Chromosomes, Mitosis, and Meiosis.

INTRODUCTION
With few exceptions, nearly all the cells in your body contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes. One of the pair you received from your mother; the other from
your father. Although these chromosomes may carry slightly different
information (say, brown eyes from your mother and blue from your father), the
genes on these HOMOLOGOUS chromosomes affect the same traits (eye color
in this example). Cells that carry a full set of paired chromosomes are said to
be "DIPLOID". This term can also be used to describe the number of
chromosomes in the cells of a particular organism. Our diploid (or 2N) number
is 46 while
that of the fruit fly is eight.
MITOSIS permits a cell to make an exact genetic copy of itself during
cellular division. This process insures that no cell in your body that requires
both maternal and paternal genes is lacking either. Nearly all the cells of your
body that are capable of division do so by the process of mitosis. While cell
division is used by multicellular organisms to increase in size and repair
wounds, it is used by one-celled organisms in their reproduction.
Sexual reproduction with its need for eggs and sperm complicates the
matter somewhat since it is not possible to produce GAMETES through mitosis
alone. If, for example, both your mother and father made their sex cells by
mitosis, their eggs and sperm would each contain 46 chromosomes. If such a
egg were fertilized by a diploid sperm, the result would be a tetraploid ZYGOTE
(and the offsprings cells would have a total of 92 chromosomes). Ten
generations down the line, each of your great-great-great-great-great-greatgreat-great-great grandchildren would have cells with 94208 chromosomes and
by 20 generations each cell would have over 96 million chromosomes.
Obviously, this isn't going to work and so there must be some mechanism to
insure that gametes receive only half of the diploid number (e.g., HAPLOID
gametes are produced).
MEIOSIS fulfills this need by starting with diploid cells and then distributing
the chromosomes so that half of each homologous pair is deposited in the
gametes. As you shall see, meiosis is essentially mitosis twice over. It also
differs from mitosis in that four cells can potentially be produced from an
original stem cell (while mitosis produces only two).

CENTRIOLE

NUCLEUS

CONDENSED

METAPHASE

SPINDEL

CHROMOSOMES

PLATE

FIBERS

ASTER

Figure 1. The five stages of mitosis and some representative structures are
indicated.
EXERCISE An Introduction to Mitosis.
PURPOSE: To introduce the process of mitosis to the student.
MATERIALS NEEDED:
Models and wall charts of mitosis.
"Flip book" page
Shears or paper cutter.
As mentioned in the introduction, mitosis allows cells to make an exact
genetic replicate of themselves during cell division. This process has is divided
into a cycle of five stages (Fig 1). During INTERPHASE the chromosomes are
metabolically active and the DNA is not visible as discrete chromosomes. The
DNA is also replicated during this phase in preparation for cell division. To
differentiate between the non-replicated and replicated chromosomes during
interphase, this stage has been sub-divided into G1 ("growth 1"), SYNTHESIS,
and G2 ("growth 2") phases (Fig 2). During the G1 portion the cell is
metabolically active and busy with processes such as protein synthesis. In
preparation for mitosis, DNA is replicated during the synthesis portion of
interphase. Synthesis is then followed by a G2 phase.
Interphase is followed by PROPHASE. Chromosomes condense and become
visible, the nucleolus disappears, the nuclear envelope disintegrates, and the
MITOTIC APPARATUS (SPINDLE FIBERS, ASTERS, and CENTRIOLES) appear. By
METAPHASE the chromosomes have lined up single file along the METAPHASE
PLATE (or EQUATORIAL PLANE). They then move to opposite poles of the cell
(ANAPHASE); finally terminating with TELOPHASE (characterized by
CYTOKINESIS- cell division). Several differences exist between plant and animal
cells- consult your text for details.

CYTOKINESIS

G 1

G 2

Figure 2. The cell cycle. Interphase is divided into a three sub-stages: G1

("growth 1"), SYNTHESIS, and G2 ("growth 2"). The remaining phases of mitosis
and their relative timing are also indicated in this diagram.
PROCEDURE:
1- Examine the demonstration models and wall charts and identify each of the
stages of mitosis using figures 1 and 2 as a guide. Make sure you can
recognize the NUCLEUS, NUCLEOLUS, CONDENSED CHROMOSOMES,
CENTROMERES, CENTRIOLES, SPINDLE FIBERS, ASTERS, and CLEAVAGE
FURROW or CELL PLATE as appropriate for the phase of mitosis and type of
cell (plant or animal). Memorize these stages in order and the structures that
are visible in a plant and animal cell. Familiarity with this process is absolutely
necessary for your understanding of meiosis and genetics.
2- Mitosis Animation. Remove the "flip book" diagram from your laboratory
manual. Each picture depicts a portion of the mitotic process in an animal cell.
When assembled in order you can flip through the pages and observe a mitosis
animation. The reverse side of the page depicts chromosomes (used in later
parts of this laboratory). Cut along the dashed lines to remove the frames from
the page. Stack them with frame number 1 on the top of

Figure 3. Procedure for modeling mitosis and meiosis. Only chromosome pairs
numbers II and III are shown for clarity. (A) Simulating interphase at G1. (B)
Interphase following synthesis (during G2). (C) One possible arrangement of
chromosomes during a mitotic metaphase. (D) Crossing over during prophase I
and/or metaphase I of meiosis. (E) Results of crossing over depicted in "D". See
the simulation sections of the laboratory for more information.
the deck. Straighten the pile (make sure that the side opposite the numbers is
even) and then hold together at the numbered side (do NOT staple them
together or throw the pieces away when you are finished). Use your thumb to
flip through the pages. With a little straightening and practice you will see an
animated mitotic sequence.
3- Most students have difficulty identifying the various phases of mitosis from
prepared slides. This is because few, if any, of the cell stages on a slide look
exactly like the diagrams in a text (since mitosis is a continuous process).
Before you continue with the slides, practice by identifying the beginning and
end of the mitotic stages shown in your flip book. Use the frame numbers at
the bottom of the pictures. Also indicate the structures that can be observed at
each stage. Enter these answers in the Results Section. This practice will help
you identify the mitotic sequences in another exercise.

4- Mitosis Simulation. Work in groups of two. Turn over the flip book and
remove the chromosome pictures labeled "G1" and "G2". The "G1"
chromosomes depict diffuse chromosomes (before DNA synthesis). Those
labeled "G2" show the state of the chromosomes following DNA replication.
Compare the largest of the "G1" and G2" chromosomes. Note that the
G2chromosomes are composed of two CHROMATIDS joined together at the
CENTROMERE. The chromatids are exact copies (as indicated by the ame
banding pattern). If one of the bands includes a gene affecting eye color
(brown, for example), then both chromatids will carry the brown-eyed gene.
The chromatids will later separate insuring that each of the daughter cells
receives their own copy of the brown-eyed gene. In this simulation the
chromatids are identified by a Roman Numeral with a male (
) or female ( )
subscript. I have used the convention of starting the numbering with the
largest of the chromosomes. The male and female subscripts are included only
to remind you that one of the chromosome pair came from the organism's
father, the other from the mother.
5- On a separate sheet of paper draw a circle 15-18 cm (7-8 inches) in
diameter (this is your cell). At the center of the circle lightly draw another circle
to represent the nucleus. Place your "G1" chromosome cards on top of one
another within the nucleus (this represents the mitotic interphase before
replication; Fig 3A). Replicate your chromosomes by replacing the "G1" cards
with the proper "G2" card (Fig 3B). Pretend (or hallucinate) that the nucleus
has disintegrated and the chromosomes have condensed (you are now in
prophase). Move the cards into a metaphase configuration and record the
order of your chromosomes from top to bottom in the results section. Continue
with the remainder of the simulation by moving the chromosomes cards
through the various phases of mitosis using figures 2 and 3 as guides. When
you reach telophase, separate the chromatids at the centromere (cut them
along the dotted line) and then move them to opposite corners of your cell.
Draw a line down the center of your cell (cytokinesis) and record the results of
your simulation in the Results Section.
6- Re-run the simulation using your partner's set of diagrams but scramble the
order of the chromosomes at metaphase (as compared to your first
simulation). Record the new metaphase order and the outcome of the
simulation in the results section. Don't throw the remaining cards away; you'll
need them later.

____________________________________________________________________________
EXERCISE Mitosis in Animal Cells.
PURPOSE: To observe representative stages of mitosis in both plant and animal
cells. In addition, the student will sample a population of animal cells to
determine the relative timing of the stages of mitosis.
MATERIALS NEEDED:
Prepared Whitefish Blastula Slides.
Each stage of mitosis does not proceed at the same rate. Interphase, for
example, is a much more time-consuming phase of mitosis than any of the
others (Fig 2). It is possible to estimate the relative amount of time a cell
spends in each stage by sampling a population of dividing cells. If a stage
takes a long time, then a large proportion of the cells will be seen in that
phase. Alternately, if cells quickly race through a phase, few representatives of
that stage will be seen on the slide.
PROCEDURE:
1- Mitosis in an Animal Cell. Obtain a prepared slide of whitefish blastula
mitosis. The blastula is a stage of embryonic development in animals. It is
spherical in shape and, since developmental stages are characterized by
accelerated cell division, it's a good place to observe the various mitotic
phases. Several thin slices of the blastula will be found on your slide.
2- Scan the slide and locate a representative cell for each stage of the mitotic
sequence (Fig 1). You will probably have to scan several of the blastula sections
and may have to obtain a second slide to see all the stages. Make a sketch of
each phase and label the chromosomes, spindles, asters, and other structures,
if present.
3- Timing of Mitotic Stages in an Animal Cell. Enlist the aid of your neighbor
for this part of the laboratory. While one of you scans the slide and calls out
the mitotic stage for the cells, the other should keep a tally of the number of
cells in each phase. Sample 100 or more cells and then enter your counts in
the appropriate table in the results section (you will have to look at more
than one section; make sure that you don't recount a blastula slice twice).
Were some phases under-represented? Which stage occurs most quickly?
____________________________________________________________________________

MEIOTIC INTERPHASE

MEIOTIC INTERPHASE

TELOPHASE I

PROPHASE II

PROPHASE II

ANAPHASE I

METAPHASE II

METAPHASE II

METAPHASE I

ANAPHASE II

ANAPHASE II

PROPHASE I

TELOPHASE II

TELOPHASE II

PREMEIOTIC INTERPHASE

Figure 4. Meiosis in a typical animal cell. Phases of meiosis I are shown at the
center of the diagram, starting with the premeiotic interphase and connected
by hatched arrows. Bold arrows join the stages of the second part of meiosis
(on the left and right sides of the diagram. Note that four cells are potentially
produced by meiosis; each with half the original number of chromosomes
EXERCISE Meiosis.
PURPOSE: To simulate meiosis.
MATERIALS NEEDED:

Chromosome Pictures Labeled "MEIOSIS" (From the back of the flip

sheets).
Models and Wall Charts Depicting Meiosis.

As previously mentioned, meiosis reduces the diploid number of a cell in

half to produce a haploid cells. Among animals these haploid cells are used as
gametes (eggs and sperm). For most of the plants with which you are familiar,
entire haploid individuals are built.
You will find that meiosis is not much more difficult to learn than was
mitosis since it is essentially mitotic cell division run through twice. Meiosis
therefore uses the same names for the various phases (followed by a "I" or "II"
to indicate the first or second division; Fig 3). There are, however, several
critical events to keep in mind for meiosis that differentiate it from meiosis:
During prophase I homologous chromosomes pair up (SYNAPSIS) and remain in
close contact through the first metaphase. This close approximation of two
chromosomes (four chromatids) is called a "TETRAD". Tetrads can be seen
during prophase I and metaphase I. Compare the position of the chromosomes
in metaphase of mitosis with those of metaphase I in meiosis (Fig 2 vs. Fig 3).
While in the tetrad configuration the arms of homologous chromosomes may
overlap and produce CHIASMATA (singular, CHIASMA). At this time the genes of
one chromatid can be exchanged with those on a sister chromatid. This
process of CROSSING OVER produces new genetic combinations that were not
present in the original parental chromosomes. The effects of this GENETIC
RECOMBINATION will be looked at in greater detail in the next section.
Following crossing over, chromosomes separate and reduce the number of
chromosomes by half. This is the REDUCTION DIVISION. The second part of
meiosis has no surprises and continues as a haploid mitosis. These events are
shown in greater detail in figure 4.
PROCEDURE:
1- Simulation of Meiosis. Work in groups of two. Separate the chromosomes
labeled "MEIOSIS" from the flip sheets. As before, draw a circle on a sheet of
paper and pile the chromosome cards in the middle to represent the
premeiotic interphase of the cell. Start with the "G1 cards, and then replace
them with the chromosomes labeled "MEIOSIS" (Fig 3 A,B).
2- Run through the remainder of the simulation using figure 4 as a guide. Pay
particular attention to the arrangement of your chromosomes during
metaphase I and the following anaphase (record the positions of the
chromosomes as you did for the mitosis simulation). This step is the "key" to
the meiosis since it affects the distribution of chromatids during the second
division (Fig 4). Record the results of your simulation in the Results Section. Rerun the simulation using your partners cards with a different metaphase I order
and record these results..

REPORT SECTION
by __________________________________
To complete your assignment for this exercise, fill in all the information
requested in the RESULTS and DISCUSSION sections, tear them out at the
perforations and hand them in. These two completed sections constitute your
Laboratory Report for the Experiment
EXERCISE -An Introduction to Mitosis.
Mitosis Animation. Fill in the following table by entering the frame number
range that corresponds to each of the phases of mitosis. Include a list of
structures that can be seen in cells at each phase. If a structure can only be
observed in a plant or animal cell, indicate so.
Mitotic
Frame Numbers
Structures that can be seen in living cells
Stage
that can be seen
(range)
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Mitosis Simulation. Record the sequence of chromosomes you used for
metaphase during the first and second simulations in the following space. Use
the number and male/female codes printed on the cards to identify them from
top to bottom.
Simulation
Chromosome Order
First
Secon
d
Now check off the set of chromosomes found in each of the daughter cells
produced during your two simulations:
Chromosomes Present After Mitosis
Simulation
I
I
II
II
III
III
IV
IV
1st (cell 1)
1st (cell 2)
2nd (cell 1)
2nd (cell 2)
Were the simulations identical regardless of the starting chromosome order?
Of what importance would this result be to a real cell? ___________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
EXERCISE - Mitosis in Animal Cells.

Mitosis in an Animal Cell. In the spaces provided below, make a sketch of some
representative Whitefish blastula cells for each phase of mitosis. Label any
cellular structures that may be visible.
INTERPHASE

PROPHASE

ANAPHASE

METAPHASE

TELOPHASE

Timing of Mitotic Stages in an Animal Cell. Record your cell counts for each of
the phases of mitosis in the following table:
Interpha
se
Number of cells in
each phase:

Prophas
e

Metaphas
e

Anaphas
e

Telophase

If each cell cycle took an average of 60 min to run from interphase through
completion, how long would each phase take (show your calculations):
INTERPHASE: _________________________________________________________________
PROPHASE: _________________________________________________________________
METAPHASE: _________________________________________________________________
ANAPHASE: _________________________________________________________________
TELOPHASE: _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
EXERCISE Meiosis. Simulation of Meiosis. Record the sequence of
chromosomes you used for metaphase I during the first and second
simulations in the following space. Use the number and male/female codes
printed on the cards to identify them from left to right and top to bottom.
Chromosome Order
Simulati
Left
Right
Left
Right
Left
Right
Left
Right
on
First:
Second:
Now check off the set of chromosomes found in each of the daughter cells
produced during your two simulations:
Simulati
on
1st (cell
1)
1st (cell
2)
1st (cell
3)
1st (cell
4)
2nd (cell
1)
2nd (cell
2)
2nd (cell
3)
2nd (cell
4)

II

II

III

III

IV

IV

Were the simulations identical regardless of the starting chromosome order?

Of what importance would this result be to a real cell? ___________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

20

1 9

1 0

2 8

1 2

2 1

3 0

1 3

2 2

1 5

2 4

3 3

1 6

2 5

3 4

1 7

2 6

3 5

1 8

2 7

3 6

X'OVER

X'OVER

MEIOSIS

X'OVER

X'OVER

MEIOSIS

G
2

II

II

II

X'OVER

X'OVER

MEIOSIS

G
2

II

II

II

II

II

X'OVER

MEIOSIS

G
2

II

II

II

II

III

III

X'OVER

MEIOSIS

III

III

III

III

III

III

X'OVER

MEIOSIS

III

III

III

II

IV

IV

IV

X'OVER

MEIOSIS

IV

IV

IV

II

IV

IV

IV

X'OVER

MEIOSIS

IV

IV

IV

III

III

IV

IV