself.
o Infinitesimal fluid element
Consider an infinitesimally small fluid element in the flow, with a differential
dV
volume,
. It is infinitesimal, but it is large enough to contain a huge
number of molecules so that it can be viewed as a continuous medium.
The fluid element may be fixed in space with the fluid moving through it, or it
V
may be moving along a streamline with velocity
equal to the flow velocity
at each point.
The fundamental physical principles are applied to just the fluid element
itself, and not the whole field flow.
o Molecular
The motion of a fluid is a ramification of the mean motion of its atoms and
molecules. Therefore, the fundamental laws of nature can be applied directly
to the atoms and molecules.
Physical Meaning of the Divergence of Velocity
V
o
is physically the time rate of change of the volume of a moving fluid
element of fixed mass per unit volume of that element.
V
The equation below states that
is physically the time rate of change of the
volume of a moving fluid element per unit volume.
An unsteady flow is one where the flow field variables at any given point are
changing with time.
o If the flow is unsteady, by watching only point 1, the pressure, density, etc. will
fluctuate with time.
o A steady flow is one where the flow field variables at any given point are
invariant with time.
CONTINUITY EQUATION
m& Vn A
Mass Flow
o
o Mass flow through area A is the mass crossing A per second.
m&
Vn
A
Mass Flux
o Max flux is the mass flow per unit area.
The continuity equation is the application of the physical principle of conservation
of mass to a finite control volume fixed in space.
* The continuity equations above make the assumption that the nature of the fluid
is a continuum. Therefore, they will generally hold for three-dimensional, unsteady
flow of any type of fluid, inviscid or viscous, compressible or incompressible.
Unsteady Flow
o The flow field variables are a function of both spatial location and time.
Steady Flow
o The flow field variables are a function of spatial location only.
/ t 0
o For steady flow,
, the continuity equations reduce to
MOMENTUM EQUATION
Force is the time rate of change of momentum.
d
F mV
dt
o
Force comes from two sources:
o Body forces: gravity, electromagnetic forces, or any other forces which act at a
V
distance on the fluid inside
.
S
o Surface forces: pressure and shear stress acting along the control surface .
In viscous flow, the shear and normal viscous stresses also exert a surface force.
Therefore, the total force experienced by the fluid as it is sweeping through the
fixed control volume is given by
mV
t
S G
o Net flow of momentum out of control volume across surface
The flow has a certain momentum as it enters the control volume, and, in
general, it has a different momentum as it leaves the control volume due in
V
F
part to the force
that is exerted on the fluid as it is sweeping through
.
S
The net flow of momentum out of the control volume across the surface
is
simply the outflow minus the inflow of momentum across the control surface.
G
V dS V
S
H
V dV
t
V
o Combining the two equations, we obtain an expression for the total time rate of
change of momentum of the fluid as it sweeps through the fixed control
volume
d
V dV
mV G H
V dS V
dt
t
S
V
d
mV F
dt
o These are the partial differential equations that relate flow-field properties at
any point in the flow.
/ t 0
Fviscous 0
f 0
Specialized to a steady
, inviscid
flow with no body forces
,
the equations become (Euler equations)
D 2u2 u1 u2 dy
h
o Drag can be thought of as a wake momentum decrement from the flow velocity
decrease that occurs from the drag on the body.
SUBSTATIAL DERIVATIVE
Dt
t
The partial derivative
is the time rate of change of a property at a fixed
point. (Locked on fixed point.)
D
u v w
Dt
x
y
z t
i
j k
x
y
z
So
D
V
Dt t
D
V 0
Dt
f x Fx viscous
Dt
x
Dv
p
f y Fy
viscous
Dt
y
Dw
p
f z Fz viscous
Dt
z
q& pV f V Q&viscous
W&viscous
Dt
o A pathline is the path an element takes while moving from one point to
another point later in time.
o In general, for unsteady flows, the pathlines for different fluid elements passing
through the same point are not the same.
o A streamline is a curve whose tangent at any point in the direction of the
velocity vector at that point.
o You can visualize a pathlines as a time-exposure photograph of a given fluid
element, whereas the streamline pattern is like a single frame of a motion
picture of the flow.
In a steady flow, the magnitude and direction of the velocity vectors at all
points are fixed, invariant with time. Therefore, the pathlines for different
fluid elements going through the same point are the same. Moreover, the
pathlines and streamlines are identical. Therefore, in steady flow there is no
distinction between pathlines and streamlines; they are the same curves in
space.
ds V 0
w dy v dz 0
u dz w dx 0
v dx u dy 0
Angular velocity
1 w v
u w v u
i
j
2 y z
z x x y
Vorticity
2
w v
u w v u
2
i
j
k
z x x y
y z
V
o In a velocity field, the curl of the velocity is equal to the vorticity.
V 0
If
at every point in a flow, the flow is called rotational. This implies
that the fluid elements have a finite angular velocity.
V 0
If
at every point in a flow, the flow is called irrotational. This implies
that the fluid elements have no angular velocity; rather, their motion through
space is pure translation.
o The condition of irrotationality for two-dimensional flow.
v u
0
x y
Strain = xy
d d 2 d1
dt
dt
dt
0 and
v
x
The circulation about a curve C is equal to the vorticity integrated over any open
surface bounded by C. This leads that if the flow is irrotational everywhere within
0
the contour of integration, then
.
d
V n
dS
The mass flow between two streamlines is defined per unit depth perpendicular to
the page.
v
c2 c1 difference between two streamlines
For a steady flow, the mass flow inside a given streamtube is constant along the
v
tube; the mass flow across any cross section of the tube is the same.
is
constant for a given streamtube.
v
x, y
If
is known for a given flow field, then at any point in the flow the products
v
u and v can be obtained by differentiating in the directions normal to u and v, respectively.
v
u
y
v
v
x
v
1
Vr
r
v
V
r
v
x
1
Vr
r
V
r
u
VELOCITY POTENTIAL
u
v
w
x
y
z
Vr
V
Vz
r
r
z
1
1
Vr
V
V
r
r
r sin
and
a
The slope of
= constant line is the negative reciprocal of the slope of a
=
constant line, meaning that streamlines and equipotential lines are mutually
perpendicular.
Analytical solutions has three advantages:
o The act of developing these solutions puts you in intimate contact with all the
physics involved in the problem.
o The results, usually in closed-form, give you direct information on what are the
important variables, and how the answers vary with increases or decreases in
these variables.
o The results in closed-form provide simple tools for rapid calculations, making
possible the proverbial back of the envelope calculations so important in the
preliminary design process and in other practical applications.
CFD solutions are completely numerical solutions and can only be carried out by a
computer.
Dt
x
or
u
u
u
u
p
u v w
t
x
y
z
x
o Eulers Equation Applies to an inviscid flow with no body forces, and it relates
dp
dV
the change in velocity along a streamline
to the change in pressure
along the same streamline.
u / t 0, thus...
For a steady flow,
dp V dV
For an irrotational flow, the constant is the same for all streamlines.
p 12 V 2 const . throughout the flow
1 AV
1 1 2 A2V2
or, if the density is constant
AV
1 1 A2V2
Cp
p p
q
or
V
Cp 1
V
When examining a flow over different shaped objects, all are governed by the
2 0.
same equation
In order to differentiate between these flows, we apply
boundary conditions.
V
x y
v
0
y x
o Wall Boundary Conditions If the body has a solid surface, it is impossible
for the flow to penetrate it.
If the flow is viscous, the influence of friction between the fluid and the solid
surface creates a zero velocity at each surface.
If the flow is inviscid, the velocity at the surface can be finite, but because
the flow cannot penetrate the surface, the velocity vector must be tangent to
the surface.
V n ( )
n 0
or
0
n
rather than
If we are dealing with
then the wall boundary condition is the
s
following, where is the distance measured along the body surface
0
s
or
surface y yb const.
When dealing with either the velocity potential or the stream function, but
rather the velocity components themselves, then
dyb v
dx u surface
*Boxed equation can be used for all inviscid flows, regardless of compressibility.
UNIFORM FLOW
V r cos
V r sin
Circulation around any closed curve in a uniform flow is zero.
SOURCE/SINK FLOW
A source flow is a two-dimensional, incompressible flow where all the streamlines
are straight lines emanating from a central point O.
o In a source flow, the streamlines are directed away from the origin.
o In a sink flow, the streamlines are directed toward the origin.
V 0
For a source flow,
everywhere except at the origin, where it is infinite. The
origin is known as a singular point. The velocity is inversely proportional to the
radial distance.
m& Vr (r d )l rlVr d 2 rl Vr
Therefore, the rate of volume flow across the surface of the cylinder is
m&
v& 2 rlVr
Vr
2 r
o
defines the source strength which is physically the rate of volume flow
ln r
2
The stream function for a source is
V cos
r
2 r
and
V
V sin
r
Vr
o The stagnation points in the flow can be determined by setting the equations
r and
above equal to zero and solving for
. The stagnation point is some
distance directly upstream from the source.
V
o If the source strength is increased, keeping
the same, the stagnation point
will be blown further upstream.
V
o If
is increased, keeping the source strength the same, the stagnation point
will be blown further downstream.
If we want to construct the flow over a solid, semi-finite body, then all we need to
V
V r sin 1 2
2
2
o The equation of the specific streamline going through the stagnation points
yields a value of zero for the constant. Thus, the stagnation streamline is given
0
by
V r sin
(1 2 ) 0
2
o All the flow from the source is consumed by the sink and is contained entirely
inside the oval, whereas the flow outside the oval has originated with the
uniform stream only. Therefore, the region inside the oval can be replaced by a
0
solid body with the shape given by
and the region outside the oval can be
interpreted as the inviscid, potential (irrotational), incompressible flow over the
solid body.
DOUBLET FLOW
A doublet is a special, degenerate case of a source-sink pair that leads to a
singularity called a doublet.
l
The strength of a doublet is
.
cos
2 r
sin
2 r
sin
2 c
Streamlines flow from the source to the sink. Source on left, sink on right.
o A doublet has a sense of direction associated with it and is the direction with
which the flow moves around the circular streamlines.
o By convention, we designate the direction of the doublet by an arrow drawn
from the sink to the source.
l 0.
o As the source and sink become closer and closer,
At this point, they fall on
top of eachother, but are indistinguishable due to the absolute magnitude of
their strengths becomes infinitely large in the limit resulting in a singularity of
( )
strength
an indeterminate form that can have a finite value.
V r sin 1
2 V r 2
by letting R 2 / 2 V
R 2
(V r sin ) 1 2
r
R 2
1 2 V sin
r
r
R
2 V
o The entire flow field is symmetrical about both the horizontal and vertical axes
through the center of the cylinder.
o Because the pressure distribution is symmetrical about both axes, then there is
no differential resulting in no lift and no drag.
Despite the result above, we know that when an aerodynamic body is immersed in
a real flow, it will experience drag. This is known as dAlemberts Paradox.
o This drag is due to viscous effects which generate frictional shear stress at the
body surface and which cause the flow to separate from the surface on the back
of the body, thus creating a large wake downstream of the body and destroying
the symmetry of the flow about the vertical axis through the cylinder.
o However, such viscous effects are not included in our present analysis of the
inviscid flow over the cylinder. As a result, the inviscid theory predicts that the
flow closes smoothly and completely behind the body. It predicts no wake, and
no asymmetries, resulting in the theoretical result of zero drag.
Velocity distribution on the surface of the cylinder:
Vr 0
V 2V sin
C p 1 4sin 2
VORTEX FLOW
Vortex flow is
V 0
o Vortex flow is a physically possible incompressible flow, that is,
at every
point.
V 0
o Vortex flow is irrotational, that is,
at every point except the origin.
2 r
value, being
. By convention,
is called the strength of the vortex flow.
o A vortex of positive strength rotates in the clockwise direction.
r 0.
Vortex flow is irrotational everywhere except at the point
ln r
2
HANDY TABLE
R 2
r
(V r sin ) 1 2
ln
r
2 R
o This is valid for inviscid, incompressible flow over a circular cylinder of radius R.
o The streamlines are asymmetrical about the horizontal axis of the origin, and
therefore the cylinder will experience lift.
o The streamlines are still symmetrical about the vertical axis through the origin
so there is still theoretically no drag experienced by the cylinder.
o Because a vortex has been added, the circulation of the cylinder is equal to .
For a lifting flow over a cylinder of radius R, the flow velocity is
R 2
Vr 1 2 V cos
r
R 2
V 1 2 V sin
r
2 r
*Although a stagnation point falls within the cylinder, we are concerned with external
flow.*
Vr and V
Stagnation point obtained by setting
to zero:
The pressure coefficient for the cylindrical lift case
2
C p 1 1 2sin
2 RV
V
or
2 sin
C p 1 4sin
RV 2 RV
arcsin
4 V R
The Kutta-Joukowski theorem states that lift per unit span on a two-dimensional
body is directly proportional to the circulation around the body.
*Remember that all three elementary flows are irrotational at all points, except for the
vortex which has infinite vorticity at the origin.
Lift is caused by the net imbalance of the surface pressure distribution, and
circulation is simply a defined quantity determined from the same pressure.
o In the theory of incompressible, potential flow, it is generally much easier to
determine the circulation around the body rather than calculate the detailed
surface pressure distribution, which is why the circulation theory of lift is useful.