Chapter 1 Introduction

1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1.

Defining the rockburst problem

Despite years of research dedicated to mining induced seismicity and rockbursting,

management of the problem remains critical to the viability of many mining operations
around the world. Indeed, as near surface mineral resources are exhausted and the trend
towards deep underground mines in highly stressed conditions increases, often with
high rates of production, mining induced seismicity will continue to be a key
consideration for the industry. Higher commodity prices in recent years has meant that
economic constraints to deep mining such as haulage and ventilation have been
overcome, allowing deep mining methods to become feasible for many orebodies when
previously it was not. Whilst these economic constraints have been overcome, this has
also presented a new set of rock mechanics problems with mining induced seismicity
and rockbursting at the forefront. The unpredictability and violence of rockbursting
means it is a particularly menacing threat for anyone associated with underground
mining in deep or highly stressed conditions.
Mendecki et al. (1999) define a seismic event as a sudden inelastic deformation within a
given volume of rock (a seismic source) that radiates detectable seismic waves. In this
thesis, a rockburst is defined as visible damage to an underground excavation caused by
a seismic event. The severity of a rockburst may vary from minor rock spalling to
catastrophic rock mass fracturing or falls of ground.
These phenomena have long caused problems in major mining camps around the world.
In Australia, mining induced seismicity and rockbursts have been reported for nearly a
century. A large seismic event led to injuries and fatalities in underground workings in
Kalgoorlie in 1917 (Kalgoorlie Miner, 1917), while seismicity has been reported at
Broken Hill and Mount Charlotte since the 1960s (Rauert and Tully, 1998; Mikula and
Poplawski, 1995).

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.2.

The effect of rockbursts on safety and production

There are numerous additional geotechnical considerations for an underground mine

which is seismically active and experiences rockburst damage. The effects of mine
seismicity range from minor production disruptions due to the need to restrict access to
certain areas of the mine to, in extreme cases, mine closure. A mine where the risks
associated with mining induced seismicity are not adequately managed may experience
sterilisation of ore reserves, significant production down time, the need for costly
rehabilitation work following rockburst damage, damage to mine infrastructure and
equipment, workforce injuries and fatalities and the financial costs associated with
these, loss of workforce morale, loss of shareholder confidence and industrial action.
Prior to 2006, although there had been large seismic events recorded at several
underground mines, there had been no fatalities associated with mining induced
seismicity in Australia since 2000 (DOCEP, 2006b). This could be attributed to a better
understanding and awareness of mining induced seismicity within the Australian mining
industry. Despite this, there remains much that is unknown within the topic. This was
recognised as recently as 1990 when Brady suggested that the pervasiveness of
rockbursts suggests that they remain the major unresolved ground control problem in
underground mining. Despite a number of research initiatives completed and underway
in Australia since then, the problem is still not widely understood. This was highlighted
in 2006 when a Richter Magnitude 2.1 seismic event occurred in the Beaconsfield Gold
mine in Tasmania, Australia (News Limited, 2006). The event resulted in one fatality
and two underground workers were trapped for 14 days, 925m below surface. The
incident received extensive media coverage in Australia and around the world, bringing
the issue back to the forefront and, in doing so, highlighted widespread misconceptions
regarding mine seismicity and the lack of understanding amongst the industry and
general public. As a result of the incident, production mining at Beaconsfield ceased for
over a year and a lengthy investigation was undertaken (Mellick, 2007).
Several approaches are available in the management of risk associated with mine
seismicity and rockbursting. Strategic approaches which may be applied in the long or
medium term include changes to mine design and mining methods. In the short term,
tactical approaches such as access restrictions, improved ground support, destressing of
2

Chapter 1 Introduction

pillars or active development faces and the use of remotely operated equipment have
been successfully applied at several mines. For all approaches, a good understanding of
the seismicity which has or is occurring in a mine is vital. As such, seismic monitoring
is one of the key aspects to successful management of seismic risk in underground
mining.

1.3.

Current state of understanding of the rockburst problem

Whilst the earliest recorded evidence of mine seismicity dates back prior to 1900 in the
Polish Upper-Silesian Coal Basin (Ortlepp, 2006), the first attempts at detailed
monitoring occurred in the United States, where mining induced seismicity was
discovered almost by accident in the late 1930s during experiments with the
measurement of shockwave propagation in an underground mine. It was later realised
that by capturing the shockwaves resulting from mine seismicity, there was an
opportunity to locate and measure the magnitude of mining induced seismic events.
Mine-wide microseismic monitoring systems were later installed in gold mines in South
Africa and Idaho in the 1960s while the first commercial monitoring system, the
Electrolab MP-250, became available in the late 1970s (Potvin et al., 2000). This system
was subsequently installed in several mines in Canada and the USA (MacDonald and
Muppalaneni, 1983; Davidge, 1984; Neumann, 1985; Oliver and MacDonald, 1985).
Following these early findings, research in the 1980s primarily involved the
development of sophisticated commercial seismic monitoring systems for use in a
mining setting. Three systems were developed:

The South African PSS/PRISM system developed by CSIR Miningtek

(Adams et. al., 1994);

The Canadian ESG system (Urbancic, 1998); and

The South African ISS system (de Kock and Mountfort, 1998).

The ISS is now the most commonly used seismic monitoring system in Australian
mines. With these high resolution and highly accurate systems in place at mines,

Chapter 1 Introduction

advanced seismological analysis of mine seismicity data was now possible, although not
widely adopted.
Research in the 1990s concentrated mainly on data analysis and defining the nature of
the rockburst problem, while refining the seismic systems hardware and software
(Potvin et al., 2000). Major rockburst and seismicity research thrusts were undertaken in
South Africa and Canada. The Canadian Rockburst Research Program (CRRP) was
undertaken from 19901995 with the aims of improving the understanding of the
rockburst problem and making use of seismic monitoring information as inputs into the
mine design process (CAMIRO, 1995). The research program led to the publication of
six volumes of information on defining rockburst damage mechanisms, ground support
for rockburst conditions, microseismic monitoring, numerical modelling and mine
design. The findings of this project were relevant to Australian mines, given the similar
mine layouts and mining methods to Canadian operations, and are frequently referenced
in this thesis.
Most South African Research in the 1990s and early 2000s was conducted under the
auspices of the Safety in Mines Research Advisory Committee (SIMRAC). This
research focussed on controlling (and to some extent predicting) rockbursts, ground
support and theoretical mine seismology (SIMRAC, 2001). Whilst the research is
largely focussed on South African, shallow dipping, tabular mining layouts, there are
relevant findings to rockburst management in Australia, particularly with regards to
ground support performance under rockburst conditions.
In recent years the focus of mine seismicity and rockburst research in Australia has been
on risk management. The Australian Centre for Geomechanics (ACG) launched the
Mine Seismicity and Rockburst Risk Management (MSRRM) project in 2000, of which
this thesis is part, with the aims of better defining the nature and extent of the problem
and by developing risk analysis tools to quantify the hazards associated with rockbursts
and mine seismicity (Potvin et al., 2000). This is due in part to the realisation that, given
the right set of conditions, seismic events and rockbursts will inevitably occur in mines.
Such events cannot be reliably predicted, therefore the best approach is to understand
the problem as well as possible through monitoring, then circumvent the risk associated
with mining induced seismicity and rockbursting by making changes at the planning
4

Chapter 1 Introduction

stage or by managing the risk tactically as mining progresses. In the last decade, the
proliferation of microseismic monitoring equipment in Australian mines has provided
an extraordinary opportunity to study the rockburst phenomenon in local mining
conditions.
The current state of understanding or recognition in Western Australia is reflected in
mining industry codes of practice. The Western Australian Mines Safety Inspection Act
(DOCEP, 2006a) contains several references to mining induced seismicity and
rockbursting.

Point

Standard

7.3

The potential for mining induced seismicity or rockbursts to occur in the mine has been assessed.

7.10

A seismic monitoring system is installed in a mine where seismic and rockburst activity causes
damage to the openings and/or the rock support and reinforcement systems in the mine.

7.11

A seismic monitoring system where installed is capable of detecting, processing and displaying a
representative sample of the range of seismic events occurring in real-time.

7.12

The monitoring results are regularly communicated to the workforce.

Table 1.1

Mines Safety Inspection Act (MSIA) Reg 10.28(3)(a)

A more obvious indicator of how seriously the issue is taken in Australia is the number
of mine-wide seismic monitoring systems installed at mines (see Figure 1.1). There has
been a steady increase in the number of systems, due to several factors: an increasing
numbers of mines as metal prices have risen, deepening of existing mines as near
surface resources are exhausted, and the increasing awareness brought about by
widespread publication of research material and major incidences such as that at
Beaconsfield.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Number of Minewide Seismic Monitoring Systems in Australia

60

NUMBER OF SYSTEMS

50

40

30

20

10

0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

YEAR

Figure 1.1

The number of mine-wide seismic monitoring systems installed in Australian mines

(Cronje, 2010)

Some of the more recent research work has focussed on the relationship between the
generation of seismic events and output from numerical modelling. Much of this work
has focussed on the use of seismic data in the calibration of mine-wide numerical
models (Beck et al., 1997; Wiles et al., 2000; Diederichs et al., 2002). These techniques
have been shown to be useful in complimenting calibration techniques involving
conventional instrumentation, such as closure measurements, stress cells and
extensometers, or underground observations. More recently, regional scale non-linear
numerical models have been used to achieve some success in forecasting the amount of
energy dissipated as a result of rock mass yield, of which a certain percentage is
measurable seismicity (Beck et al., 2006). Forecasting the amount of damage a seismic
event causes to an excavation remains unresolved using these techniques.
Ultimately, the interaction between seismically induced ground motion and a
structurally intricate and compositionally heterogeneous rock mass is extremely
complicated. As such, the problem may lend itself to an empirical or probabilistic
approach, which accounts for excavation specific factors.

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.4.

Research hypothesis

This thesis is concerned with rockburst damage. That is, given a seismic event occurs at
or near an excavation, what level of damage to that excavation can be expected? More
specifically, in a seismically active mine where an excavation is subjected to an episode
of dynamic loading, the amount of damage done is dependant upon local site conditions.
It is hypothesised that the degree of expected rockburst damage can be shown to be
related to a number of excavation specific, simple to obtain, objective and quantifiable
factors. These factors are:

The magnitude of the seismic event and distance from the event to the
excavation (defined by an estimate of the peak particle velocity (PPV) at the
excavation boundary);

An estimate of the ratio of rock mass strength (UCS) to the in situ stress (1)
as determined by a well calibrated numerical model;

The energy absorption capacity of the installed ground support as determined

by a series of in situ experiments (simulated rockbursts);

The span of the excavation; and

The presence of stability reducing rock mass structure which may contribute
to an increased failure thickness.

The aim of this thesis is to demonstrate that this relationship exists and an outcome will
be a practical tool for use in seismically active underground mines. This tool will allow
mine sites practitioners to determine the likelihood of rockburst damage occurring at
any location in a mine, based on the factors listed above.
A parameter termed the Rockburst Damage Potential based on data from several
hundred incidences of rockburst damage from seismically active mines in Australia and
Canada, will combine these factors to give a rating of the expected rockburst damage
for a particular excavation.

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.5.

Methodology

The methods used to achieve the thesis aims are shown in Table 1.2 below.
Investigate the current state of knowledge regarding mine seismicity and
rockbursting. In particular, identify the gaps in existing knowledge with
respect to:


Literature Review

The lack of information or knowledge on the influence of local site

conditions on rockburst damage.

The lack of a widely accepted seismic risk assessment techniques or

tools to perform such an assessment.

The lack of an accepted method for the design and selection of

ground support for rockbursting conditions.

Identify key data to be collected.

Carefully collect information and data on numerous rockburst incidences in
Collect and Collate

Australian and Canadian mines. The mines should cover a range of rock mass

Rockburst Case Histories

conditions and mining methods. Amass a comprehensive rockburst catalogue,

which summarises the data from each case history in a consistent format.

Conduct In situ Testing

of Ground Support
Preliminary Analysis of
the Rockburst Catalogue
Data
Develop a Method for
Quantifying the Influence
of Local Site Factors on
Rockburst Damage

Develop a method to simulate rockburst damage in situ and conduct testing

with a view to classifying the performance of various ground support systems
when subjected to strong dynamic loading.
Identify local site factors which influence rockburst damage through
probabilistic and statistical analysis. Quantify the influence of these factors.
Using the site specific factors identified, build an empirical and probabilistic
based method for assessing the level of rockburst damage likely to occur at an
excavation due to a seismic event of given size and distance from the
excavation. The method should be relatively simple and easy to apply en
masse to all excavations in a mine by making use of available software.

Test and Apply the

Build the rockburst damage potential method into existing software used by

Method at Underground

geotechnical engineers at seismically active mines and apply the method at an

Mines

underground mine to verify its suitability.

Table 1.2

Research methodology

Chapter 1 Introduction

The methodology involves both the collection and interpretation of a comprehensive

empirical database as well as an extensive series of field experiements. This provides
the basis for a data rich thesis upon which the thesis objectives can be met.

1.6.

Research significance and originality

In his illustrative study of rockbursts, Ortlepp (1997) writes:

It is the authors belief that an important first step towards the understanding of
rockbursts is to preserve a dichotomy that distinguishes two related, but often separate,
aspects of the problem: that which concerns the source mechanisms and that which
deals with the mechanism of damage. Broadly, the first part can be seen as the cause
and the second part as the effect.
As discussed previously, much of the research into mine seismicity and rockbursting
has focussed on the source of the seismic events or the mode of rock mass failure that
occurred to generate the seismic event (the cause). Although much has been written
describing different forms of rockburst damage (the effect) little work has been done to
establish the link between the source and damage to the excavation. This thesis aims to
fill the gaps in existing knowledge by amassing the largest known original database of
high quality rockburst damage case histories, carrying out an exhaustive analysis on the
data and then building an empirical and probabilistic based approach to defining the
likely level of rockburst damage due to a seismic event. A practical outcome of this
thesis is that the system developed has been incorporated into existing software and can
be easily applied on a mine-wide scale to provide quantitative risk assessment at any
point in a mine with seismic system coverage, in real-time. The software in question is
currently in use at over 20 seismically active mines in Australia, Chile, Sweden and
Canada, all of which now have access to the risk assessment techniques detailed in this
thesis.
A further aspect of the originality of this thesis is an experimental component focussing
on the in situ performance of ground support systems under dynamic loading
conditions. Whilst the approach employed for testing ground support in situ has been
attempted previously, never before has it been applied successfully as many times using
9

Chapter 1 Introduction

a repeatable and reliable testing technique. There is no widely accepted technique for
the design and selection of ground support for dynamic loading conditions. The results
of the simulated rockburst testing carried out as part of this research have been
presented in a format in this thesis which can be used to aid in this process. This thesis
focuses on the role of ground support, since changing or upgrading ground support is
the most obvious and common tactical approach employed at underground mines to
mitigate seismic risk.
The quality and amount of data available to study the rockburst phenomenon is
illustrated in the chart in Figure 1.2. This thesis aims to increase the amount of data at
the top of the pyramid, which can be classed as very high quality but of which there is
little available. In the case of ground support, this thesis will make use of the top two
categories of the pyramid, both case histories and in situ testing.

Rockburst
Case Histories
Increasing
quality of
data

In Situ Testing

Laboratory Testing

Numerical Modelling

Amount of data available

Figure 1.2

Data available to study the rockburst phenomenon

10

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.7.

Organisation of thesis

The thesis structure is summarised below:

Chapter 1 Introduction Introduces the research field and describes the thesis
topic.

Chapter 2 Literature Review An extensive review of available literature on

general mine seismology concepts, seismic monitoring, seismic source
parameters, methods for assessing seismic risk in underground hard rock mines
and ground support for rockbursting conditions. This chapter builds the case for
the need for a method of assessing rockburst damage potential in seismically
active, underground, hard rock mines.

Chapter 3 Observations of Rockburst Damage This chapter describes the

data collected from 13 Australian and Canadian mines used to build the
rockburst damage potential assessment technique developed in the thesis. Each
mine is described and site specific trends are analysed. The characteristics of
mining induced seismicity and rockburst damage at each mine are examined
individually and evidence for the relationship between damage and site specific
factors is discussed.

Chapter 4 Simulated Rockburst Testing

Describes the simulation of

rockburst damage using blasting at a number of sites to build a dynamic support

classification system which can be used to assess the appropriateness, or
otherwise, of a range of ground support systems when subjected to strong
dynamic loading.

Chapter 5 Critical Factors Affecting Rockburst Damage This chapter

describes the analysis of the data detailed in Chapter 3, in particular the
relationship between site specific factors and rockburst damage. Statistical
techniques are used to identify the site specific factors which influence rockburst
damage, and reduce the large number of variables collected down to a critical
few.

11

Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 6 Asessing the Potential for Rockburst Damage This chapter

presents a model which can be used to estimate the likely level of rockburst
damage at an excavation due to a seismic event, based on the critical site
specific factors. The case for inclusion or exclusion of these site specific factors
is presented. The procedure for applying the technique is presented.

Chapter 7 Application and Discussion This chapter describes the application

of the seismic risk assessment technique at a seismically active underground
mine. In particular, the ability of the technique to successfully identity areas
which suffered rockburst damage is investigated.

Chapter 8 Summary and Conclusions Summarises the findings of the thesis

and presents suggestions for further work in the field.

Chapter 9 References.

Appendix A Rockburst Damage Catalogue Presents the rockburst case

history data collected and collated from 13 Australian and Canadian mines
which were used to develop the rockburst damage potential system.

Appendix B Simulated Rockburst Results Presents the raw ground motion

data, failure thickness measurements, photographs and damage assessment
results for each simulated rockburst site.

Appendix C Logitfit Matlab Routine Provides Matlab code for the routine
used to perform logistic regression on the rockburst case history data.

Appendix D Logistic Regression Results Presents the results of the

application of the logistic regression technique to the rockburst damage
catalogue data.

12