Globalization and Its Impact on the Environment

Globalization has had far-reaching effects on our lifestyle. It has led to faster access to technology,
improved communication and innovation. Apart from playing an important role in bringing people of
different cultures together, it has ushered a new era in the economic prosperity and has opened up vast
channels of development. However, globalization has also created some areas of concern, and
prominent among these is the impact that it has had on the environment. Globalization has featured
extensively in the debates on environmentalism, and green activists have highlighted its far-reaching
effects. Let us know about the impact of globalization on our environment.
Activists have pointed out that globalization has led to an increase in the consumption of products,
which has impacted the ecological cycle. Increased consumption leads to an increase in the production
of goods, which in turn puts stress on the environment. Globalization has also led to an increase in the
transportation of raw materials and food from one place to another. Earlier, people used to consume
locally-grown food, but with globalization, people consume products that have been developed in
foreign countries. The amount of fuel that is consumed in transporting these products has led to an
increase in the pollution levels in the environment. It has also led to several other environmental
concerns such as noise pollution and landscape intrusion. Transportation has also put a strain on the
non-renewable sources of energy, such as gasoline. The gases that are emitted from the aircraft have led
to the depletion of the ozone layer apart from increasing the greenhouse effect. The industrial waste that
is generated as a result of production has been laden on ships and dumped in oceans. This has killed
many underwater organisms and has deposited many harmful chemicals in the ocean. The damage
caused to ecosystem from the oil that spilled from one of the leaking containers of British Petroleum in
2010 is just one of the examples of the threat globalization poses to the environment.
Due to globalization and industrialization, various chemicals have been thrown into the soil which have
resulted into the growth of many noxious weeds and plants. This toxic waste has caused a lot of damage
to plants by interfering in their genetic makeup. It has put pressure on the available land resources. In
various parts of the world, mountains are being cut to make way for a passing tunnel or a highway. Vast
barren lands have been encroached upon to pave way for new buildings. While humans may rejoice on
the glimmer with these innovations, these can have long-term effects on the environment. Various
studies over the years, have found that plastic is one of the major toxic pollutants, as it is a nonbiodegradable product. However, plastic is of immense use when it comes to packaging and preserving
goods that are to be exported. This has led to increased use of plastic, causing widespread
environmental pollution.
It has made so many changes in our lives that reversing it is not possible at all. The solution lies in
developing effective mechanisms that can check the extent to which it can impact the environment.
Researchers are of the view that the answer to this problem lies in the problem itself, that is,
globalization itself can lend support to building a better structure which is economically feasible and
environment-friendly. Globalization is about competition, and if certain privately owned companies can
take the lead in being environment friendly, then it will encourage others to follow suit.
It is important that we put in some efforts to maintain harmony with the environment. The survival of
human race on this planet is dependent on the environment to such a large extent that we cannot afford
to ignore the consequences of our own actions. While there is a lot of debate and discussion on this
issue, the need of the hour is to have effective policies in place, and implementation of those policies.
The people that we have chosen to represent us have the responsibility of ensuring that the extent of
damage on environment is curtailed, if not totally prevented. We hope this article helped you in
understanding globalization and its impact on the environment and the importance of taking concrete
actions against it.

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IMPORTANCE OF RIO DE JANEIRO DECLARATION ON ENVIRONMENT

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as
the Rio Summit, Rio Conference, and Earth Summit (Portuguese: ECO92 [ku novt j doj]), was
a major United Nations conference held inRio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992.
In 2012, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development was also held in Rio, and is also
commonly called Rio+20 or Rio Earth Summit 2012. It was held from 20 to 22 June.
172 governments participated, with 116 sending their heads of state or government.[1] Some 2,400
representatives of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) attended, with 17,000 people at the parallel
NGO "Global Forum" (also called Forum Global), who had Consultative Status.
The issues addressed included:

systematic scrutiny of patterns of production particularly the production of toxic components,

such as lead in gasoline, or poisonous waste including radioactive chemicals

alternative sources of energy to replace the use of fossil fuels which are linked to global climate
change

new reliance on public transportation systems in order to reduce vehicle emissions, congestion
in cities and the health problems caused by polluted air and smoke

the growing scarcity of water

An important achievement was an agreement on the Climate Change Convention which in turn led to
the Kyoto Protocol. Another agreement was to "not carry out any activities on the lands of indigenous
peoples that would cause environmental degradation or that would be culturally inappropriate".
The Convention on Biological Diversity was opened for signature at the Earth Summit, and made a start
towards redefinition of measures that did not inherently encourage destruction of natural ecoregions and
so-called uneconomic growth.
Twelve cities were also honoured by the Local Government Honours Award for innovative local
environmental programs. These included Sudbury in Canada for its ambitious program to rehabilitate
environmental damage from the local mining industry, Austin in the United States for its green
building strategy, and Kitakysh inJapan for incorporating an international education and training
component into its municipal pollution control program.
Results
The Earth Summit resulted in the following documents:
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Rio Declaration on Environment and Development[2]

Agenda 21[3][4]

Forest Principles

Moreover, important legally binding agreements were opened for signature:

Convention on Biological Diversity[5]

Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

Critics, however, point out that many of the agreements made in Rio have not been realized regarding
such fundamental issues as fighting poverty and cleaning up the environment.
Green Cross International was founded to build upon the work of the Summit.
The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development is a set of principles that recognize the
importance of preserving the environment and set forth international guidelines for doing so. They were
compiled at the United Nations Conference for Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in
1992 and are found in the report of this conference. The Rio Declaration serves as some of the
standards by which UN Member countries create domestic and international environmental policies and
by which they form agreements or organizations with one another, as it pertains to the environment and
conservation.
Goal: The goal of the Rio Declaration is to work towards the following objectives;
[] establishing a new and equitable global partnership through the creation of new levels of
cooperation among States, key societies and people,
Working towards international agreements which respect the interests of all and protect the
integrity of the global environment and developmental system,
Relevant Clauses[1]
Principle 1
Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitled to a
healthy and productive life in harmony with nature
Principle 3
The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental and
environmental needs of present and future generations.
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Principle 6
The special situation and needs of developing countries, particularly the least developed and
those most environmentally vulnerable, shall be given special priority []
Principle 7
States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve, protect and restore the
health and integrity of the Earths ecosystem [] The developed countries acknowledge the
responsibility that they bear in the international pursuit of sustainable development in view of
the pressures their societies place on global environment and of the technologies and financial
resources they command.
Principle 8
To achieve sustainable development and a higher quality of life for all people, States should
reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and consumption and promote
appropriate demographic policies.
Principle 10
Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned citizens, at the
relevant level. At the national level, each individual shall have appropriate access to
information concerning the environment that is held by public authorities [] and the
opportunity to participate in decision-making processes []
Principle 11
States shall enact effective environmental
legislation [
Principle 13
States shall develop national law regarding liability and compensation for the victims of
pollution and other environmental damage []
Principle 14
States should effectively cooperate to discourage or prevent the relocation and transfer to other
States of any activities and substances that cause severe environmental degradation or are found
to be harmful to human health.
Principle 16
[] the polluter should, in principle, bear the
cost of pollution []
Principle 22

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Indigenous people and their communities and other local communities have a vital role in
environmental management and development because of their knowledge and traditional
practices. States should recognize and duly support their identity, culture and interests and
enable their effective participation in the achievement of sustainable development.
Principle 23
The environment and natural resources of people under oppression, domination and occupation
shall be protected.
Principle 25
Peace, development and environmental protection
are interdependent and indivisible.

IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CALAMITIES AND ITS IMPACT ON SOCIETIES

Introduction
Natural disasters are caused by hydro-meteorological, climatological, geophysical and biological
phenomena which adversely impact on the natural and built environment of affected regions. Their
effects in terms of victims and material damage exceed the capacity for self-recovery of local
communities, making external assistance necessary (vide GUHA-SAPIR et al., 2012; NOY, 2010;
ALCNTARA-AYALA, 2002, p. 109-110).
The World Bank & United Nations report (2010) states that disasters expose the cumulative effects of
decisions (individual and collective) previously taken in terms of land management (including
unregulated growth of urban areas), construction techniques, implementation of sanitation infrastructure
and low investment in educational programs, poverty reduction and social integration, among others.
Such decisions combined with high intensity natural events (e.g. floods, landslides, storms and
earthquakes) provoke an array of socioeconomic and environmental impacts.
A trans-disciplinary approach to the underlying concept of natural disasters suggests that they are
characterized by naturally occurring events whose consequences are often aggravated by man-made
actions which surpass the capacity of man's built infrastructure to contain. They result in tragic
disturbances in the social and environmental sphere together with socioeconomic impacts of extreme
severity, such as high levels of material damage, the loss of life and means of subsistence for affected
communities, and the spread of infectious diseasesi due to the degradation of sanitary conditions. They
are consequently responsible for a series of adverse environmental and socio-economic impacts due to
the way they cause disturbances (or imbalances) in theenvironmental (CHINO et al., 2011; McENTIRE,
2001; ADRIANTO & MATSUDA, 2002), economic (DAVIS et al., 2012; FREITAS et al., 2012;
LOAYZA et al 2012; NOY & VU, 2010; UN, 1999) and social (GUHA-SAPIR et al., 2012;
TAKAHASHI et al., 2012; O'BRIEN et al., 2006; YODMANI, 2001) aspects of sustainability.
In the last two decades many studies have consistently presented forecasts and demonstrations of an
increase in the frequency and intensity of natural disasters (e.g. hurricanes, floods, droughts and
associated forest fires, earthquakes, tornadoes, among others), above all those related to climate factors
(vide GUHA-SAPIR et al., 2012; IPCC, 2007; VINK et al., 1998) and the relation between natural
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disasters and the macro-economic indicators of different countries (SCHUMACHER & STROBL,
2011; LOAYZA et al. 2012; NOY, 2010).
This issue has taken on particular importance as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC,
2007) report states that one of the consequences of global warming is the likely increase in the
frequency and intensity of extreme climatic events (above all in tropical regions), which together with
disasters caused by geophysical factors (e.g. earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions) comprise a
strong threat to developing countries (NAUDE, 2010; IFRC, 2003, 2010; O'BRIEN et al., 2006). As is
well known, these countries have low resilience in face of disasters (EBEKES & COMBES, 2013;
CUARESMA, 2010; WORLD BANK & UNITED NATIONS, 2010).
Natural disasters, even when they are classified as small or moderate (DATAR et al., 2013), are
responsible for adverse socio-economic and environmental impacts (GUHA-SAPIR et al., 2012),
particularly in underdeveloped regions (or regions in development) (TOYA & SKIDMORE, 2007;
WORLD BANK & UNITED NATIONS, 2010). This is due to both a lack of preventive action plans
and resources and to low resilience, inherent to low levels of social capitalii (vide TOYA &
SKIDMORE, 2007, p. 20-21; JACOBI & MONTEIRO, 2006, p. 27; ALCNTARA-AYALA, 2002, p.
108), which contribute to the prolongation of the adverse effects on the environment and society. This
prolonged duration causes a greater spatial dispersal of environmental impacts where natural agents
(e.g. water, wind) transport the problem beyond its source and aggravate socio-economic impacts by
disturbing economic activity (e.g. agriculture, trade, tourism) and increasing social vulnerability.
As an example of the influence of social capital it is worth emphasizing Alcntara-Ayala (2002, p.108)
who argues that one of the causes of natural disasters in poor or developing countries is:
...related to the historical development of these countries, where the economic, social, political and
cultural conditions are poor and consequently lead to increased vulnerability to natural disasters
(economic, social, political and cultural vulnerability) [our translation].
This paper addresses natural disasters whose origin and scale are not limited to natural causes, in other
words where the causes and the effects are also closely related to demographic and industrial growth,
something inherent to the socio-economic growth of contemporary societies. The industrial and
demographic growth, which encompasses the combined effects of population in a biological sense and
the effects of production-consumption in a technological sense (ALVINO-BORBA & MATA-LIMA,
2011; WETZEL, 1996), is normally associated to an increase in density whether in terms of population
or infrastructure (built environment), where both factors have aspects and impacts (environmental and
socio-economic) which contribute to an increase in the scale of natural disasters and to the worsening of
vulnerabilities of affected communities.
It is important to stress that in accordance to the ISO 14001 norm: (i) environmental aspect is the
element of an organization's activities, products and services which may interact with the environment;
while (ii) environmental impact is any change to the environment, adverse or beneficial, which is a
result, fully or partly, of environmental aspects of the organization.
In this context, the environmental aspect is related to the cause of the problem or to an environmental
improvement, while the environmental impact is related to the effect of the problem or to an
environmental improvement. Therefore, environmental aspects should be identified based on the
following factors (vide, e.g., MARAZZA et al.2010; UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE, 2000): (i)
social inclusion; (ii) economic development; (iii) use of resources; (iv) transport; (v) environmental and
ecological protection.

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The aspects addressed above are a list of variables which must be considered in the production of
development programs and the implementation of disaster prevention plans. Sustainable development,
as is well known, must address environmental, social and economic aspects in a transversal and
balanced way, always using the best available technology to achieve stated objectives, as presented
in Figure 1.
The sustainability triangle allows us to leave aside many considerations which have been widely
addressed in previously published studies, such as that of MAUERHOFER (2008, p. 498).
Natural Disasters
Origin and occurrence
Natural disasters are generally classified as having hydrological, meteorological, climatic, geophysical
or biological causes/origins (GUHA-SAPIR et al., 2012). In this paper natural disasters caused by
hydrological and meteorological phenomena will be grouped in one category denominated hydrometeorologic, and will not include disasters with a biological origin (these are less common), as
presented in Table 1.
Figure 2 (modified from GUHA-SAPIR et al., 2012, p. 3) shows the global occurrence of natural
disasters from 1990 to 2011 and their respective victims.
The approach taken in terms of addressing natural disasters is separated into four (4) disaster paradigms
(cf.FRERKS et al., 2011, p. 106): Hazard-Risk-Vulnerability-Resilience. Table 2 is a descriptive
summary of these paradigms where a distinction is made for those disasters where, in terms of
intervention plans, an effort is made to reduce () and increase ().}
Environmental and socio-economic aspects of disasters
Environmental aspect
The environmental aspect (stricto sensu) of natural disasters has been widely addressed in the
specialized technical bibliography (vide, e.g., SRINIVAS & NAKAGAWA, 2008, p. 6; AERTS &
BOTZEN, 2011) and a summary is presented in Table 3.
This section aims to highlight the strong relationship of interdependence which exists between
protection and conservation of bio-physical factors (e.g. land, water, atmosphere, fauna and flora) and
socio-economic development. The growth in the development of rural tourismiii (HAVEN-TANG &
JONES, 2012) which essentially exploits activities inherent to rural regions is an example which
underlines this affirmation (HAVEN-TANG & JONES, 2012; SRINIVAS & NAKAGAWA, 2008). On
the other hand, it is known that natural disasters are closely related to coastal zones (YASUHARA et al.,
2012; COSTANZA & FARLEY, 2007), fundamental elements in providing a competitive advantage to
seasonal summer tourism in developing countries (in Africa, Latin America and Asia).
Table 3 synthesizes the environmental aspects of a man-made nature which exacerbate natural disasters.
The table highlights a number of conspicuous examples of environmental aspects (causes of impacts)
connected to engineering mega-projects which are likely to cause large-scale population movements,
among many other significant negative environmental impacts with a wide variety of consequences.
These projects are usually supported by viability studies which point to the generation of multiple
positive socio-economic externalities for the regions where they are implemented, such as economic
growth resulting from the revitalization of existing activities, the creation of new investment
opportunities and, above all, employment for the local population (vide, e.g., MATA-LIMA, 2009).
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Table 3 helps to clarify the assertions made by other authors (TOYA & SKIDMORE, 2007, p. 20;
ALCNTARA-AYALA, 2002, p. 108; YODMANI, 2001, p. 2) that natural disasters are not extreme
phenomena exclusively caused by nature. Indeed, given that vulnerability is a determining factor in the
impact of disasters it can be argued that the development model adopted by the human race also
significantly contributes to disasters taking place.
Socio-economic aspect
The growth in socio-economic aspects of disasters has shown an increase (vide Figure 3) due to the
direct impacts on vulnerable communities. These often conceal environmental impacts and therefore are
deserving of special attention on the part of agents, politicians and researchers who are responsible for
finding solutions to mitigate their effects.
Loayza et al. (2012, p. 1317) recently stressed that natural disasters cause significant economic and
physical damage whose effects can spread beyond the immediate locality. They also observed that the
impact of disasters on economic growth is not always negative and that developing countries are more
vulnerable to these disasters as more sectors are affected. This is intrinsically related to the heightened
degree of vulnerability and the low resistance of these countries. The WORLD BANK & UNITED
NATIONS (2010) draws attention to the fact that in underdeveloped regions economic growth rarely
occurs after natural disasters as the intensity of the negative effects depends on the structure of the
economy. Moreover, it is known that regions with low social capital also have weak economic structures
and experience difficulties in securing adequate resources to address the problems caused by disasters.
It is also important to account for the following peculiarities of socio-economic aspects:
Remittances significantly mitigate the impacts of natural disasters in terms of the number of victims in
developing countries, accounting for between 8% and 17% of Gross National Product (GNP) (cf.
EBEKE & COMBES, 2013);
As natural disasters affect the poorest countries more than others, the most vulnerable and
marginalized populations have to deal with the most serious consequences (FREITAS et al., 2012;
IFRC, 2003, 2010).
Table 4 is a good illustration of how the vulnerability of poor regions contributes to a significant
increase in the negative impacts of natural disasters. Furthermore, based on data from the Center for
Research on the Epidemiology of Disaster (CRED), globally there are more deaths from disasters and
higher economic costs as time progresses, as O'BRIEN et al. (2006) emphasizes;
The increase in the number of disasters and their consequences is related to an increase in the
vulnerability of communities throughout the world as a result of the development model adopted. The
increase of vulnerability is not uniform, as there are significant variations between regions, nations,
provinces, cities, communities, socio-economic classes, castes and even gender (cf. YODMANI, 2001);
Urban areas benefit from having better physical infrastructure (e.g. hospitals, civil protection services,
sanitation systems and other logistics) and administrative support systems (e.g. emergency plans);
indeed, prevention and intervention plans are more likely to exist in urban areas (IFRC, 2010).
However, the fact that the largest cities in the world are in poor and developing countries - such as So
Paulo, whose problems are highlighted by JACOBI & MONTEIRO (2006, p. 32-33) and which is
located in a country where hydro-meteorological disasters predominate - makes the scenario extremely
worrying as these cities lack the above mentioned infrastructure.

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Management of environmental and socio-economic impacts associated to natural disasters

In the previous sections we concentrated on establishing a relation between the environmental aspects
and impacts of the most common natural disasters (e.g. floods, landslides), demonstrating the
interdependence between the social, economic and environmental aspects of sustainability. This
approach aims to make clear the complicit relationship between these three aspects of sustainability and
the four disaster paradigms as a starting point in order to draw up and implement a management plan for
preventing disasters. This effort is fundamental, as already mentioned, since reducing vulnerability
depends on systematically tackling the complex interactions between inherent physical, environmental
and social factors (vide, e.g., INGRAM et al.2006).
Preventive management
Though it is not humanly possible to adopt measures to eliminate the extreme phenomena which cause
natural disasters, preventive planning is vital in mitigating impacts on socio-economic and
environmental systems, particularly those which are the most vulnerable, as a way of increasing the
degree of resilience of local communities. In this context it is worth stressing the words of McENTIRE
(2001, p. 189): "The central argument to be made is that vulnerability is, or should be, the key concept
for disaster scholarship and reduction". This concern reflects the final recommendation of the World
Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) which emphasizes the need for an integrated approach to
include vulnerability, risk evaluation and disaster management by focusing on the prevention and
mitigation of impacts (UNISDR, 2003; WORLD BANK & UNITED NATIONS, 2010).
The management approach should be flexible and preventive, adopting the following stages. It is
important to emphasize that often efficient preventive management may require cross-border
cooperation (e.g. involving a number of countries) in cases where the scale and nature of the disaster
demand it (e.g. floods in shared water basins, forest fires in border areas).
Identifying environmental aspects and impacts is fundamental in managing risks, and this should be the
first step in a risk management study. This first stage is called establishment of context as Pojasek's
flowchart shows (2008, p.97) in Figure 4.

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It is clear that establishment of context is of paramount importance in evaluating the degree of severity
of impacts, in that these are more pronounced (and socially visible) when dealing with urban and
populous regions where a considerable amount of infrastructure is built in risk zones, drastically
affecting socio-economic aspects. As risk analysis is essentially based on the probability of a given
event occurring and the degree of severity of the resulting consequences (vide, e.g., KORTENHAUS E
KAISER, 2009; TOPUZ et al., 2011), it is evident that the local bio-physical and socio-economic
context must be assigned a determining role in the contextualization and evaluation of the risk.

Summary and recommendations

The answer to the question contained in the title (what makes the difference?) can be found, above all,
in social capital, as this has a determining influence as a factor of vulnerability given that the developed
nations (e.g. Japan, USA) - despite having significantly fewer victims of natural disasters - are no less
affected by extreme phenomena (e.g. hydro-meteorological) capable of provoking disasters than the
poorest nations, as underlined by other authors (e.g. GUHA et al., 2012; KAHN, 2005).
The following aspects which play a key role in the mitigation of natural disasters should be emphasized:
Natural disasters should be approached from a trans-disciplinary perspective as their prevention and
mitigation requires technical-scientific cooperation between different areas of science, engineering,
economics, health, social studies and law. In addition, stakeholder participation (e.g. local community)
is a sine-qua-non in reducing their socio-economic and environmental impacts.
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 Vulnerability must be dealt with by increasing the social capital of communities which are located in
regions of heightened risk of disasters. This can be achieved through education/training and by fostering
citizenship which advocates participation in collective actions; reducing isolation by creating networks
which encourage contact and exchange of experiences between different communities with concerns in
common in terms of the risk management of disasters; among other actions aiming at building social
capital.
Natural disasters in developing countries cause impacts, particularly in terms of the degradation of
health (DATAR et al., 2013), due to diseases related to a worsening of environmental sanitation
conditions, as Takahashi, et al. (2012) has emphasized;
Globally, greater attention and more proactive intervention is necessary (in terms of prevention
planning) on the part of governments and NGOs, as set out by the World Bank & United Nations
(2010);
There needs to be investment and natural disaster prevention subsidies as well as authorities and
organizations who are directly responsible for preventing disasters, as this can significantly reduce the
number of victims and extent of material damage;
Lessons must be learnt from disasters and the post-disaster period should be an opportunity to
implement good practices in terms of land use and integrating flexible measures instead of rushing to
rebuild on a huge scale which, in some cases, may increase the vulnerability of local communities to
future events.
Among aspects which help to mitigate disasters, social capital is fundamental in creating the conditions
to reduce vulnerability, and consequently, the dependency of communities (or nations) on external
initiatives.
This is because social capital is paramount in creating the necessary social, economic and political
structures (including cooperation and inclusion in international networks) to foster socio-economic
development based on an agreed path of sustainable development. This in turn contributes to a reduction
of the level of risk communities are exposed to.
Furthermore, it is important to stress that an analysis of the spatial-temporal evolution of the data on
disasters shows that nations which have a higher gross national product (GDP), a more educated
population, more social and political freedom providing the conditions for effective and active
citizenship, and a more comprehensive financial system suffer fewer losses when extreme phenomena
occur which provoke natural disasters (vide, e.g., OXLEY, 2013; TOYA & SKIDMORE, 2007).
In terms of preventing natural disasters it is extremely important to create an appropriate context
involving pro-active measures where community adaptation to climate changes and to reducing
exposure to risk leads to both a reduction in vulnerability and, consequently, a reduction in the scale of
the socio-economic impacts which are evident today in poverty-stricken regions where disasters occur.
INDIAN GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES FOR ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
India is emerging both as an economic powerhouse and a global environmental leader. As India's
economy charges ahead, the country needs to produce more energy to provide a better life for its people,
many of whom live in rural areas and are very poor. At the same time, India has recognized that tackling
climate change is in its own national interests. The nation is taking concrete measures to constrain its
own emissions and to protect its people from climatic disruptions.
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NRDC's India Initiative on Climate Change and Clean Energy, launched in 2009, works with partners in
India to help build a low-carbon, sustainable economy.
Our work in India involves four interrelated projects, which build on decades of NRDC's experience
confronting environmental challenges in the United States and around the world.
NRDC Photos from India on Flickr
Enhancing U.S.-India Cooperation on Climate Change
India is already a major greenhouse gas emitter and key player in the international climate arena.
Cooperation between India and the United States on climate change and clean energy is improving
significantly. This growing relationship holds tremendous promise for the economies of both countries
and could serve as a model for enhanced global efforts to respond to the climate crisis.

NRDC is working with key policymakers in both nations to substantially increase bilateral
cooperation on climate change and clean energy.

In the United States, we are providing information and analysis to government officials, media,
and the public about the efforts India is making to address climate change. In India, we do the same
for U.S. climate change legislation, policies and programs. Our efforts are increasing awareness
and understanding in both nations about the other's climate change actions.
Increasing Building Efficiency
Buildings already account for more than 30 percent of India's electricity use, and two-thirds of the
buildings that will exist in India by 2030 have yet to be built. NRDC is partnering with Indian groups to
share our efficiency expertise on buildings and appliances, with the goal of creating efficiency solutions
for the Indian context.

In Hyderabad, a major high-tech center, we are working on the ground with city officials,
technical experts, real estate groups, universities and banks to increase building efficiency by
implementing India's Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC).

We are also engaging with energy experts to increase efficiency in India's booming consumer
appliance market by improving standards, testing, and harmonization -- making sure companies
sell their most efficient products in all countries -- for appliances such as televisions, air
conditioners and lighting.
Preparing for Public Health Impacts of Climate Change
Heat waves, floods, and infectious disease outbreaks are just some of the public health threats in India
that could by exacerbated by climate change. Communities need the ability to assess their own climaterelated public health risks and put effective adaptation measures into place.

NRDC is working on the ground with a premier Indian health organization to develop a climatehealth preparedness plan in a major Indian city, focused on preventing heat-related deaths and
illnesses.

We are working to assess the vulnerabilities of local communities to extreme heat events and to
develop municipal strategies for preparing and responding to climate emergencies.
Strengthening Environmental Governance

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India is working to bolster its institutional capacity to implement and enforce existing environmental
laws through efforts that include the new National Green Tribunal and proposals to improve
environmental compliance. Compliance with environmental laws is critical to constraining emissions.

NRDC is working with India's environmental groups and government officials to assist in these
critical efforts by sharing best practices to improve compliance, based on NRDC's experience in
the United States and elsewhere.
We are engaging with civil society groups and community organizations to better understand the
effects of India's rapid development on the environment and share comparative strategies for
reducing air and water pollution and protecting public health.

Environment
1.

Website of Ministry of Environment and Forests

The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) is the nodal agency in the administrative structure of
the Central Government for planning, promotion, co-ordination and overseeing the implementation of
India's environmental and forestry policies and programmes. Information on project clearances and
rules and regulation related to pollution, environmental protection, wildlife etc. is provided. Users can
get to know about actions and reports related to climate change and biodiversity conservation.
Information about major initiatives such as Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and
Planning Authority (CAMPA), National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) and National Ganga River
Basin Authority (NGRBA) is given. Details about the fellowships and awards by the MoEF are also
available.
2.

Website of Central Pollution Control Board

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) provides technical services to the Ministry of
Environment and Forests. The CPCB also promotes cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas
of the states by prevention, control and abatement of water pollution. Get details of environmental
standards, programmes, projects, etc. Find information on the boards functions such as preparing
manuals, maintain guidelines and organising trainings. Users can get details of the members of the
board, organisational structure, CPCB team, zonal offices, etc. Downloadable forms are also available.

3.

List of ENVIS Centres by Environment Information System

Awesome

A list of ENVIS Centres is provided by the Environment Information System (ENVIS). Users can can
get details related to ENVIS centres, their address, subjetc area, sub- network area and contact details.
Users can search for various ENVIS centres by entering first or last name of the Centre. Link to
discussion forum is also available.
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4.

Legislations on Environment, Forests and Wildlife

You can find the legislation related to the environment, forests and wildlife protection provided by the
Ministry of Environment and Forests. Users can find Acts and Rules pertaining to water pollution, air
pollution, environment protection, public liability insurance, animal welfare etc.

5.

Website of Ministry of Earth Sciences

Suggest Tags

Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) looks after atmospheric sciences, ocean science and technology and
seismology in an integrated manner. Details of programmes of Ministry of Earth Sciences like Antarctic
expeditions and polar science, Ocean observation and information services, etc is available. Users can
download application format for seminars, symposia, workshop, conference, etc. Know about Prithvi
Vigyan Mantralay Maulik Pustak Lekhan Yojana. Users can access important links like INDO-Korean
Partnership, Tsunami Report, NCAOR, CMLRE, NCMRWF, etc. Citizen charters, reports, circulars,
vacancy circular are also available for users.
6.

Website of National Green Tribunal

Users can get information about the National Green Tribunal and its various functions to protect the
environment in the country. Detailed information on the jurisdiction of the tribunal, judicial members,
expert members and chairpersons etc. is provided. One can also access the daily cause lists, orders, and
judgements etc.
7.

Environment protection by Bhakra Beas Management Board

Users can find information about environment protection by the Bhakra Beas Management Board with
details about the dams, hydropower and green power, environment management and the BBMB
projects. One can also get information about the generation of power from water, supply of clean water
for irrigation and drinking and maintenance of ecological balance etc.
8.

Website of Department of Environment of Tamil Nadu

The Department of Environment (DoE) of Tamil Nadu is the nodal Agency for planning, promotion,
coordination and overseeing the implementation of all the aspects of environment other than those dealt
with Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board. Users can find information related to environment policies,
schemes, programmes, environment clearance, legislation, treaties, etc. Details about environmental
awards and projects are also given.

9.

Information on National Environment Appellate Authority

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The National Environment Appellate Authority (NEAA) was set up by the Ministry of Environment and
Forests to address cases in which environment clearances are required in certain restricted areas. Users
can get details related to the Authority, its functions, act, etc.
10.

Website of Environment Department of West Bengal

The Environment Department of West Bengal undertakes responsibilities for the betterment of the
environment and ecology, prevention and control of pollution of air, water and land, co-ordination
between Departments and Agencies of the state and the union government concerned with policies and
schemes relating to environment. Users can find details related to water quality report, air quality report,
environmental clearance, West Bengal State Action Plan on Climate Change, etc. Details about the
department, its activities, associations, legislation, industrial sitting policy, achievements, etc. are also
available.
11.

Website of Environmental Information System of Assam

Environmental Information System (ENVIS) provides environmental information to decision makers,
policy planners, scientists, engineers, research workers, etc. in Assam. Information related to biodiversity, water resources, demography, hazards and geographical profile of the state is given. Users can
get details related to land resources, energy, agriculture, health, tourism, soild waste, etc. Information
about Parivesh Bijnan Abhidhan, Assam forest policy, environmental NGOs, ENVIS state centres, etc.
is also available.

12.

Website of Department of Environment and Forest of Arunachal Pradesh

Department of Environment and Forest of Arunachal Pradesh is responsible for forest management and
maintenance of ecological and environment security in the state. Information about organizational chart,
forest statistics, reports, notifications, etc. is given. Users can get details related to wildlife, flora and
fauna, protected areas, tourism, etc.
13.

Environment Protection Training and Research Institute of Andhra Pradesh

The Environment Protection Training and Research Institute (EPTRI) is involved in various activities
covering environmental issues such as protected areas, biodiversity, urban agglomeration,
environmental awareness, research, etc. Users can get details related to EPTRI services, projects,
training programmes, research, etc. Information about career, tenders, Right to Information act (RTI),
enviornment reports, etc. is also available.

14.

Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority

Get information about the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority.
Users can get information related to account openings, establishment guidelines, meetings, financial
statements and annual plans etc.

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15.

Information on National River Conservation Plan

The National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)
aims at preventing pollution of rivers and improving water quality. Users can access information on
specific action plans for various rivers, details of sewage treatment plants, water quality monitoring and
implementing agencies.
16.

Information about Department of Environment of Chandigarh

The Department of Environment of Chandigarh is responsible for creating environment education and
awareness amongst all sections of society and to frame policies or guidelines to concerned authorities to
prohibit the degradation of environment. Users can obtain information on environment education
training, institutional support, public participation, research and development, protection and
conservation of resources, etc. Details related to national green corps and ENVIS (Environment
Information System) Centre are also available.

17.

Website of Indian Meteorological Society

Detailed information about the Indian Meteorological Society is provided. Information about the IMS's
organization structure, activities and constitution is provided. Users can also access information
pertaining to the Council, recent events, memberships and weather observation etc. Membership form is
also available for enrollment.

18.

Website of Ocean Science and Technology Cell

Detailed information about the Ocean Science and Technology Cell is provided. Information related to
the thrust areas in which the cell is working, infrastructure, projects and management board is given.
Details of funding support, people and events are available.
19.

Website of National Institute of Ocean Technology

Get information about the National Institute of Ocean Technology. Users can access detailed
information about the coastal and environment engineering, marine sensor system, marine science,
ocean electronics etc. is available. Details of operational programmes are available. Ocean watch is also
provided for cruise schedule and vessel request.

20.

Website of National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research

Waste Minimisation Circle (WMC) programme of National Productivity Council (NPC) provides
information on waste and emission minimisation and recycling of waste. Information on initiatives
taken on pollution prevention and training package, environmental management and environmental
pollutants from industry etc. is available. Details regarding Waste Minimisation Council Facilitators are
also vailable. Users can find presentation slides and video on waste minimisation in pulp and paper, etc.
Get information on case exercises, case studies, poster gallery, WMC achievements, structure, policy,
information sources, newsletter, poster gallery etc. Contact details are also available.
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21.

Website of National Clean Development Mechanism Authority

The Bretton Woods Institutions and the Environment:
Organizational Learning within the World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
International organizations are important actors of global governance. This is especially true for the
World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Since their foundation at the Bretton Woods
conference in 1944, the spheres of competences of these international economic organizations have
been growing. Thus, the World Bank and the IMF are today not only influential actors in the fields of
economic development but also in adjoining policy fields, such as environmental policy. That the
Word Bank and, to a lesser degree, the IMF are also responsible for the issue of environmental
protection can be explained with the fact that their structural adjustment programs hadand often still
havesevere consequences for the environment. For example, the World Bank was vehemently
criticized by environmental non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in the 1980s for having financed
projects in Latin America or Southeast Asia, e.g., in Brazil and Indonesia, that had disastrous effects
on the environment [13]. The member states of the Bretton Woods institutions have reacted to the
public pressure and requested the bureaucracies of both international organizations to address
environmental issues more adequately.
Subsequently, both international organizations have started to turn towards the issues of
environmental protection. In our article, we will analyze if the reactions of the World Banks and the
IMFs bureaucracies to their principals demands qualify as organizational learning. An organizational
learning approach allows us to analyze whether changes occur merely as compliance with external
demands or as a result of internal organizational reflection triggered by external demands. Herewith,
international organizations can be assessed as superficial or profound learners according to their
responses to external demands that can range from pure obedience to conscious implementation.
Further, we will ask which factors helped or hindered the organizational learning of international
bureaucracies. Thus, we want to contribute to the research strand of organizational learning in two
ways:
(1) theoretically, we want to introduce a model of organizational learning that allows us to assess
whether changes occur on a rather formal institutional level or if external demands to integrate
environment requirements change international organizations guiding assumptions and beliefs.
In our model, we distinguish between compliant and non-compliant learning and assume that
organizations can learn even if they do not comply with an external demand. We argue that
(international) organizations can deliberately decide to resist an external demand and pressure
if an (international) organization is convinced that its present organizational beliefs are superior
and should not be undermined and weakened. Furthermore, our theoretical framework of
organizational learning allows us to assess whether organizational changes are a result of
obedience or conviction;
(2) empirically, we concentrate on international organizations and their bureaucracies, which most
studies on organizational learning seem to have disregarded so far (see for exeptions, [4,5]).
Thus, we open the organizational learning debate for international organizations whichdespite
sharing some similaritiesdiffer in many ways from individual-based organizations as their
members are both individuals in international bureaucracies and states as formal members
according to international law [6]. This distinction allows us to show how organizational learning
takes place within international organizations, namely at the level of international bureaucracies.
The Banks Environmental Reform of 1987 and Its Meager Results
In view of the criticism of some of the member states and of environmental NGOs concerning
World Bank-financed ecological disasters in Brazil, India, and Indonesia ([73], p. 306), the new
president of the World Bank, Barber Conable (19861991), admitted in 1987 that the Bank had been
a part of the problem in the past and announced environmental reforms ([73], p. 306). Thus, the
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Bank increased its environmental staff and established a central environment department. Further, it
announced new environmental policies and launched environmental action plans to review and address
environmental problems in the most vulnerable developing countries. Also, the Bank increased lending
for environmentally beneficial projects ([73], p. 306; [74], p. 103). At that time, tropical deforestation
was the most urgent crisis in the developing world. Hence, Conable committed the Bank to drastically
increase its forestry lending ([73], p. 309). Furthermore, Conable championed an independent study
that, in 1992, confirmed earlier criticisms ([3], p. 30).
In addition, binding environmental safeguards were introduced in 1987 to provide guidance for staff
in identifying and preparing projects and to promote sustainable development in client countries ([75],
p. 22);
see for the establishment of the Bank's safeguard policy [76]). The safeguard policies were put in place
to prevent or mitigate adverse impacts of its projects on people and the environment ([77], p. xiii).
Thus, decisions on granting projects were bound to obligatory environmental guidelines defining a
minimum standard of protection for projects financed by the World Bank. Therewith, also
environmental impact assessments of projects became mandatory ([66], p. 234, 247; [74], pp. 112115).
Thus, the Banks official approach shifted from business as usual to do no harm ([67], p. 539).
However, the adoption of the safeguard policies did not prevent the Banks involvement in
environmentally controversial projects ([74], p. 102, see also [76], pp. 6476). The staff praised the
safeguard policies as a milestone in the World Banks environmental turnaround, but realized that
more needs to be done to reinforce borrower compliance ([74], p. 113). Similarly, the Banks
Operations Evaluation Department (OED), an independent unit within the Bank that reports directly to
the executive board, detected that safeguard procedures were not always implemented wholeheartedly
by the World Bank project staff ([74], p. 113). The OED was established in 1973, in 2006 it was
renamed Independent Evaluation Group (IEG) ([74], p. 127).
In this time period, from the mid-1980s until the mid-1990s, the Banks bureaucracy learned from
its errors of the past and thus introduced several environmental reforms. Therewith, the official
approach shifted from business as usual to do no harm. However, only the espoused theory changed
and we can, again, observe single-loop learning: the reform announced by the Bank president did not
alter the daily practices of the administration. Thus, the independent OED had to notice that the
environmental safeguards were not implemented wholeheartedly by the staff. This illustrates that the
theory-in-use of the administration remained unchanged. That the administration complied only partly
with the environmental demands posed by the member states can be explained with its independent
culture and agendas for action ([22], p. 705).
Even though the environmental reform of 1987 can be regarded as a small step in the right
direction, it neither satisfied environmental NGOs nor the executive board ([1], p. 260). According to
Nielson and Tierney ([1], p. 259), it failed to alter core Bank practice. Likewise, Rich ([73], p. 308)
observes a green rhetoric that hides a reality that is largely unchanged. This can be exemplified with
the Banks failed tropical forestry action plan that appeared mainly to be a plan to promote
traditional, export-oriented timber industry investment camouflaged by small components for
environmental purposes ([73], p. 310). Further, the announced involvement of NGOs was not
effectively put in practice ([73], p. 324).
According to Rich ([73], p. 317), there were several institutional considerations that prevented the
Bank from implementing the reforms in a meaningful way. For example, the Banks environmental
effectiveness had been undermined by the senior management that at several occasions overruled the
demands of the environmental staff. Furthermore, qualified personnel to conduct the environmental
assessments was lacking, and the environmental department was not effectively integrated into the
administrative level of the Bank ([1], p. 260). In addition to these internal constraints, also the
borrowing countries from the developing world like Brazil, India, and Indonesia, and their executive
directors opposed the Banks attempt to incorporate greater environmental conditionality ([73], p. 320).
3.4. Renewed Efforts to Incorporate the Environment under Wolfensohns Presidency and beyond
(19952007)
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Also in the third time period (19952007), only the Banks espoused theory had changed; thus,
single-loop learning is at hand. The Banks official approach changed from do no harm to promoting
the good, and the bureaucracy of the Bank strengthened its efforts on environmental integration.
President Wolfensohn (19952005) reacted to the external criticism and started to hire qualified
environmental staff. Most importantly, also the internal monitoring and evaluation procedures were
strengthened to better control the secretariat and to ensure compliance with the environmental
safeguard policies. While the Bank under Wolfensohns leadership had announced that the integration
of the environment is essential to reach the Banks development goals, the administration regarded this
official reorientation towards environmental protection as merely a rhetorical policy statement. The
staffs reluctant behavior towards environmental requirements illustrates that the theory-in-use did not
change. In the following, we will describe this process in further detail.
Already since the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in
1992, the World Bank has strengthened its commitment to the environment ([78], p. 1). In the
mid-1990s, the Banks executive board decided to incorporate the environment into the Banks
sectoral programs (e.g., transport), and the Banks bureaucracy was required to ensure that all Bank
activities take environmental concerns into account ([78], p. 6). The Bank emphasized that at the
beginning of the 1990s its do no harm approach of the 1980s has turned into a proactive agenda
aimed at promoting good today ([78], p. 22). Consequently, the number of staff was increased and
the type of staff hired by the Bank changed in so far as more environmental economists and engineers
as well as biologists were employed. Hence, the executive board could be more certain that the Bank
staff had the ability to analyze environmental impacts of projects ([1], p. 263).
Further, the Bank reacted to the broad and continuous criticism of its activities by improving the
monitoring and evaluation procedures ([1], p. 260; [75], p. 13). Most of all, the secretariats autonomy
was seen as problematic ([74], p. 118). To better control the secretariat, the executive board
established an independent inspection panel in 1993 to hear complaints from groups that were directly
affected by World Bank projects ([66], pp. 233237). External actors may use the inspection procedure
to verify whether a project is in consistency with the binding safeguards of the Bank ([66], p. 235).
The inspection panel has a further effect: Because external actors bring outside information to the
inspection panel and thus the executive board [], board members found it much easier to get
information about the likely impacts of Bank projects before the projects were implemented ([1], p.
263).
Like the binding environmental safeguards, the inspection panel was initiated to restrain the
secretariats room for maneuver ([66], p. 233) and welcomed by scholars [79].
In addition, it was decided in 1994 that each project with a potential environmental impact was
assigned an environmental project manager who assessed the environmental impact and had to send an
evaluation report to the executive board ([1], p. 264). In 1997, the Bank regrouped ten operational
policies as specific safeguard policies (six environmental, two social, and two legal policies) and put in
place administrative procedures to support compliance with the safeguard policies ([71], p. 3). To
provide additional oversight of safeguards quality in Bank projects, the Bank created a separate
quality and assurance compliance unit in 1999 ([77], p. xiv). However, a report of several NGOs ([80],
p. 1)
showed that the Banks environmental, health and safety guidelines for mining in some cases [] do
not even meet the mining industrys best practices standards.
Besides this restructuring, the Wolfensohn presidency was shaped by a rationalization that has
indirectly weakened the implementation of environmental objectives. In 1996, decision powers were
transferred to country directors. As a result, environmental safeguards have been applied with varying
vigor across World Bank operations, and it depended on regional teams in the borrowing countries in
how far the environmental impacts of Bank projects were monitored ([74], p. 126; cf., [67], p. 540).
Not all staff members insisted on strict compliance with the safeguard policies; according to an
investigation
of the inspection panel some regarded them simply as idealized policy statements ([81], p. 23).
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Also the Banks evaluation department complained that environmental protection was not fully
institutionalized at the whole administration and detected several institutional problems with the
integration of environmental concerns. Therefore, the OED required serious institutional changes from
the administration that actually poured into the first environmental strategy of the World Bank
published in 2001 [82]. Consequently, the environmental strategy addressed some significant problems
the Bank had had with environmental mainstreaming. Central to this environmental strategy is the
understanding that if we want development to succeed environment cannot be afterthought ([75], p. 7).
Adm. Sci. 2013, 3 183
First of all, the strategy paper criticized that the environment had only been the concern of a small,
specialized group ([75], p. 3). In this context, it was queried that Bank professionals often saw
environmental issues as a self-standing agenda and not as an element of their core tasks of supporting
development and poverty reduction ([75], p. 311). The safeguard system was seen as an essential tool
for integrating environmental concerns into development policies, programs, and projects. Therefore, it
was planned to improve the quality and consistency of the application of safeguard policies ([75], p.
25).
To enhance its record on environmental integration, some further institutional changes were seen as
essential, like establishing clear lines of responsibility and incentives throughout the organization. In
this context, the training of environmental as well as non-environmental staff had been announced and
green awards were promised as incentives for non-environmental specialists in order to mainstream
environment into their operations. In addition, the Banks incentive system rewarded outputsthe
preparation and approval of investment projectswhile the supervision and evaluation of projects
were disregarded ([74], p. 126).
Even though president Wolfensohn was identified as a trigger for positives changes ([74], p. 129)
and also Greenpeace [83] admitted that the World Bank under Wolfensohns leadership has started to
understand environmental issues the Banks activities under Wolfensohns leadership were criticized
by environmental NGOs. For example, Greenpeace [83] regretted that [t]here is a huge gap between
the rhetoric and goodwill of current World Bank President James Wolfensohn, and the organisations
Board of Governors where the real power lies with the donor countries finance ministers. In addition,
the WWF [84] in 2004 noticed that oil and coal projects funded by the Bank were not contributing to
the institutions mission of poverty alleviation but were, in fact, creating more environmental, social
and economic problems for the countries they are supposed to benefit. The Banks focus on fossil fuel
projects was also criticized by Friends of the Earth in 2006 [85].
Although a number of reforms to green the Bank had been implemented [85], also the Banks
internal evaluation showed that environmental mainstreaming in the World Bank was rather
disappointing. Thus, the evaluation department was skeptical on environmental integration at the
beginning of the 2000s and reiterated its criticism that environmental concerns were not integrated into
the Banks core objectives and country strategies ([67], p. 542). According to the internal evaluation
reports, the slow rate of environmental mainstreaming can be explained with the fact that the Banks
staff did not prioritize environmental sustainability and continued not to see environmental as integral
to their operations ([67], p. 543). In a similar vein, Weaver argues that while the World Bank was
active in trying to green its image, changes in the real operational practices of the Bank were less
visible ([86], p. 504), and also Nielson et al. [87] notice that [c]hanging core values and beliefs about
the importance of environmental [] outcomes has been slow. However, even if the observed
changes were rather minor and the staffs views concerning environmental protection did not seem to
have changed, we argue that the Banks efforts at least meet the requirements of single-loop learning.
3.5. The Safeguard Policies as the Banks Cornerstone to Protect the Environment (20082012)
Still today, the evaluations of the World Banks activities on the issues of environmental protection
are rather mixed. Even though some environmental NGOs and Banks shareholders point to several
positive developments (e.g., the Banks improved engagement concerning the integration of
Adm. Sci. 2013, 3 184
environmental aspects into large infrastructure projects [88], its work on the issue of climate change
and climate change adaptation in least developed countries [8991]), the Bank gets criticized for not
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meeting all environmental requirements and even for doing severe harm to the environment.
For example, the WWF [92] in 2012 criticized the Banks financing for fossil fuels, the single biggest
source of CO2 emissions and Friends of the Earth even argues that the World Bank as
a carbon-intense lender and promoter of deforestation [] has far more experience causing climate
change than preventing it ([93], p. 12). In a similar vein, scholars point out that the Banks overall
environmental record is mixed ([74], p. 131) and that its sustainable development identity is neither
fixed nor stable ([76], p. 58).
Nevertheless, we argue that the example of the Banks safeguard policiesthat officially have
become the cornerstone of the Banks efforts to protect people and environment ([71], p. 2)shows
that there is at least some evidence of double-loop learning within the World Bank. In this case, the
changed attitude of the Banks bureaucracy towards the safeguard policies and its renewed and
strengthened activities on the issueinduced by the Independent Evaluation Group (IEG, see
above)seem to qualify as double-loop learning. In the following, we will shed some light on this
more recent development that could be decisive for the Banks future environmental performance.
In 2008, the environmental performance of the World Bank from 19902007 was evaluated by the
IEG. On the one hand, the evaluation group noted that the Bank has made progress since 1990 as an
advocate for the environment ([94], p. 1). On the other hand, the IEG remarked that the Bank had not
been able to integrate environmental stewardship sufficiently into its operations ([95], p. iii).
Consequently, the IEG demanded that environmental sustainability must become a core part of the
World Bank Groups strategic directions ([95], p. iii).

NGOS AND THEIR IMPACT ON GLOBAL POLICIES

Medium-sized wealthy states middle powers and global civil society networks are increasingly
joining forces to influence the global policy agenda on issues of international law, justice,
humanitarianism and development. These middle powerNGO coalitions use the comparative
advantages of both state and nonstate actors in synergistic partnerships. States represent the coalitions'
interests in international negotiations and conferences, provide donor funding and offer diplomatic
support. For their part, NGOs gather on-the-ground research, provide technical expertise, lobby
governments, mobilise public opinion and generate media publicity. This article uses the case of the
campaign to ban cluster munitions, culminating in the 2008 Convention on Cluster Munitions, to
examine the organisation, efforts and impact of such middle powerNGO coalitions.

Policy Implications
In a globalised and privatised world, global policy making requires a mastery of 'network
diplomacy' the negotiation of a wide range of relationships with state, NGO and commercial actors.
Within this context, coalitions between middle power states and international NGOs are becoming
increasingly influential in the creation of international law and humanitarian norms.
Within this context, coalitions between middle power states and international NGOs are
becoming increasingly influential in the creation of international law and humanitarian norms.
These coalitions are most effective when they create strong linkages and partnerships between
these states and civil society actors at all levels (officials, parliamentarians, politicians, etc.) based on
their comparative advantages.
Since these coalitions lack significant coercive hard military and economic power they
are more likely to succeed in their global policy goals when they reframe the debate, gather and
publicise credible data, shift the burden of proof and use both backroom and public media persuasion.
NGOs contribute most to such coalitions when they are able to present a unified front across a
diverse range of civil society actors, when they are inclusive of and driven by those directly affected by
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the problem they are seeking to address and when they maintain some independence from their
government and other donors.

The Role of NGOs in Modern Societies.

Increasingly, the existence of NGOs is proving to be a necessity rather than a luxury in societies
throughout the modern world. I believe that the history of the 20th century persuasively
demonstrated the inabilityof the welfare state and free enterprise to create just and sustainable
societies. Prompted by the inadequacies of the state and the market, citizens across the globe
have developed organizations of civil society NGOs to help address a wide variety of social
needs.
I believe that NGOs have three primary roles in advancing modern societies.First, NGOs
provideopportunity for the self-organization of society.NGOs enable citizens to work together
voluntarily to promote social values and civic goals which are important to them.They promote
local initiative and problem-solving.Through their work in a broad array of fields environment,
health, poverty alleviation, culture & the arts, education, etc. NGOs reflect the diversity of
society itself.They are established and sustained by individuals working collectively in their
communities. By empowering citizens and promoting change at the grass roots, NGOs both
represent and advance the pluralism and diversity that are characteristic of vibrant and
successful modern societies.
Second, NGOs preserve a unique and essential space between the for-profit sector and
government. Clearly private enterprise is efficient at producing goods
and private wealth.Government is best when it focuses on providing and
managing public goods.The nonprofit, nongovernmental sector helps fulfill the commongood.A
vibrant third sector provides a fulcrum for balancing the state and the free market.This middle
ground is an essential arena for promoting additional checks and balances in society.Only
independent organizations can serve as watchdogs of both government and business. At the same
time, NGOs can build creative and productive partnerships across and among the three sectors
partnerships that draw on the unique strengths of each to advance the common good.
Finally, NGOs enable experimentation and social change by taking on challenges that that the
public and private sectors simply cant or wont.Civil society organizations are able to take risks
that are economically unacceptable to business and politically unacceptable to government. In
modern societies across the globe, countless innovations pioneered by NGOs have subsequently
been adopted as government policy.Numerous models of service delivery that are considered
best practice today were devised, tested, and improved over many years of experimentation by
NGOs.In addition, NGO advocacy campaigns induce reluctant governments to adopt policy
reforms and force improvements in business practices.
As modernizing economies increasingly shift to free markets and private enterprise, they often
experience a decline in social cohesion and an increase in economic and social inequity. In these
circumstances the nongovernmental sector has proven to be an essential mitigating force that
helps create a healthier balance between the potential excesses of capitalism and the
inefficiencies and limited resources of the state. This has certainly been the case in my own
country.
V. Reflections on the US experience
Indeed, a vibrant civil society is deeply entwined in the history and traditions of the US.Writing
in 1831, the young French politician Alexis de Tocqueville first documented what was then a
distinctly American tradition of civil society when he wrote that Americans of all ages, all
stages of life, and all types of disposition are forever forming associations.In America,

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Tocqueville found a society of joiners and a rich mosaic of clubs, associations, and organizations
organized and managed through volunteerism, individual leadership, and collective effort.
Throughout U.S. history, NGOs have played a powerful role - growing out of our values of
participation, engagement, and responsibility.Civil society has provided a means through which
Americans are able to reconcile two distinctively American social traits:our fervent
individualism and our equally passionate communalism.The impact has been profound.
In a book published three years ago, Claire Gaudiani (the former president of
ConnecticutCollege) argues that, if it hadnt been for the work of the nonprofit sector in the
United States, our country would not enjoy the high standard of living we now know. Citizen
generosity in the form of philanthropy and citizen engagement through NGOs, she says, have
created an environment where private enterprise could flourish without destroying the social
fabric of our society.
One might think that the United States, with its economic success, high standard of living and
robust nongovernmental sector has concluded its journey toward being a balanced, healthy,
modern society. This is clearly not the case, as the recent hurricanes on our Gulf coast have
tragically demonstrated.In the wake of these devastating storms, all three sectors of our society
have been sorely tested and found deficient.But it is also true that the human suffering caused by
these storms would have been far worse without the huge outpouring of generosity from the
American public and the quick response of NGOs.
The vital importance of the nonprofit sector is certainly not an exclusively American experience.
There are powerful examples of how the nonprofit sector contributes to healthy and efficient
societies throughout the world.As an American living in Prague and working throughout Central
and Eastern Europe in the 1990s, I observed with great admiration how NGOs helped transform
and modernize their countries.The same has occurred in South Africa, in Brazil in fact, in
countries on every continent.
According to data compiled by researchers at JohnsHopkinsUniversitythe civil society sector in
36 countries for which they have assembled data represents a $1.3 trillion industry.If the civil
society sector were a separate national economy, it would be the worlds seventh largest, slightly
smaller than France and larger than Italy in GDP.Organizations of civil society employ 45.5
million people, or almost one out of every twenty employable people in the world.The data from
Johns Hopkins demonstrates that civil society is a significant presence in nearly every country
and region.
VI. Role of NGOs in increasingly interdependent world
We live in an age of growing global interdependence.There have been many clear benefits in
economic terms, in the spread of information and knowledge, and in the deeper connections of
what has been called planetary society.But we also now face a set of profound global threats
to human security and prosperity; and to the sustainability of our planet from the spread of
deadly weapons to the spread of deadly disease; from global warming, to the persistence of
pernicious poverty.These problems are not contained by national borders and even the largest
and most powerful countries increasingly find they are unable to address these challenges
without the help of what we now call the international community.
I think one of the most promising aspects of global interdependence is the rapid development
and growing importance, of global or transnational civil society.Economic globalization has
far outpaced political globalization as we have yet to devise effective and democratic institutions
and processes of global governance. Global civil society is helping to fill this critical vacuum,
providing the means through which citizens can influence the forces that are so profoundly

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shaping our world.Trans-national NGOs are promoting equity in global trade regimes, protecting
our planets ecosystems, and contributing to the development of a global social safety net.
Examples of the impact of global civil society abound The international ban on the use of landmines was ushered in by a dedicated group of
international NGOs
Much of the progress made on combating the spread of HIV/AIDS can be attributed to
civil society.
And, if we are to save our planet from global warming, I am certain NGOs will help lead
the way.
As globalization proceeds and the world becomes increasingly interdependent, the decisions of
global civil society groups have increasing significance in our daily lives. They give expression
to citizen concerns, hold governments and multi-national corporations accountable, promote
community, address unmet needs, and improve the quality of life. In doing so, they promote both
political stability and economic prosperity.Global civil society is making globalization more
equitable, inclusive, and sustainable.

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