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Introduction:
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Overview
Plastics can be classified by chemical structure, namely the molecular units that make
up the polymer's backbone and side chains. Some important groups in these
classifications are the acrylics, polyesters, silicones, polyurethanes, and halogenated
plastics. Plastics can also be classified by the chemical process used in their synthesis,
such as condensation, polyaddition, and cross-linking.
Other classifications are based on qualities that are relevant for manufacturing or
product design. Examples of such classes are the thermoplastic and thermoset,
elastomer, structural, biodegradable, and electrically conductive. Plastics can also be
classified by various physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, glass
transition temperature, and resistance to various chemical products.
Due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness
to water, plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from
paper clips to spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials,
such as wood; stone; horn and bone; leather; paper; metal; glass; and ceramic, in most
of their former uses.
The use of plastics is constrained chiefly by their organic chemistry, which seriously
limits their hardness, density, and their ability to resist heat, organic solvents,
oxidation, and ionizing radiation. In particular, most plastics will melt or decompose
when heated to a few hundred degrees celsius.While plastics can be made electrically
conductive to some extent, they are still no match for metals like copper or
aluminium. Plastics are still too expensive to replace wood, concrete and ceramic in
bulky items like ordinary buildings, bridges, dams, pavement, and railroad ties.
Chemical structure
Common thermoplastics range from 20,000 to 500,000 in molecular mass, while
thermosets are assumed to have infinite molecular weight. These chains are made up
of many repeating molecular units, known as repeat units, derived from monomers;
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History
The firsthuman-made plastic was invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855 [7]; he called
this plastic Parkesine (later called celluloid). The development of plastics has come
from the use of natural plastic materials (e.g., chewing gum, shellac) to the use of
chemically modified natural materials (e.g., rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen, galalite)
and finally to completely synthetic molecules (e.g., bakelite, epoxy, polyvinyl
chloride, polyethylene).
Types
Cellulose-based plastics
In 1855, an Englishman from Birmingham named Alexander Parkes developed a
synthetic replacement for ivory which he marketed under the trade name Parkesine,
and which won a bronze medal at the 1862 World's fair in London. Parkesine was
made from cellulose (the major component of plant cell walls) treated with nitric acid
and a solvent. The output of the process (commonly known as cellulose nitrate or
pyroxilin) could be dissolved in alcohol and hardened into a transparent and elastic
material that could be molded when heated. By incorporating pigments into the
product, it could be made to resemble ivory.
Bois Durci is a plastic moulding material based on cellulose. It was patented in Paris
by Lepage in 1855. It is made from finely ground wood flour mixed with a binder,
either egg or blood albumen, or gelatine. The wood is probably either ebony or rose
wood, which gives a black or brown resin. The mixture is dried and ground into a fine
powder. The powder is placed in a steel mould and compressed in a powerful
hydraulic press whilst being heated by steam. The final product has a highly polished
finish imparted by the surface of the steel mould.
Bakelite
The first plastic based on a synthetic polymer was made from phenol and
formaldehyde, with the first viable and cheap synthesis methods invented in 1909 by
Leo Hendrik Baekeland, a Belgian-born American living in New York state.
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Plastic piping and firestops being installed at Nortown Casitas, North York (Now
Toronto), Ontario, Canada. Certain plastic pipes can be used in some non-combustible
buildings, provided they are firestopped properly and that the flame spread ratings
comply with the local building code.
After the First World War, improvements in chemical technology led to an explosion
in new forms of plastics. Among the earliest examples in the wave of new plastics
were polystyrene (PS) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), developed by IG Farben of
Germany.
Polystyrene is a rigid, brittle, inexpensive plastic that has been used to make plastic
model kits and similar knick-knacks. It would also be the basis for one of the most
popular "foamed" plastics, under the name styrene foam or Styrofoam. Foam plastics
can be synthesized in an "open cell" form, in which the foam bubbles are
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PVC has side chains incorporating chlorine atoms, which form strong bonds. PVC in
its normal form is stiff, strong, heat and weather resistant, and is now used for making
plumbing, gutters, house siding, enclosures for computers and other electronics gear.
PVC can also be softened with chemical processing, and in this form it is now used
for shrink-wrap, food packaging, and rain gear.
Nylon
The real star of the plastics industry in the 1930s was polyamide (PA), far better
known by its trade name nylon. Nylon was the first purely synthetic fiber, introduced
by DuPont Corporation at the 1939 World's Fair in New York City.
In 1927, DuPont had begun a secret development project designated Fiber66, under
the direction of Harvard chemist Wallace Carothers and chemistry department director
Elmer Keiser Bolton. Carothers had been hired to perform pure research, and he
worked to understand the new materials' molecular structure and physical properties.
He took some of the first steps in the molecular design of the materials.
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Rubber
Natural rubber is an elastomer (an elastic hydrocarbon polymer) that was originally
derived from latex, a milky colloidal suspension found in the sap of some plants. It is
useful directly in this form (indeed, the first appearance of rubber in Europe is cloth
waterproofed with unvulcanized latex from Brazil) but, later, in 1839, Charles
Goodyear invented vulcanized rubber; this a form of natural rubber heated with,
mostly, sulfur forming cross-links between polymer chains (vulcanization), improving
elasticity and durability.
Synthetic rubber
The first fully synthetic rubber was synthesized by Lebedev in 1910. In World War II,
supply blockades of natural rubber from South East Asia caused a boom in
development of synthetic rubber, notably Styrene-butadiene rubber (a.k.a.
Government Rubber-Styrene). In 1941, annual production of synthetic rubber in the
U.S. was only 231 tons which increased to 840 000 tons in 1945. In the space race and
nuclear arms race, Caltech researchers experimented with using synthetic rubbers for
solid fuel for rockets. Ultimately, all large military rockets and missiles would use
synthetic rubber based solid fuels, and they would also play a significant part in the
civilian space effort.
Toxicity
Due to their insolubility in water and relative chemical inertness, pure plastics
generally have low toxicity in their finished state, and will pass through the digestive
system with no ill effect (other than mechanical damage or obstruction).
However, plastics often contain a variety of toxic additives. For example, plasticizers
like adipates and phthalates are often added to brittle plastics like polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) to make them pliable enough for use in food packaging, children's toys and
teethers, tubing, shower curtains and other items. Traces of these chemicals can leach
out of the plastic when it comes into contact with food. Out of these concerns, the
European Union has banned the use of DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate), the most
widely used plasticizer in PVC. Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food
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Environmental issues
Plastics are durable and degrade very slowly; the molecular bonds that make plastic
so durable make it equally resistant to natural processes of degradation. Since the
1950s, one billion tons of plastic has been discarded and may persist for hundreds or
even thousands of years. In some cases, burning plastic can release toxic fumes.
Burning the plastic polyvinyl chloride (PVC) may create dioxin. Also, the
manufacturing of plastics often creates large quantities of chemical pollutants.
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Bioplastics
Some plastics can be obtained from biomass, including:
from pea starch film with trigger biodegradation properties for agricultural
applications (TRIGGER).
from biopetroleum.
Oxo-biodegradable
Oxo-biodegradable (OBD) plastic is polyolefin plastic to which has been added very
small (catalytic) amounts of metal salts. As long as the plastic has access to oxygen
(as in a littered state), these additives catalyze the natural degradation process to speed
it up so that the OBD plastic will degrade when subject to environmental conditions.
Once degraded to a small enough particle they can interact with biological processes
to produce to water, carbon dioxide and biomass. The process is shortened from
hundreds of years to months for degradation and thereafter biodegradation depends on
the micro-organisms in the environment. Typically this process is not fast enough to
meet ASTM D6400 standards for definition as compostable plastics.
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Special-purpose plastics
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)
Contact lenses, glazing (best known in this form by its various trade names
around the world; e.g., Perspex, Oroglas, Plexiglas), aglets, fluorescent light
diffusers, rear light covers for vehicles.
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
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Effects of Plastics
In this era of many astonishing industrial developments, probably no industry
has under gone such rapid growth and development as the plastics industry. According
to most authorities in this field, the plastics industry really began in 1868. A young
American printer, named John Wesley Hyatt, was searching for a new material to be
used as a substitute for ivory in the making of billiard balls.
This new plastic was called Bakelite. Many new plastics have been made since
Bakelite. Production of plastics has increased over 2000% since Bakelite was first
produced, and there are now more than twenty known types. Research along the lines
of plastics has given a great impetus to research and invention in many other different
fields of endeavor. Millions of dollars are spent yearly in plastics research, trying to
find new plastics and to improve the existing ones. Much research will be done in the
future to lower the cost of producing plastics so that their consumption will become
greater. In spite of the varied and widespread application of plastics in practically
every phase of everyday life, the possibilities of this wonderful new material have
been by no means exhausted. It seems safe to say that if the application and use of
plastics continue to increase at the present rate, we may be living in a "Plastics Age."
An apt definition of plastics has been given by the head of the Monsanto Plastics
Research who says, "Plastics are materials that, while being processed, can be pushed
into almost any desired shape and then retain that shape."
The major chemicals used to make plastic resins pose serious risks to public health
and safety. Many of the chemicals used in large volumes to produce plastics are
highly toxic.Some chemicals, like benzene and vinyl chloride, are known to cause
cancer in humans; many tend to be gases and liquid hydrocarbons, which readily
vaporize and pollute the air. Many are flammable and explosive. Even the plastic
resins themselves are flammable and have contributed to numerous chemical
accidents. The production of plastic emits substantial amounts of toxic chemicals(eg.
ethylene oxide, benzene and xylenes) to air and water. Many of the toxic chemicals
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Pyrolysis :
Cl2
Reactor
scrubber
Sodium carbonate
Hydrogenate tower
Plastic waste
Cl2
Vent gas
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Component
Mordenite
HY
SilicaAlumina
SiO2
91.7
74.9
Al2O3
8.23
24.0
13
27.71
Na2O3
0.03
1.1
0.37
0.03
5.53
(-)18.9
5.31
6.69
1.93
Fe
SiO2/Al2O3
87
Fly Ash
53.56
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Cleaning
Pyrolysis
Reactor
oil
then subjected to magnetic and eddy current cleaning steps. In pyrolysis at about 600
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the course of time, with the potential that our country has, India will surely make the
most of chemical recycling methods and achieve great profits and progress by
adapting pyrolysis.
Random Depolymerization:
Plastics have become an integral part and parcel of our lives due to its
economic value, easy availability, easy processability, light-weight, durability and
energy efficiency, besides other benefits.
Since plastics are re-usable and recyclable, there should not have been any
problem of disposal of the plastics waste, however due to our poor littering habits and
inadequate waste management system/infrastructure, plastics waste management,
disposal continues to be a major problem for the civic authorities, especially in the
urban areas.
Though various steps have already been either taken or initiated by the
Government and the legal/civic authorities to reduce the problem of this waste
management, an innovative invention by Prof. Alka Umesh Zadgaonkar of the
Department of Applied Chemistry, G.H. Raisoni College of Engineering, Nagpur,
Maharashtra, has created a hope and scope to tackle this problem more easily and
more environmentally-friendly manner.
She has invented a catalyst system, which converts polymeric materials into
liquid, solid and gaseous fuels.
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The Process
Under controlled reaction conditions, plastics materials undergo random depolymerization and is converted into three products:
a) Solid Fuel Coke
b) Liquid Fuel Combination of Gasoline, Kerosene, Diesel and Lube Oil
c) Gaseous Fuel LPG range gas
The process consists of two steps:
i) Random de-polymerization
- Loading of waste plastics into the reactor along with the Catalyst system.
- Random de-polymerization of the waste plastics.
ii) Fractional Distillation
- Separation of various liquid fuels by virtue of the difference in their
boiling points.
One important factor of the quality of the liquid fuel is that the sulphur
content is less than 0.002 ppm which is much lower than the level found in regular
fuel.
Principals Involved
All plastics are polymers mostly containing carbon and hydrogen and few
other elements like chlorine, nitrogen, etc. Polymers are made up of small molecules,
called monomers, which combine together and form large molecules, called polymers.
When this long chain of polymers break at certain points, or when lower
molecular weight fractions are formed, this is termed as degradation of polymers. This
is reverse of polymerization or de-polymerization.
If such breaking of long polymeric chain or scission of bonds occur randomly,
it is called Random depolymerization. Here the polymer degrades to lower
molecular fragments.
In the process of conversion of waste plastics into fuels, random
depolymerization is carried out in a specially designed reactor in the absence of
oxygen and in the presence of coal and certain catalytic additives. The maximum
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All types of Plastics Waste including CDs and Floppies having metal
inserts, laminated plastics can be used in the process without any cleaning
operation. Inputs should be dry.
Any possible dioxin formation is ruled out during the reaction involving
PPVC waste, due to the fact that the reaction is carried out in absence of
oxygen, a prime requirement for dioxin formation.
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Zadgaonkars Process:
The process is also carried out in absence of oxygen & in the presence of coal and
certain hybrid catalytic additive.
The reaction parameters viz. temperature and
pressure
Steps Involved:
1.Feed System
2. Premelter
3.Melter
4.Dechlorination
5.Reactor
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1.Feed System :
Feed consists of all type of plastic scrap
The system essentially consist sorters and sizing equipment like of Crusher
The material is crushed in to uniform size for ease of handling and melting
This process of sizing and grading the waste is semi automatic.
2.Pre-melting/Feeder
The feeder consists of a driving motor, electric heater and control panel.
The granular crushed/cut/shredded waste plastic melts and injected in the melting
vessel.
3.Melter
In melter vessel, the feed is heated to 275C -410C.
The heat required for the melting will be supplied by the gas generated from the
plant.
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4.Dechlorination
The molten plastic will be drawn from the overflow end of melter vessel to
Dechlorinate.
Here the waste plastic is heated with catalytic additive which helps in removal of
chlorine.
The hydrocarbons free from HCl shall be used for heating purpose
The molten plastic is taken out and subjected to depolymerization
5.Reactor Section
The molten waste plastic free of chlorine is allowed to flow over a heated
surface at 300 - 350 OC
polymers are highly heat sensitive due to the limited strength of the covalent
bonds
Hence The breaking of chemical bonds under the influence of heat occurs
Here complex hydrocarbons breaks into simpler molecules to increase the quality
and quantity of lighter, more desirable products.
It is also known as unzipping reaction.
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Advantages
Reduces pollution helps in waste plastic degradation.
Cheaper and quality fuel.
Perfect solution for waste plastic, rubber, tyre management.
Raw material readily available.
Plant is energy self sufficient.
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Conclusion
This study shows without doubt that one-way PET bottles are as ecologically
favourable as refillable glass under non-deposit circumstances. A plausible alternative
could be to revise the Packaging Ordinance, such that ecologically favourable
packaging systems would be included in a deposit without being discriminated when
compared to refillable packaging. It cannot be explained to consumers that they
should return the empty bottles to the store if they are
subsequently transported to the other side of the world for recycling. This way we are
losing environmental gain that is the prime reason behind bottles collection. This
study has shown that it does not matter whether collected PET is recycled into
polyester fibre, sheet, strapping or back into PET bottles: they all offer equal benefits
to the ecological profile of PET. Mandatory or semi mandatory requirements to
recycle PET bottles into PET bottles would be ridiculous. Public perception does not
always match reality. Not many people comprehend that PET bottles, even for single
use, are as good as their glass counterparts. This calls for further improvements in
balanced, reputable education, and independent and irrespective of local political
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Reference
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science
http://biodegradableplastics.wordpress.com/2008/04/15/fuel-from-plasticwaste/
http://www.indiacar.com/infobank/Plastic_fuel.asp
http://www.tradekey.com/selloffer_view/id/828854.htm
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