CHEMISTRY

Atoms and Molecules

In 430 B.C. Democritus postulated that matter is made up of very small particles called
Atomos which means"indivisible". Later, Antoine Lavoisier, from his experimental
observations, established laws of chemical combinations.
Laws of Chemical Combination:
The Law of conservation of mass: This law states that, the total mass of reactants is
equal to the total mass of products. In any chemical reaction, the total mass of the
substance before and after the reaction is the same although its matter undergoes a
physical change.
Law of Definite Proportions: According to law of definite proportions, in a chemical
substance, the elements are always present in definite proportions by mass.
Law of Multiple Proportions: When two elements combine to form different
compounds, then the weight of one is constant and the other has a simple ratio.
Atom: After a series of experiments Dalton concluded that all matter must be composed
of tiny particles, which cannot be further divided. He called them atoms.
Definition of an atom: The smallest particle of an element is called an atom.
Daltons Postulates:

Matter is made of atoms.

Atoms are indivisible and indestructible.

Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and in properties.

Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds of atoms

and. A chemical reaction is a rearrangement of atoms.

Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical properties.

Draw backs of Dalton's atomic theory:

According modern atomic theory atoms are divisible and are composed of
particles. The three main sub-atomic particles are proton, neutron and electron.

The assumption, atoms of a given element are identical in mass and in properties
not applicable for isotopes of an element.

Examples: Chlorine has 2 isotopes having mass numbers 35 and 37.

Elements and symbols: Dalton proposed a scheme of notation to represent elements
Dalton's Symbols of Elements

The symbols used today were suggested by Berzelius.

Berzelius - Symbols of Elements: Berzelius Suggested to abbreviate the names of the
elements using one or two letters.
The first letter of the symbol is always in upper case. Some elements were represented by
the starting alphabet of its name. For instance,
Carbon is represented as C
Boron as B
Oxygen as O
Sulphur as S
Nitrogen is written as N and
Hydrogen as H
Symbols of some elements were the first two alphabets, where the second alphabet is in
the lower case.
Examples: Aluminium is represented as Al
Chlorine as Cl.
An element is represented by either the first or the first and any other letter of its Latin
name. There are some exceptions while writing the symbols for some of the elements.
These names were derived from Latin. In general, the first letter and the second letter of
their Latin names are used to represent the symbols of these elements.
Examples:
Latin
Element Symb
ol
Name
Antimon Sb
y

Stibium

Copper

Cu

Cuprum

Gold

Au

Aurum

Iron

Fe

Ferrum

Lead

Pb

Plumbum

Mercury Hg

Hydragyru
m

Potassiu K
m

Kalium

Silver

Argentum

Ag

Sodium Na

Natrium

Tin

Sn

Stannum

Tungsten W

Wolfram

Atomic mass:
Atomic mass is the mass of an atom.
The relative atomic mass of an atom of an element is the number of times an atom of that
element is heavier than 1/12th of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
Molecule: A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or compound that can exist
independently.
Examples:
H2O, O2, O3 etc.
Single Hydrogen is not a molecule. When this hydrogen bonds to other hydrogen (H2) or
to other elements like oxygen (H2O), a molecule is formed.
Atomicity: The number of atoms constituting a molecule is referred to as atomicity.
A molecule which contains only one atom is called monatomic
Example: Noble gases like Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar) etc.
A molecule which contains two atoms is called diatomic
Example: Hydrogen (H2), Chlorine (Cl2), Nitrogen (N2) etc.
A molecule which contains three atoms is called triatomic.
Example: O3, H2O.
A molecule which contains four atoms is called teraatomic.
Example: Phosphorus (P4).
A molecule which contains more atoms is called polyatomic.
Example: Sulphur (S8).
Compound: Elements combine to form compounds. Thus a molecule of a compound has
two or more elements.
Example: Water (H2O), Glucose (C6H12O6), Calcium oxide (CaO), Sodium chloride
(NaCl) etc.
Differences between a molecule and a compound: A molecule is formed when two or
more atoms bonded chemically. A compound is formed when different elements bonded
chemically. Thus a molecule of a compound has two or more elements.
All compounds are molecules but all molecules are not compounds.
Example: Molecular hydrogen (H2) is a molecule but not compound. Hydrogen molecule
is made up of two atoms of hydrogen. Water is a compound. Water is made up of two
atoms of oxygen and one atom of oxygen these atoms combined to form a compound
known as water. Smallest particle of water is called a molecule.
Common salt is a compound of sodium and chlorine, where sodium is a positively
charged particle and chlorine a negatively charged particle, and each of this is called an
ion.
Ion:
An ion is a charged particle.
Cation:
A positively charged particle in a molecule is called cation.
Example: Na+, Ca+2.

Anion:
An anion is a negatively charged particle in a molecule.
Example: F-, Cl-.
Differences between Cation & Anion:
Cation

Anion

Cation is a positively charged particle

An anion is a negatively charged

particle

Cation is formed from Metals

Anion is formed by Non-metals

During electrolysis cation moves

towards cathode

During electrolysis anion moves

towards anode

The size of cation is smaller than its

parent atom

The size of anion is larger than its

parent atom.

Example: Na+, K+.

Example: Cl-, Br-.

Valency: The combining capacity of an element is known as valency.

The combining capacity of the atoms to form molecules either with same or different
elements is defined as valency.
Atom contains less than four electrons in its outermost shell; the valency of an atom is
equal to the number of electrons present in the valence shell.
Examples:
Sodium has one electron in its outermost shell, so the valency of sodium is 1.
Calcium has two electrons in its outermost shell, so the valency of calcium is 2.
Aluminum has three electrons in its outermost shell, so the valency of aluminum is 3.
If the outer shell has more than four electrons, the valency = 8 - the number of electrons
in the outer shell.
Question: Find the valency of chlorine?
Solution: The atomic number of chlorine is 17
Electronic configuration of Chlorine = 2 8 7
Valency = 8 - 7 =1
Valency of chlorine is 1
Formula of simple compounds:
Steps for writing the formula of simple compound like H2O is:

Write the symbols of the constituent elements.

Write the valencies of each element below its symbol.

Criss cross the valencies of the constituent elements and place as the subscripts to
get the desired formula.

Example : Water

Steps for writing the formulae of simple/complex ionic compounds like Na2O and
(NH4)2(SO4)2 are:

Identify the cation and the anion.Write the symbols of the ions along with the
charges on them. Always the cation is followed by the anion.

Cross multiply the valency of ions.

For poly-atomic ions place the sub script after enclosing the ion in the brackets.In
the final formula, the charges on the ions are not indicated.

Example: Ammonium sulphate

Mole Concept

Mole: Mole is the measurement in chemistry. It is used to express the amount of a

chemical substance.
One mole is defined as the amount of substance of a system which contains as many
entities like, atoms, molecules and ions as there are atoms in 12 grams of carbon - 12".
Avogadro number: The number of the particles present in one mole of any substance is
equal to 6.022x1023. This is called avogadros number or avogadros constant.
Number of particles in 1 mole:
1 mole of hydrogen atoms represents 6.022 1023 hydrogen atoms.
1 mole of hydrogen molecules represents 6.022 1023 hydrogen molecules.
1 mole of water molecules represents 6.022 1023 water molecules.

Atomic mass: The atomic mass of an element is the mass of one atom of that element in
atomic mass units or (u).
Atomic mass unit (amu): 1/12th of the mass of an atom of carbon-12 is called atomic
mass unit. It is a unit of mass used to express atomic masses and molecular masses.
Molar mass: The molar mass of an element is equal to the numerical value of the atomic
mass. However, in case of molar mass, the units change from u to g. The molar mass
of an atom is also known as gram atomic mass.
For example, the atomic mass of carbon =12 atomic mass units. So, the gram atomic
mass of carbon = 12 grams.
Molecular mass of the molecule: The sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a
molecule of a substance is called the molecular mass of the molecule.
Molecular mass - calculation: Generally we use relative atomic masses of atoms for
calculating the molecular mass of 1 mole of any molecular or ionic substances.
Example: Molecular mass of H2SO4
Atomic mass of Hydrogen = 1
Atomic mass of sulphur = 32
Atomic mass of oxygen = 16
Molecular mass of H2SO4 = 2(Atomic mass of Hydrogen) + 1 (Atomic mass of sulphur)
+ 4 (Atomic mass of oxygen)

= 21 + 32 + 4 16 = 98 u.
Calculation of molecular mass of hydrogen chloride:
Atomic mass of hydrogen + Atomic mass of chlorine = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5 u.
Formula unit mass: The formula unit mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic
masses of all atoms in a formula unit of a compound. The term formula unit is used for
those substances which are made up of ions.
Formula unit mass of NaCl: 1 X Atomic mass of Na + 1 X Atomic mass of Cl
1x23 +1 x 35.5 = 58.5 atomic mass units.
Formula unit mass of ZnO:
= 1 X Atomic mass of Zn + 1 X Atomic mass O
= 1 X 65 + 1 X 16 = 81 u.
Avogadro's number, number of particles and moles - conversion formulae:
Number of moles (n) = Given number of particles (N) / Avogadro number (N0)
Example: Find the number of moles present in 24.088X1023 particles of carbon dioxide
1 mole of carbon dioxide contains 6.022x1023
Solution: The number of moles (n ) = Given number of particles (N) / Avogadro number
(N0).
= 24.088X1023 / 6.022x1023
= 4 moles.
Number of atoms (n) = Given mass (m) / Molar mass (M) x Avogadro number (N0)
Example: Calculate the number of atoms in 48g of Mg
Solution: Number of atoms (n) = Given mass (m) / Molar mass (M) x Avogadro number
(N0).
= 48/24 X 6.022x1023
= 12.04 X1023 atoms.
Number of molecules (n) = Given mass (m) / Molar mass (M) x Avogadro number (N0)
Example: Calculate the number of molecules in 3.6 g of water
Solution: The molecular weight of H2O = 18
18g of water - 6.022x1023 molecules
3.6g of water - 6.022x1023 X 3.6/18
= 1.206 X 1022 molecules.
Number of particles (n) = Number of moles of particles (n) x Avogadro number (N0)
Example: Calculate the number of atoms in 0.5 moles of carbon
Solution: Number of atoms = 0.5 X 6.022x1023
= 3.0115 atoms

Extra problems:
1) Calculate the number of moles in 12g of oxygen gas
Ans: 32g of oxygen gas = 1 mole
12g of oxygen gas = ?
= 12 X 1 / 32 = 0.375 mole.
2) Calculate the number of moles present in 14g of carbon monoxide .
Ans: 28g of CO = 1 mole
14g of CO = ?
= 14 X 1 / 28 = 1/2 = 0.5 mole.
3) Find the mass of 5 moles of aluminium atoms?
Ans: Atomic mass of aluminium atom = 27g
5 moles of aluminium atoms = 5 X 27g = 135 g.
4) Calculate the molar mass of sulphur.
Ans: Sulphur is a poly atomic molecule. It is made up of 8 sulphur atoms.
Atomic mass sulphur atom = 32 g.
Molar mass of sulphur = 8 X 32 = 256 g.
5) Calculate the mass of 0.2 mole of water molecules.
Ans: 1 mole of water molecules = 18g
0.2 mole of water molecules = ?
= 0.2 X 18 / 1 = 3.6 g.
6) Which has greater number of atoms, 100g of sodium or 100g of iron?
Atomic mass of Na = 23 u, Fe = 56 u.
Ans: 1 mole of substance contains the number of particles = Avagadro's constant.
1 mole of Na = 23g
23g of Na contains - 6.023 X 1023 atoms
100g of Na Contains - ?
= 100 X 6.023 X 1023/23
= 4.3 X 6.023 X 1023 atoms.
1 mole of Fe = 56g
56g of Fe contains - 6.023 X 1023 atoms
100g of Fe contains - ?
= 100 X 6.023 X 1023/ 56
= 1.78 X 6.023 X 1023 atoms
Therefore, 100g of Na has greater number of atoms than 100 g of Fe.
7) How many atoms of oxygen are present in 300 grams of CaCO3?
Ans: Molecular mass of calcium carbonate = 40 + 12 + 3 X 16 = 40 + 12 + 48 = 100g
1 mole of Calcium carbonate contains 3 mole of oxygen atoms.
100 g of calcium carbonate contains - 3 X 6.023 X 1023 atoms
300g of calcium carbonate contains - ?
= 300 X 3 X 6.023 X 1023/100
= 54.207 X 1023 oxygen atoms.
8) The mass of one atom of an element 'A' is 2.65 X10-23 g. Calculate its atomic mass
and name the element.
Ans: The mass of one atom of an element A = 2.65 X10-23 g
We know that 1 mole of an atom = 6.023 x 1023 atoms

1 mole of an atom = Its atomic weight

Mass of one atom of an element = 2.65X10-23 g
Mass of 6.023 x 1023 atoms of an element A = 2.65X10-23 X6.023 x 1023
= 15.69 g
The element is oxygen.
9) Calculate the number moles of magnesium in 0.478g of magnesium ?
Ans: Molecular weight of magnesium =24g
24g of magnesium = 1 mole
0.478g of magnesium = ?
= 0.478 X 1/24 = 0.019 mole.
10) In which of the following cases the number of hydrogen atoms is more ? Two moles
of HCl or one mole of NH3.
Ans: Calculation of number of hydrogen atoms present in 2 moles of HCl
1 mole of HCl contains 6.023X1023 molecules of HCl
2 moles of HCl contains 2 X 6.023X1023 = 12.046X1023 molecules of HCl
1 molecule of HCl contains 1 hydrogen atom
12.046X1023 molecules of HCl contains12.046X1023 hydrogen atoms
Calculation of number of hydrogen atoms present in 1 mole of NH3
1 mole NH3 Contains 6.023X1023 molecules of NH3
1 molecule of NH3 contains 3 atoms of hydrogen
6.023X1023 molecules of NH3 contains 3X 6.023X1023 atoms of hydrogen
= 18.069 X1023 atoms of hydrogen
Number of hydrogen atoms present in 2 moles of HCl = 12.046X1023
Number of hydrogen atoms present in 1 mole of NH3 = 18.069 X1023
Therefore, numbers of hydrogen atoms are more in 1 mole of NH3.
11) Find the number of oxygen atoms in 88g of CO2?
Ans: Molar mass of CO2 = 44 g/mol
Number of moles of CO2 present in 88g of CO2 = 88g/44g mol-1
= 2 moles
1 mole of CO2 contains 2 moles of Oxygen atoms.
2 moles of CO2 contains 4 moles of Oxygen atoms
1 mole of oxygen contains 6.023 X 1023 atoms of oxygen
4 moles of oxygen contains = 4 X 6.023 X 1023
= 24.092 X 1023
= 2.4092 X 1024 atoms of oxygen
Therefore, 88g of CO2 Contains 2.4092 X 1024 atoms of oxygen.
12) Calculate the number of water molecules contained in a drop of water weighing 0.06g
?
Ans: 18g of water = 1 mole
0.06 g = ?

= 0.06/18 = 3.33 X 10-3 mole of water

1 mole of water contains - 6.022X1023 molecules of water
3.33 X 10-3 mole of water contains -----?
= 6.022X1023 X 3.33 X 10-3
= 2 X 1020 molecule of water
0.06g of water contains 2 X 1020 molecules of water.
13) Find the number of aluminium ions present in 0.051g of aluminium oxide(Al2O3).
(Atomic masses: Al= 27u;O= 16u)
Ans: Molecular weight of Al2O3 = 102 g
102 g of Al2O3 contains 6.022X1023 molecules
0.051g of Al2O3 contain X number of molecules
X = 0.051 X 6.022X1023 /102 = 0.003 X 1020
X = 3 X 1020
1 molecule of Al2O3 contains 2 Al+3ions
3 X 1020 molecules contains 2 X 3 X 1020
= 6 X 1020 Al+3 ions
0.051 g of Al2O3 contains 6 X 1020 Al+3 ions.

STRUCTURE
OF ATOM
Structure of an Atom

Atomic number: Atomic number (z) is the number of protons in an atom; it is also equal
to the number of electrons in the atom.
Atomic number = Number of protons
Example: The atomic number of an element is 12 then its atom contains 12 protons and
12 electrons.
Mass Number: The mass number (A) is defined as the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom. Example: Mass number of Nitrogen atom is
14 then it contains 7 protons and 7 neutrons.
Mass number = Protons + Neutrons
Notation of element:
Mass number
; Z XA
Atomic number Element
Example: Nitrogen atom has notation as 7 N 14 .
Question: An atom X has mass number 40 and atomic number 18.Find out the number of
protons, number of electrons and number of neutrons present in the atom X?
Solution:
Number of protons:
Number of protons = Atomic number
= 18
Number of electrons:
In an atom number of electrons = Number of protons
= 18
Number of neutrons = Mass number Atomic number
= 40-18 = 22
Electronic configuration: Electrons are placed in fixed energy levels called shells. These
shells are also called orbits. These orbits or shells are represented by the letters K, L, M,

N, or the numbers n=1, 2, 3, 4,.

The arrangement of electrons in the shells is known as electronic configuration.
Rules for accommodating electrons in various shells (Bohr-bury scheme):
The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in any energy level of the
atom is given by a formula 2n2. Where n is the number of that energy level.
According to Bohrs model of an atom, the first energy level K can have 2 electrons, the
maximum number of electrons which can be accommodated in shell L is 2X22 = 8.
Similarly, for M and N shells, maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated
are 2X32= 18 and 2X42= 32 respectively.
Electrons in an atom do not occupy a new shell unless all inner shells like K, L, M, N..
are completely filled. Hence, filling of electrons in an atom follows a stepwise approach.
The maximum number of electrons that can be filled in a valence shell is eight even if it
has capacity to accommodate more than eight.
After a series of experiments and a detailed study by scientists like louis de broglie,
schrodinger, somerfeld and others proved that shells or energy levels have sub shells
within them. Electrons are distributed in these sub-shells.
The various sub shells are s, p, d and f.
Every sub-shell can accommodate a fixed number of electrons.
"s" sub shell can hold a maximum of 2 electrons,
"p" sub shell can hold a maximum of 6 electrons,
"d" sub shell can hold a maximum of 10 electrons,
"f" sub shell can hold a maximum of 14 electrons.
Structure of Sodium atom:
Sodium has atomic number 11 and mass number 23.
The nucleus of sodium has 11protons and 12 neutrons and it is surrounded by 11
electrons.
The electronic configuration of sodium:
K shell or I shell = 2 electrons
L- shell or II shell = 8 electrons
M-Shell or III shell = 1 electron
Electronic configuration of sodium atom = 2, 8, 1

Valence electrons: The electrons, which are present in the outermost shell of an atom are
called valence electrons.
Example: Sodium.
Atomic number of sodium is 11
Electronic configuration of sodium is 2 8 1
In sodium 3rd shell is the outermost shell (valence shell) .In this shell it has 1 electron.
Hence the number of valence electrons present in sodium is 1.
The chemical properties of an atom are dependent on these valence electrons. Since they
are ones that are participate in a chemical reaction.
Elements having valence electrons 1, 2 or 3 are called metals.
Exception: Hydrogen has 1 valence electron but it is not consider as a metal.
These elements lose electrons easily and form a positively charged ion called cation.
Example: Na - e- Na+
Elements having valence electrons 4, 5, 6 or 7 are called as Non-metals
These elements gain electrons and forms a negatively charged ion called anion.

Example: F + e- FElements with same number of valence electrons will have similar chemical properties.
Whereas the elements with different valence electrons will have different chemical
properties.
Octet configuration: An element with 8 electrons in an outermost-shell is said to possess
an octet.
Elements with octet configuration are stable.
Example: Except helium all other noble gases possess octet configuration.
Valency: The combining capacity of an element is known as valency.
The combining capacity of the atoms to form molecules either with same or different
elements is defined as valency.
Atom contains less than four electrons in its outermost shell, the valency of an atom is
equal to the number of electrons present in the valence shell.
Example: Sodium has one electron in its outermost shell, so the valency of sodium is 1.
Calcium has two electrons in its outermost shell, so the valency of calcium is 2.
Aluminum has three electrons in its outermost shell, so the valency of aluminum is 3.
If the outer shell has more than four electrons, the valency = 8 - the number of electrons
in the outer shell.
Atomic mass: The total number of protons and neutrons present in one atom of an
element is called atomic mass.
Helium has two protons and two neutrons.
Mass number of he = 2 + 2=4
Mass of He atom 2 + 2 =4u (unified mass).
Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but different mass
numbers are called isotopes.
Examples: 1H1, 1H2, 1H3 are the isotopes of hydrogen,6 C12 ;6C13 are isotopes of carbon.
The chemical properties of all the isotopes of an element are the same. This is due to the
presence of same number of electrons.
Uses of isotopes:
An isotope of uranium is used as fuel in a nuclear reactor.
An isotope of cobalt is used in the treatment of cancer.
For treating goitre, an isotope of iodine is used.
Isobars: Atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers but have the same
mass number are called isobars.
Example: 18 Ar40, 19 K40 and 20Ca40.
Reasons for chemical activity of an atom: The chemical activity of an atom is
dependent on the number valence electrons. An atom with complete octet configuration is
chemically inert and it does not participate in chemical reactions.
Example: Noble gases.
The atoms of element with incomplete octet configuration are chemically active. These
elements combine with others to attain stable electronic configuration (octet
configuration).
Example 1: Hydrogen has one electron and it requires one more electron to attain the
nearest inert gas configuration. To achieve this each hydrogen atom contributes an
electron and form hydrogen molecule.
Example 2: Chlorine atom has 7 electrons in its valence shell and it requires 1 more

electron to attain the stable octet configuration. To achieve this each chlorine atom
contributes an electron and form chlorine molecule.

Atomic Models

When two objects are rubbed together they get electrically charged. The origin of this
charge can be explained, if it is assumed that the constituent particles of matter, the
"atoms" are divisible and consist of charged particles.
Sub atomic particles: Atom is defined as the smallest particle of the element that can
exist independently and retain all its chemical properties.
According modern atomic theory atoms are composed of particles. The three main subatomic particles are proton, neutron and electron.
Cathode rays- Discovery of electrons: In 1878 William Crooks carried out discharge
tube experiments and discovered new radiations and called them cathode rays. Since
these rays travel from the cathode towards anode. Later J.J Thomson studied on
characteristics of cathode rays and concluded that cathode rays are negatively charged
particles, now called electrons. The name electron was given by Johnson Stoney.
Discharge tube experiment
Canal rays Or Anode rays: In 1886, E. Goldstein carried out discharge tube
experiments and discovered new radiations and called them canal rays. These rays were
made up of positively charged particles and led to the discovery of proton.
Properties of electron, proton and neutron:
Parameters Electron

Proton

Neutron

Position

Present outside the nucleus and revolves

in the orbits

Present inside the

nucleus

Present inside the

nucleus

Mass

9.108X10-28 g

1.67X10-24g

1.67X10-24 g

Charge

-1.602 X10-19 coulombs

1.602 X10-19
coulombs

Zero

p+

Representa etion

Atomic models: Atomic models proposed by scientists show the arrangement of the
various sub-atomic particles in an atom.
Thomsons atomic model: J.J. Thomson was the first to put forward a model to explain
the structure of an atom.
Thomson's atomic model is also called water melon model or Christmas pudding model.
He compared the electrons with the raisins in the Spherical Christmas pudding and to
seeds in a watermelon.
Postulates of Thomsons Model:

 An atom consists of a positively charged sphere, with electrons set within the sphere.
An atom is electrically neutral as the positive and negative charges within it are equal.

Draw backs of Thomsons Model

It could not explain the stability of an atom, i.e how a positive charge in the atom holds
the negatively charged electrons.
It could not explain the position of nucleus in an atom.
It could not explain the scattering of alpha particles
Rutherfords Experiment: Thomsons student, Ernest Rutherford conducted an
experiment using gold foil which disproved Thomsons model.
To study the structure of atom, Rutherford performed a thin gold foil scattering
experiment. For his experiments Rutherford used a gold foil. He made a narrow beam of
alpha particles to fall on the gold foil.
Observations made from the alpha ray scattering experiment
Most of the alpha particles passed straight through the gold foil without getting
deflected.
A small fraction of the alpha particles were deflected through small angles.
A few alpha particles bounced back.

Based on his observations, Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of an atom.

Postulates of Rutherford nuclear model:
Positive charge is concentrated in the center of the atom, called nucleus.
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths called orbits.
The nucleus is much smaller in size than the atom.
Drawbacks of Rutherfords Model
The orbital revolution of the electron is not expected to be stable.
According to Rutherfords model, the electrons, while moving in their orbits, would
give up energy.
This would make them slow down, gradually and move towards the nucleus. The
electrons will follow a spiral path and then fall into the nucleus. Ultimately, the atom
would collapse. But in reality the atom is stable.
Bohrs Model: Keeping the shortcomings of the Rutherfords model in mind Niels Bohr
formed his postulates about the structure of an atom as the following.
Postulates of Bohrs Model:
Electrons revolve in discrete orbits called shells.
Electrons revolve in their orbits without radiating energy. Within a particular orbit, the
energy of an electron is constant. This is why orbits are called stationary orbits or
stationary shells.
Orbits or shells are also known as energy levels.
These orbits or shells are represented by the letters K, L, M, N, or the numbers n=1,
2, 3, 4,.

Drawbacks of Bohrs Model:

Bohrs model did not apply to elements like helium and lithium and the higher elements
containing more than one electron.
The model was also unable to explain the structure of chemical bonds.
The discovery of neutrons: Consider the element helium (He24). It was found that
helium has two protons and two electrons however its mass was found to be four times
that of Hydrogen. Similarly, the masses of some other elements were also found to be
double or more than double the number of protons.
This problem was solved on the discovery of another particle neutron by James
Chadwick In 1932 by bombarding beryllium with alpha particles.
Be49 + He24 C612 + n01
Neutron is a neutral particle with a mass equal to that of a proton and is present in the
nucleus along with a proton