AIR POLLUTION MANUAL

Pa

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Published

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Am eflcan lndustrial Hygiene Association

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Copyright 1969
by

A-r,trnrcax Ixnusrmar Hycmxr AssocrarroN

printed

in U.S,A.

3?/gsf
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Copies availabie from:

George

D. Clayton, Executive
14L25

prevost

Secretarv
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AIdmrcAN Lvpusrnrer. Hyerexe- Assoqerrorv.

Detoit, Michigan 4g222
price $15.00

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PREFACE

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THIS VIANUAL is ttrb second in a two-volume set on the zubject of Air Pollution.
Volume I covers tle geoeral aspects oj air qollution, its efiects; sampiing, and
administration of control progralns. This Volume is concerned solbly- with the
equipment for conkol of air pollutibn sourcesi It is written for the'practicing

plant or process engineer.

' rn deslibing coJuol-equipment,_the au$op hav-_e attempted to provide enough
information so the reader may understand the collection mechani-sms u.tilized L
the equipment he is considering, and may select the appropriate type of equipment for the problem at hand. Discussion of the major ;nrometeiJof per}onirance, it is hoped, will be helpfuJ in evaluation of performance, rn maintponce;
and in bouble shooting, as well zu in. the originai. selection o[ equipment.
Confrol of automobile exhaust as a source of air pollution ii omitted from this
book. This subject is not covered because the source is essentiall.7 nonind1156ix1,
because the application will be by regulatory Iaw wi&out much applicafion engrneering to indinidual cases, and because the technology is in a rapidly developing
state of flux as this book is being written. For similar reasons, cont'ol of open
burning is also ordtted.
In addition to the descriplons of major classes of control equipmeut, severa.l
innovations have been made for a manual of this type. Chapter-2 attempts to
build a foundation of particie techrology for better'understandihg of the mechanisms of equipment described later. Chapter 3 highlights the number and
importance of the various process engineering factors that affect the selection
'and perfornnance of control equipment
In Chapter 12, an attempt is made,to present a rational philosophy for performanee testing. Speciffc test methods and codes vary widely in applicability, originate from a large variety of organizations and are constantly being set forth or
revised. It is our hope that an understanding of pu4>ose and objective of performance testing, and some of the general pidails tl:erein, will dnabie the engineer
to more intelligentiy use auy applicable codes, or provid,e guideiines for testing
in areas that are not covered.
At the end of the Manual, Chapter 13 dilcusses t{re botheqsome sublect of ffnal
disposal of conta:rdnant that has beei removed fiom a gas tci'pievqg! an_-qir.pollution problem. This subject in itself is so broad as to defy complete coverage
except in an additional book, but ChaErter.l3 should serve at least as a rer,rinder
that something must be done; and a biJad guride ai to what can be done. Altiiough
this manual was, o&erwise. written by AIIIA. members, we are indebted to Dr.
C. Fred Gur:nham, Illinois,'Institute of Technolo gr, for this chapter.
.;
In spite of innovations,:the nain theme+of this work is the control equipmeut
itself, covered' in Chapters 4 thrmgb 11. "Of these eight &+ptii'6 the, firJt four
are devoted to equipment tFpes uiually usid fo-r collecting particulate air contamiuants, and the latier group is-devot&to.con&ol of:gaseou512:Tuagix .r{qinates, In general the equipment classes are based oa ,thdpredominatihg phyiieal
and chemical phenomena that separate eontaminant from carrier gas. Unfortunately, most sir pollution control devices utilize two or more of these phenome-na,
and which is "predominaut" is sometimes a moot point. Rigid adherence to iliis
theoretical classiffcation scheme would lead to a complex hierarchy, confusing
and of little practiepl use to tha Utended reader. Accoidingly, it wdll be obr.ious
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PREFACE

lo
tu already-expert reader that
kind

in
instances, the relesatiou of a speci-fic
-rrranyof machine to one or another ciass of equipment has beia rather arbitr'r.y.
Mosi of the commiitee members, both present and past, contibuted significantiy
to the efort. Those who authored various sections or subsectioos
oo*

"r-th.,

exist are:

Deyo M. Al.oeRSoN
Indusbial Health Engineering

Div.
Bethlehem Steel Corporaiion
Bethlehern, Pennsylvania
Cnarurs E. Bu.uvcs
Manager
Aerosol Physics Department
GCA Corporation
Bedford, Massachusetts

$i

Brool,rs,p
of Occupational Health

BrnNeru D.

Ms.vnr W. Fmsr
Harvard school of public Health
6&5 Hunting.ton Avenue
Boston, -Vlaisachusetts

C. Fnxp Gr::aNne.w
Professor of Environmental Engineering

Illinois Instjtute of TechaologyChicago, Illinois

Rosffir A. Hmmcr<
Asst. Air Pollution Control Engrneer
Bethlehem Steel Corporation

Dirrision

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Michigan Department of Public Health Bethlehem, Pennsylvir.,ro*

Deym E. BoNN
Manager, Dust Contol Products
American Air Filter Company, Inc.
Louiswille, Kentucfu

Roamr A. Brre
Chief Engineer
Fluid Purifi cation Division
MSA Research Cortrrcration
Evans City, Pennsylvania

KNowlroN J. Carux

Chairmaa)

(Committee

Manager, hoduct Development

Carter Day C,omoanv

Henor.p J.

University of ilIinnesota
Peur W. Sperrr
Chief, Process Controi Engineering
Division of Air Pollution
U. S: Public Health Service
Cinoinnati, Ohio

Annrun C. Srrnx
I,lational Ceuter for Air Pollutiou Contol
U. S. Public l{ealth Service
g,ra5hington, D. C.
Jom^r E.

Pittsburgh,

Company
Pennsyivaaia

us

trvlinneapolis, Minnesota

Minneapoiis, Mdneiota

$in9 Safgtf Appliances

P*n

Professor, School of Public Health

yocou

Traveldrs Research Center

Hardord, Connecticut

In addi,tion, Messrs. Paulus and spaite assisted in the editorjal worli.

Presumably, this manual will be revised periodically as new-Efor:nra.tiou becomes availabie. Coutributions and commints from read'ds are inr.ite:d-=*
K,xowr.roN j. C:rrr-eN
CEemaeN,

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AIR POLLUTION COMMITTEE II

-})NTROL

EQUTPMENT
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196F67

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Csa-ar,rs E. Br,uxcs
B. D, Br.oolmu.o

R. A" I{rxnre',
Jornr F.KNtlosr..r:

Davm

Ila.noro.]. Perrrus",
Wu-r.re,lr. M. Su:rrr

BowN

RosEar A. BUB
J(.rowr-roN J. Carr-r'v
'.rVrrymr W. Fmsr

P.Lur,W.

Sperru

Anrrrtin C- SryN

C- FRED Crrnvseu,

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E. R. Hrlronrssox

JonN

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E-Yocol,l

Prior Mernbers

Darro

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ArornsoN

Jornr Lrsrow

Bscmrgacg

R. B. EvaNs

Geoncr

W. B. Henrus
H. ]. I{rrnrm
Euomrr H. Knecxow

DoNer,p M. Ross

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
)

The authors of this edition of the AIEIA Air PolluUon Maaual wish to acknowledge the generous help of ttre many- peopie who aided them in preprylg this
volume. We are particulariy appreciative of the efiorts of Knowlton J. Capian
who, in ad&tion to his coutibution as an author, also acted as general editor of
the Manual. Harold J. Paulus and PauI W, Spaite reviewed the fina.I manuscript
f or techaical accuracy.
We are indebted to the manufacturers and individuals' who provided the
drawings and phot<-'graphs used in the illustr'ations.
Speciai appreciation also is expressed to the Technical Publications Com'nittee
*odits chail-mau, Lee B. Fosdick, and to Ellen Thro for finai edititg and produc:
tion guidance in publishing this volume.

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TAELE OF CONTENTS

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1. INTRODUCTIO|{
2.

2-6

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acteristics,22

Concentraton, 10

PROCESS FACTORS AFFECTING

E QUIPIvIENT SELECTION ........................

3.1

Conhol Equipment Types, 16

3.1.1 Filters, 16
3.I.2 Electrical Precipitators,

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3.6.9 Corrtaminant Toxici.ty, 24

3.6.10 Particle Si2e, Shape, and DensitY, 24
3.6.11 Contaminant Hygroscopicity, 25
3.6.12 Aggiomera,ting Characteristics of
the Contaminant, 25
3.6.13 Flow Properties of the Contam-

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17

3.1.3 Cyclones, 17
3.1.4 &techanical Collectors, 17
3.1.5 Wet Collectors ( Scrubbers ), 17
3.1.6 Adsorbers, 17
3.1.7 Combustion, 18
3.2 Contoi Equipment Selection, 18
3.2.1 Amount of Contaminant Discharged to Atrrosphere,

ihant,25
3.6.14 Catalyst Poisoaing

3.7 Representative Sample of

18

3.4

Eqtiipment Selection, 19
Properties of the Carrier Gai, 19
3.4.1 Carrier Gas Comlrcsition, 19
3.4.2 Carrier Gas Terrperature, 19
3.4.3 Carrier Gas Pressure,20
3.4.4 Carrier Gas Viscosity,2l
3.4.5 Cairier Gas Density,21
3.4.6 Carrier Gas H,midity,21
3.4.1 Carrier Gas Combustibility, 21
3.4.8 Carrier Gas Reactivi'ty, 21
3.4.9 Carrier Gas Toxicity,'21
3.4.10 ElecHcal and Soaic Properties of

3.5 Flow Characteristics of the

Carrier

3.5.1 Carrier Gas FIow Rate, 22

3.5.2 Variatoris in Carrier Gas Flow
3.5.3

Ratq 22
Changes iir
ties. 22

@rrier

Gas Proper-

Contam-

inant,25

3.2.2 Amoint of Contiminant Entering the Coilector,

by ttre Con-

taminant,25

18

3.2.3 Collector EflEcieucy, 18

3.2.4 Collector Seltrction, 18
3.3 kocess Characterization in Control

Properties of the Contaminant, 23

3.6.1 Contaminan-t Composition,' 23

3.6.2 Contaminant Loa&ng,23

3.6.3, -Contaminant'rPhase, 23
3.6.4 Contauiinani Soliibility, 23
3.6.5 - Contaminant Sorbabfity, 23
3.6.6 Contaminant Combustibfity, 24.
3.6.7 Contaminant Reactivity, ?i
3.6.8 Elecrical and Sonic Properties
of the Contamiiant,24

C,as,22

3.6

2.7 Mechanisms of CaPture, 11

3.

?age

3.5.4 Reiationship to Aii llover Char-

2.3
:
.
2.4 Size Distribution and Setding Veiocity, 6
2.5 Electuostadc PrirPerties; 10

1,,-

........-.....---..----

Claptet

PROPERTIES:OF-AEROSOLS .............-....---. 2
2.1 ParUcie S'ae, Z
2.2 lIethods of Particle Sizing, 2
Particle Shape,

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4. IvIECII,{.NICAI COLLECTORS ................

4.1 Introduction, 26
4.2 Gravity Settlrng- Ghambeis, 27
='-'3

--

4.2.7 CombinaEon Settline Chambers

27
and Radiant
='4.2.2 chip Traps, QqpliniDevices,
d8-

4.3 Cyclone Collectors,

28

4.3.1 Princrples of Operation,

4.3.:

28

ConstnrCiori,30

Effiitircy, 30
{.3.4' !'ijlver gonzumption,
4.3.5 Reliabilitv, SS :-*
4.s:6 Co--strS'i'-i4.3:3,-'

-4.4.

Impingment Separators,
Description, SS

44.I

4.4.2 Prineipies
Type,34

of

4.4.3 let Type, 35

4.4.4 Coustrrction,

32

33

Operation-Bafle

35

4,4-5' Efreieirclr;:35
4.4.6 Fowel ebnstrmption,

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CONTENTS

Clwpter

Chnptot

Page

4.5

6.5.5 Venhrri Scrubbers, 72

6.5.6 Variable Pressure Drop

Dynamic Precipita.tor, 35
4.5.1 Principles of Operauon; 36
4.5.2 Operating Chaiacteristics, 36
4.5.3 power f,el5r,mption, 36
4.5.4 Reliability of Gas Flow,36

4.5.5 Collection Eftciency and

iiabfity of Gas Cleaning, 36
4.5.6 SeleCion, 38
4.5.7 Applications, 38

61

5.2..I Distihguishing Characteristics,

5.2.2 Filtrati=ba Thdbrv, 40
5.2.3' Filter Resistance Theory,43

3g

Panel

fittJ*,

5.4.1 Inuoduction,56
5.4.2 Tiroical Aoolications-

7.4.I

B. Particulate

57

8.

6r.1

Impingment,65
6.2.2 Browaiau lyfotion Difiusion. 64
6.2.3 Humirliffcation, 64
6.2..1-. Condensatoa of Liquid on Pai-

9.?.5
6.2.6 Electrostatic Attaction,

8:I

8.2

;f

q.2.3 Density of the Adsorbate, 96

8.2.4 Vapor hessure of. the Adsorbate,

65

8.2.5 System Temperafure and-

',

Reouire1

:Collector per-

6.5 Trpo and Characterisucs oi Wut Cot_

Iectors,-68

6.5.1 .Ctamber Sbruhbers- 6g

65:9 .gy.cftlgc__sarulberi. 1W*t Cy.. '

6.5.3 Self:indueed Spray Scrubberi, 70

6.5.4 Wet Im,pingmel.rt'Colf""to.s, 7Z

-flue"

Pres-

96

I ?.r BeA Pachufge8.2.8 Adsorbate Mixtr:res. gO

8.29 Removii of lfeat of Adsorp-

tion,96

8.3
8.4

95

Int'oduction,95
!.actgrs Coqtrolling:&e Efiectiveness of
Phys:ic^af:AdsoptiSn in: Dynamic Systems,95 8.2.I Surface Area. of the Adsorbent, g5
sorbent for the Addorbate- g5

Collected Materials, 6g-

donii),70

gS

8.2.2 Speciffcity=Afinity of the Ad-

q.q !ryta$ug Porper Coge-ept, OE

6.4 Other
Faciors in Equipmtnt Selectjon, 67
6.4.1 Cariier Gai i'i;;-R"t".;"d prri,-

Dispdsal

Performance Testing,

ADSORPTION OE, GASES ..........................

tii:ies, G4
Agglomeration, 64

tormauce.6g

8T

7.4.4 Desigrr Parameters, g3

7.4.5 Selectioa Parameters, gS
7.4.0 tr'fficiency, g3
7.4.7 Costs, 93

i.4.8

6.4.3 Corrpauson of

![echanica] Comoonents-

7.4.2 Electrjcal Compolents. 8'g

7.4.3 hocess Vanables, g1
A. Cas

57

6.1 Intoduction, 62
6.2 Theory of Performance, 63

5.4.4

OperatingTheory; 85
Pariicle Charging, 85

7.2.I

7_3. l,_r:w \-oltage Precipitators, 87

7.4 High Voltage Precipitators, ST

48

Costs,61

ment,.67

Collector Ao-

7.2.2 Pafcicle Collecfion, 86

7.2.3 Removal of Coil,ected Dust, 86

5.4.5' Performance Characterisdcs, 5g

6.4.2 Collection Eficiencv

B0

S'elected Wet Collector perfor-

ELECTRICAL PRECIPITATORS,..,.......... 8:

iO

5.{.3 Priiciples^df Operadon,

5.4.{ Produit Design, ;7
5.4.6

formance and Selection_

mance, 81

7.2

Applicahons,44
Fabric Fi]ters, -16

5.4 High-Eficiency

6.7.2

6.8 Current Trends in Wet

plication, 82 '

5.2.{

5.3.1 Th*.y,4O
5.3.2 Basic Equip,ment Types,
5.3.3 Filkation Systems, 5i
5.3.4 Costs,52
5.3.5 Filter Selection, 53
5.3.6 Performance Testing, 54

Application and Performance Data, 80

6.7.1 Corrmeuts on Equipmeni per-

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Ori_fice

Scrubbers, 7-t
6.5.7 Ilechanicai Scrubbers, T4
6.5.8 Jet Scrubbers, 76
Cost Consideradons, T6

6.6

Re-

5. FILTRATION..................... ........ 39
5.1 Introduction to Fiituauon, 39
5.2 Deep Bed Filters (Packed Bed) and

5.3

Pog1-

Adsorbents, g6

Dynamic Systems-Design Parameters,

&.4.I Rbcirculating Systems, g/

8.4.2 thu-pglr N-onregenerative Sys8.4.3 One.pass Regeuerative Systems,
98

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Poge

CLwpter
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8.

9.

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9.3

10,4.4
10.4.5

Costs, 98

9.1 }etuoduciion,
9.2 Classification
9.2.i.
9.2.2
9.2.3
9.2.4
9.2.5
9.2.6
9.2.7

101

of Equipment,

CATALYTIC COMB USTION

,' 11.1 Intoduction,l2S

11.

Plaie Tower, 103

Sprav Chambers, 105
Venturi Scmbbers; 105
Jet Scrubbers, 106

12. PERFORIv{Ai\CE TESTING

12.5 Other Factors of Performance, 132

12.6 Laboratory vs. Field Tesilng, 134
J.2.7 Safelz Requirer,nents for Testing, 134

13. DISPOSAI OF COLLECTED }IATE.

RIAL ..........
..............136
13.1 Introduction, 136
13.1.1 Waste Sources, 136
13.1.2 Ultimate Disposal, 136

iO. INCiNENATTON OF GASES AND

..................112

13.1.3 Public Cont'ol,

Inboduction, 112

I3.2.I

1_8r.1 Vlechanism of Combustion, 113

10.2.2 Limits of FlammabiUty, 113
10.2.3 Combustion Calcuiations, 114

Origins,

137

13.2.2 Salvage and Ultimate Dispcsal, 138

13.2.3 Volume Reduction for Dispos-

10.3 A-fterburner Design, 117

10.4 Applications for Flame Afterburning, 120

10.4.1 Smokeiess Flares, 120
10.4.2 Disposai of Kraft Mill Odors, 120
10.4.3 Coffee Roasters, 120

137

13.2 Soiid Wastes, 137

10.2 The Combustion Proeess, 113

10.3.1 Gas Bumers, 1.17

10.3.2 Combustion Chambers,118
10.3.3 Nlaterials of Construction, 118
10.3.4 Sa{etyFeatures,119

the

12.3 Eficiency Calculation Techniques, 130

12.4 Standard and Accepted Test Codes, 131

111

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Objective, 129
12.2 Types of Eficiency Tests. 130

109

YAPORS

......:.................129

12.1 Performance Testjng Pertinent

9.3.5 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Data,

111

...............,...... 125

11.2 Principles of Operation, 125

11.3 Design, 126
11.4 Operating Characteristics, 126
11.5 Appiications, 1!7
11.6 Eficiency,727
11.7 Costs, 127
1I.8:Sun-rmary, 128'

102

9.3.6 Liquid-Cas Ratio, 111

9.3.7 Tower Diameter, Pressure Drop,

Cupola Gas A-tterburners, 121

Speciai Waste Liqurd Bum-

ers,121
10.5 Pedormance Evaluation, 193

Paqked Tower, 102

lVet Cell Washers, 106

Combination Types, 106
General Design Concepts, 106
9.3.1 Tower Heights and Number of
Transfer Ilnits, 108
9.3.2 -Plate Columns, 109
9.3.3 Selecton of Equipment, 109
9.3.4 Seiection of Absorpfion Medium,

Pag,

Ch^eptct

Operaths hoblems, 100

AisorptiJa P erf ormance Testin g, I00
Typical .{ppiications, 100

ABSOHP{rON OF GASES............................101

1X

al" 13S

"' -

13.3 Liquid Wast-es, 139 13.3.1 Origitrs and Characteristics, 139

13.3.2 Treabnent and Disposal, 140
13.4 Summary, 141

GLOSSARY

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INTRODUCTION

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THERE AiiE SEVT&I sigrdficant aspects of the

ap'plication o{ control equipment to induseial air
pttuuon sources which,'albne or in combination,
result in technical and econonic problerns of a
unusual, and frequentiv perplexing, charac-

IS'T*
Fjrst, and probably most important-since it

:H'""ff"ffi':1"'#ilT,1#11tX"*iH
always considered a "necessary evil." Within the
local sphere of the particuiar establishment, air
poilution contoi seldom directlv conbibutes to pr+.
duction or profitabilitv. Wtrile the social and philo-

::L1hH:"#'#"5:lii?il""""Tf,"#':::

wiih increasing willingan 'overheadl rather than a "prodyctiv-e" activity. As a result, undue errphasi-is
placed on first cost of control equipment, inadequate effort is expended on the teehnisal groundwork, and the required systems engineeriag and
process engineering approaches are slighted. As
long as performance is adequate, no effort is expended on optimizing it, and mai::tenance is usually
conducted on a breakdown rather tlan preventive
basis. Fortunateiy, as the importance of air pollution control gains recognition, industrial leaders are
----devoting more adequate technical and economic
resources toward optimizing the increasing rnvestment in such systems and equipment.
sponsibilities in this regard

ness,

it

1ss1nin5

equipment.

tle range.6f the technoiogy is very broad.

covers the entire spectr:m of ehemicals and
pborly-defined substances that can be &spersed *nthe atrrosphere in tle form of solid or Iiquid par-

It

Second,

ticles, gases, or vdpors. The chemical and-physical

properries of this host of substances goveru &e

ways in which tley can be coatolled. In ad&tion,

Fift}, the historical development of the field has

resulted in a large number of comparatively small
equipment manufacturers. The contuol equipment
usuaily accommodates large gbs volumes at low
pressures. This in turn results in large housings,
which in themselves represent a high proportion of
final cost in expen&tures for "ordinary" sheet rr-,retal
fabrication, shipping, and erection. While this situation is no doubt healthy from tle competitive
standpoint, it has several other results. The avaflability of technicai' and ecoaomic stuength among
the vendors of equipment is diffuse, rather than
:'.. even l.modestly sonqerlrated; the prospective purchaser is confronted -tnith -a-be-wildering arrty of
possible choices, with conflicting, orerlapplog,
--'hard.to-eompare, and hard-to-prove claims; there is
no equipment that seryes as a eommonly accepted
standard of, comparison; indusby standards are

alnost totally absent. A srrall investnent will

sufice for enty into=the vending of coufrol equipthe process by which ttre substance is generated
ment, which is both a blessing and a burden. It
may b,e a key factor, in that it-may inf,.uence these
-- permits .the ea.sy_eu&y=of-xe$rcomers, induding
properties, and on th" othur h"od; th" process itworthwhi-le innova-fb?S;- brit. allttrffiqects f:he pr:rseif has needs that must be met by ihe pollution
chaser to corresponding hazards.
conbol system.
The enzuing material in this Manual is intended
Third, an air pollution coutol device is part of a
to present a broad picture of generic types of equipsystem-usually a complex one. Even in the.
ment available, tle pararreters that afect their
simplest of dust control systems, ihe hoods, ductoperation, and the factors that should be considered
*ork, dust collector, fao, and stack, taken together,
in theii.applicatibn and/use. The ultimate o$ective
*machine.i
ii to aid in &e growth and maturity of the seleecomprise one
Tae desigra, perforrnance,
and, maintenance of each part a$ects the perfor;mdor, and, applicatiog of air: lrcilutiou conboi equipance of all the other parts: Air pollution coaE'ol - 1;fpnt, '.r .:,:.+::-:n',. :r-:1:'r:: r iijrai r ':' .;.-.'.;. ., .
.

lo

applied to eomplex processes is correspondi"gly

part of an everl more complex rystem.
For:rth, an air pollution contuol device is really
a piece of'processing equipment, alihough seldom
regarded' as such. The physicai aad- chemical
phenomena taking place ari irequently more complex than ihe processes or operations generating
the coaiaminant. The range of input to the machine, both in aature and quantity, rs usually much
greater thau would be demanded of producfion
equipmeut yet an acceptable product-adequately
ciean and inn6rqs6s5 gases discharged to the afonospher+-is required at all times. Bbcause ttre
"product" is not pa&aged, and its quality is dificult and erpensive to measure, there exists Iittle
automatic feedback in-formatiou on the quantitative
perforrnance oI this piece of compiex processing

j'

2/

PROPERTIES OF AEROSOTS
2.1

2.2
2.3

ii
..

2.4
2.5

.:J

2.6
2.7

Particle Size
yettrods oi Farticte s'izine
Particle Shape
Si2e Distribdtion and, Setfling Velocity
Elbctrostatic properties
Concentration
Mechanisms of Gapture
i

2.t

PARTTCLE SlZE
physical behavror of aiiborqe solid or
- The
particles
is govemed by their sizes and. size
Ig"i9
qar.ity,'and shape; and by
l,isyibytiol,
their chemicalF*f"
and surface properties. irarticle sizl
and speufic grayiry
i"'th-e rational d"rig! oi
"iq aknospheric
air polluUon control and
dispersioi d*
rices.. Otler physical and- cfremicai prop-erties may
also be of importance in defining p"fuj"
behavior.

for airborne lirtic"Iate systems

pari
io
the
size of tteir p"rtia".. fo,
.in
example, rarn "fails" (or.-is. fairly large in particle
size) and a log.'persists,, (or ir fairfi stabie, and
smdl _in particle 1rz4; smoke arid, fiimes are
q_"f*i.tty small, and- dtxts are usually' l"rg.. e
collection
Common names

of reported sizes o.f airborue

in Figure 2-1. Typical

.efectjyely removed

in the nose aod

,rrr.o

airwaysr as represent"d l" Ftgd''ij

;":_eT..1,:?
. oo.?ry ot a given matenal also generally
to""r.

i,: . particle size decreases] particjes. tha

T,, rnterior
sou
surJaces presumably are smalle

than
*dusta few microns;

falli'

p"rfiA;r-;;Jted

with visibl,

on surfaces *"h ," foo.,

porches, and autornobiJe tops,
quitr
large, on the order of ,u["]_.U.rriared
"r" !"o"."Uy
microns
Chemical composidon of airbo.neliticulatu
*,
nuisancel_

in generat be considered;;h
...pil1;
:iTr:::.
rne economjc incentive for their
recovery
i"U i
possibJe damage or hazard to
",
,*f""".,'"4";;;;
animals,

relate

ants is shown

are

or man.

contamin_

2.,2 lAETHODS

dust particles may 1aog, fr*i'g.;;G"t*orphJ"

than 10
mic,rons to,Iess rhrn 0.0tr micron; iretal fumes
ani
oil ssrokes are'usually tess than *to"t i .-..-i"*",
and. most d::sts are usually greater than
a.bout 1
microu, Fardcles. Iarger tli"'"bo"i 50 ;";;#d;
not- _stay airborne, very long irnls55 &ere is
erable:associated arr Lubuibr.e o, *otio". "oorid_
Air_-;,
'gas-bome, particles less than'"b.;i'6 miixons
are.lyally referred to as aerosols, because of thJ;

OF

PARTICIJLATE

SIZ IN G

For Purposes qlqqsgrbg actual or efiective

dimenlions it
usual
Iils'iie;
." P.llgcl:l (a).geater than a.!or:t 40 microns iu the
s-r:ve mnge,, (.b) subsieve siiei
from 40,to about I
mrcrons, and (c) submicroscopic particJes
less than
2.1 indicaiJsrlil*i,;
I,TXT:
gr
sr?ng particles
".rg-*e
1nd their appropriate,izu ,rog"r.
trieeiieral,

..
hTr,
p"*gt;

ii

;;.i#

pai- ildyi;';;;rii ar"au, u,

tr"'t," gatysis_
91 by eompagson of therr linea,
p.olluton, must
agai.with parricles-raugng in size *om-hundiedi - H:,":.lr^1*T :'cryryg mganrre iniffie opdcat
or erecaon micr-bEope. Fiei@
ot rrucrons down to nearly molecular dimensions.
applicatiin of
of measurements^may ti,e re.
ryp."
of
Yi_^T.-*-r::
qured to characterize a complete
T+.*3:behayior
lange -siz*'on;Eg"
physical
sample, it i, J*
of airborne particles uad& the --$ossibte to rreasuiei * p.opS,
oi,G.tarit
actio-n of .various ,mli."lJoi;;;;h
that is a
; grayit,
fr1nc*" of parriaie size. T&ese ;"ali*.'##*
turbyfence, etc., or in the p."."*. ot ippteJ
of parfclb slz" o._ *ld"br;;t,"ft1"1fi.i:T:
Lind
loTo, such as.rn cenEifugal *okoo or electis-tatic
Cduid;
of siimplieitrr for routine analyus, and
-'--l
:ffelds.
incftrd+sedine{rauolr o5 .r**;J"
#r*rri
*"t"r,
o,
',. Tte par Ucle sfies. of : physliilogical. imp*. tanCe; in
ether,fluidq, r"t*"* *j"t .eIolli?##il,u.*
maa are Iess than l0 micr'ons sii"e largi,
" ute.hqts;r
:rnd ekb*omagieue*i"il"i
@""
srablllty.

,It is eyident tlat conkol of air

e;G;;

.,

2;

li-: i.

'

***

iorr"iqr*

ffi

t
I
I
I
I

PROPERTIES OF AENOSOLS

Particl Oamels. micms {A)

0.1
0.01
I
:..i,1 i:'ilr,?,i i L1:r,il i'l?i,l,l

0.0col
I

10

Equir.l trt
Sl1q

B.cfoBltr

lm

:0

!r

i
1mo

!ngsrr6, unit,

ll

lU*d

i'

t*iniel
t.llniuru.

so,i,

fXi##,"'lH.Y#*tHT.:,*---

iJ-i,.
:I
llllll
I u.sscrenMen
3'r
.rrn,or16'S
ln

iili
,-

I
I

f ,

,16

:-

-gtu.d.!ir!;;

Soiid:

GG

10.m0

Visririe

(ldl

Lm

P o :ot ,:2 , I : :

very inirequently)

alc

;l;

Th@retici M6h

tri

: rrssrl

I i,250
l,l, I ea l:r I :oil :o i ; i i
Scren Men I
I I 1 iytaairllslli
] 625 ,LH cllol
i

ilmn

lm

:r;ral

2,300

r0,c00

Wava

I
I
I

rlms)
o.m

--- -:-s4

>

-"-*
r

Siir -.

:-inc

sano+cse 3"ng.-Gnvd--

0l.p.6oidr

Smoke-

Rqrn

-iertltrer,

Grcund

:..l.......-vn
,,_-Touru
'.r.u,-Just+
Smoke-cst
lusB eno Frmes4
+Cement
Oust .*
r,lrrom u-rhrrb fun
l'suifuric'::

il
I

ffi

f-Bexls:na

-Metatlurgiei
l+rrrmn Bbfi-*-s"ffH*ar*,1-Puverized c*i-f-!+lnI
frgments+
lr-paint ngmetE+
F-Flotation C6-----t
i
ii-lnsetiade ousts'l
ouss
FZinc Sxioe Furnrl frlnstiade
C{ild6l i*
i---J--Grouna EEj---

Typhal Perdc!6

md
Gaa

Lrm6tonF

!-spnv
5por6
I .:-:--;o.i"a uirr =.....*iff$

YIG

,kuor dbtulB *ui{d

ltM vqoerY drts { CfC

+rllkati

A[Xen

Sait

Combustron

Nkipi

-{tm6Dheric

}+

Dustiluclei+
fJ-HydEuiic I@l
l+l{ebulizer Crcpsi
Lung Samagtn{
2neomatic
-Miiled
I f,I@le-Drcps]
:

+Sa

-:othns_._

L__-_____
i

:orcr
I
ln ?rrrm E[x rr(rrrxrr
J .tr.o -"..:ruro.",.

roil.n. ---j
!*tlour-

r-urc-+

-,ll.i=i.;-

lLG+

Red -=-ust:SlGi Cil oiareis ildults): 7.5p t03p

+-----:-- 8ac:ena---i+ Human Hair-

I
I

Siaing-

Anrlyri!

Crops

-*

t'--_-r-

I 'F,ffiffi+Fte
I fiffi,tume"
I dddl6
++kl&brtuffi!
ffi
ly$d

I+::a;f; tu;._[ _r-L,t'trizlion_ ::;:--- i

ru,oiai*.t,yfr

m.fiodr lor
Prrllcl. Sizr

_-_L

n2n1

,l

OirpaBoidt

l-+

.t

_Ll

----Settling Clur rtrr

Tygar ol

6rr Cloning

Equipmat

r- - --commn. Air,F'lteE+

il;;ek:;-'-._l "-;:,;

lllq mry id sf,sh8,

tical PEiodetoB-

Rq6Gxumc

T.minrl

Gr.vidoEl

I
I

ia,1

l+rr.eol

io-

',

p-jlg.i

htu

rr

ro-1

19-: ,19-;
Prrilch oillBim

rb-'o; r0.", rl-", ro-,, ro-; ro-: ro-;

?rslo-

S.rdlna'

fu !dt.rt+ -

[o]',:.

i'

ro:1"

lo-r",,lo-1t.j

1o-d

. , 1o-:

,,

lo- t2

ro-l roJ' ro'

il;;Fg".=itr'.

,g:,.

lo

l, 1lo-; , to-:1

lo-1
loi:
to-6
lrr
r5 JI
65.1 I

ro-' 55.
-r-

lo:r?-45,1l10- '
LU

10' ,

ro'

lg",

[0.,' ro'] r0.1 [o- ro-l rP-ilio+rp+*rq" lo:r. to'

rl

25'C

p.':: I

riP-'i;??11""

ro-'?,

'o-li

LddEffibft

o(no t

l*
i

r"
t.5

0.@1

lI6r)

0.ol

o.l
Partic, OiaruGr.

mkms (F]

Figure 2-1. Characteristics of particles andr particl* di5persions.

rol

1oor, , ll

lo-',. .

l9-'1 ,

,IO'

lo- r'

174

i . ;;';'l-

1o'

19'

lc

r,0m

ilnhl

.-

lo

cn:/:e
.fdrc{miilil

{ 2!'e
l.h

EEtoE+

.-.,::-.-

Courtesf Stanftrd- Research, lnslitute.. r : -

-.

i.,

AIR POI,LUTION

of these methods are described in detail in recent

publications.l, 2' 3,.{, 5
lVhen particles have been sized, the frequencv of
F

i00

LrJ

UJ 5U
o_

o
LU

a
o
o-

,""r

Lr..l

40

a
l

u-/

O:n
Lr '"

.":r/r,

=
Z
0

&"1"?:p"

.q .\

"si/o,
f,t.l,,)',

0t23456

SIZE,
Figure

M ICRONS

2-2. Beposiiion of pariicles in the respiratory lr.cl.

occurrence of each size interval is plotted

(at the

value representing the midpoint or, more usually,

TE

i.lss
400

M{\UAL II

the upper limit of the class interval) and por

conaected by a smooth curve as shown in Figr
2-3. It is found in almost all cases that a size c
tjbution is obtrined, or ttrat tie spread of parij
sizes is characterized by a probabilitv riisrribut
of the shape in&cated. The loug "tail" on tle rir
side (Figure 2-3a) anses because of the nahrre
partide formation and can be.compensated for
plotting not the actual partide size as observ
but rather &e logarithm of the particle size,
rn&cated in Figure 2-3b, which normalizes tie d,
presentation to a sy-m,metrical ( gaussian ) &st.ii
tjon. The me&an particie size ( that particle size
which hald of the observations lie below, and t
above ) is found frorn ihe compensated disuibut
at the midpoint. If the data points have been
termined by microscopic sizing, then the med
diameter so obtained is referred to as tbe "co
median diameter," and if the points have beea
tersrined by a technique based ou particle m;
the median obtained is called the "mass med
&au.reter." I{ the frequency scale is mnverted t
probability scale, a it'rlgbt line results (Fig
2{c). The mathematjcaj transformation kom co
median diameter (NI*) to mass median diamt
(Mu. ) can be obtained by means of the Hat
Choate equationo and the use of the "stand
geomekic deviation" (or) as illustrated in Fig
o,l

MEDTAN/couNT MEDTAT{

600 8@ rooo

- Ujztt"
2000

.+OOO

6@0

.o
b
I

z5'o

tlr,

4.5

lrl

o
trl

o
o

4.o

e,

a
2

h35

46ArO
MASS MEDIAN/ COUT'IT

20

IIEDIAI{

's"g

Figur! 2iL , Grap-hic sstimation of the mass median diameler, M,s, from tha count mediin diameier, Mr, and the
gcom_atri-c deviation, cg. From lndustrial Dust, 2nd 6dition, dy P.'orinker and T. Hatch. Copy.righi 1336; 1954 by
Hill Book Company, lncr Used by pcrmission ol Mccras."Hill.: Book Company.

stal
Mcr

il
PROPERTIES OF AEROSOLS

Mode

,t\

il

i\

t\

I
I

Med ton

'\

1.,

v Aeon

I
I
I
I

lu

C'

t!

10 15 20

25

Porticle size, microns

Figute 2-3a; Particle siie distribution.

I
I

84.tS volu,e
sof" ,"ty

:---

--

o
:)
cr
o

tr

-./

Figure

scale.

2-3b.

particte size distritution, tosariihmE

_l]ao,"

-:'r/

-,/
,/il
/;l

'/

l,

I
I

+:-;

,/ll
,/,il

?tg: Ll&rithniisl n.b.tiiitr

,-.,']l:''.,.,.:,..;;!..,'.:i";:..-;..-...:'.:....:'.'',,..,

I;n*:
1

siia

rr/
-/

pjot:

of perticta ri:r.

i'I
il

"i{ra.5!5ki*#

f
I

:L

AIR FOLLUTION ]V{.{\UAL

,l
*j;.-

Specific grayity or density of airborne pa.rticulates

js related to their method of formatioi

and their
history whi-le airborne, principally because of pos_
sible. chernical changes (such as surface oxidatiin)
or physical changes due to agglomeration. If dusi
is formed by atbition of a parent solid material, its
density wiil be the same as that of its parent. How_
evet, if it subsequendy undergoes r,rrf^"" oxidation
or hydradon, for example, its densify will decrease. i
If a pardcle is formed by a condensaiion process
and su bsequentiy under g-oes substan tial aegltmeration, as in.metallurscal fi:mes such as Zn'd, ltgO,
Fe.O., or in carbon blacks, the density of il" ""g_

,'J
-::j. ;i
i: ,
I

i:.,t
t

l- ,

:'a
,1
:i

:;

i.J
i;
i1

')

glomerate partiCe so formed will be less than prJdicted from t1le chemical composition of the par&cie

i
i

material, due to air rnclusioni within the p:article.

.l

e.x31p!s.oj agglomerate particle denitty

foy.re

'.1

are

indicated in Table 2-18 and the-dynamic natr:re of

T.$Lr 2-1. Penrlcr-r DrNsrrms roR Acc:.olca*ras

FIoc

Densily

llaterlal
Silver
Mercury
Cadmir:m oxide
Nlagnesium oxide
Mercuric chloride

Arsenic trioxide
Lead monoxide
Aatimony trjoxide
A-luminr:m oxide

Standc oxide

0.94
1.70
0.51
0.&5
1.21
0.91
0.82

0.63
0.18
0.95

Normai
Densrty
g/ cc
1U.D
1.r. o
O.D

3.65
5.4
J./
9.36
,f.a/
3.70

6.7r

changing. partiglg

sizg shape and density can be

Figure 2-5.3 Density of an agglomerate may
be as low as 1/10 of the density ofEe parent ma_
terial, that is, the voiume void fractioo Lry b"
high as_9Ofi.
",
Aerodynamic behavior will depend largely oo th"
:een

mass of 'Jre particle, and for s*U parti""les in the

Stokes (steamline fow) range (iess than 100
j;
microns ) t}:e actuai parameter ci"*ru"g;;";

?o4'/p, where:
po

d,

:
p; :

ri

ea

*i-i

vio.lently.

2.J PARTICLE SHAPE

Particle shape depencis upon t
parhicle formadoi: if by attidon or
processes (for instance. dusts) the

determined largeiy by the nature of

terial; if by a condensatioa

a vapor phase reacUon, the shape is

changes in a particle's shape, such

as

2-5.

Spherica.l

priti"i", of liquids cr

densation coalesce upon contact to.

particle if conditions are favorable. .
condensation is followed almost in
solidification, or surface ondation, an,

formation of chainlike "flocs,' of soh

oride fumes or carbon black ). C^hr
fhese, caused by dl,namic particie bei
chemical and phvsical stati, must be
the design of- air poliutjon conkoi
time iristory of airborne pardcle sys.
ccnsidered in the design of air pol
deyices due to the dynimic aaturi c

havior and the iihysieal=and chemical

Descriptions of many shapes, str:ct
^
figurations
of particles ericbuniered ir

contol studies are presented in Tabl

2-6 shows some of the wide range oi'

ticie shapes and stuctures thit n
countered in-tnospheric particuJatt
compared

2.4

to ihe possible

shal

_ .:=SIZE DISTRtB:JT/ON ANr

SEIrI/NG

VELOCITY

Particles encountered in practica

coatool sitrr.a lioor,*ill be heterogeneou

d.rameter," based on

posi-hon. The &seibuton of pardcle

analy_sis,

to yield ;

Stokes

hydration, collision, or agglomeration

variant and history dependent, as sh,

9rlry.

gral/itv, g/crrtl
particle &qrneter, actual or aerodynamic equivaleu! cm
fuid viscosiry, gl,/cm(sec) (porre)

process

and frequently spherical or'cubic

in Table *2.

frue or apparent particle specific

an estimate of co.
area ihcreases 'very ,"piafy per unit
!rr1fr*weight of substance as particll si=e a"oi"res. A
one cubic centimeter drop of water has * *rf"""

l:"

or rapidly ondizable materials isrrr,l

verized coai, iron powders, flor., ,re,
when airborne may burn vigorouli

lhrs caa be determined empiricaily by sedimenia_

.equivilent

Yp"

'i.

area of 4.M arn2 (about 21 square le

amount of water, in I r, &ameter dror
face area of 5.95 x I0{ cm2. Subdivisl
materials increases surface available I
orher chemical reactions. Fine por.l.r

Figure 2-3), shape, stucture,

i"a fr.

di{ferent_behavror of individuai p"*;

acfion of the same forces: For exarn.

&spersion has.

mass

*.di;"- ;i;

il

OF .{FROSOLS
'ROpERTIES

I
I
T

I
r
I
I
I
I
I

9 rnilutes after clispersai.

29 rnilutes altcrr rlisFrersal.

l) rnirrrrtr,s,rftr.r rlislx'nrtl.

Jl-l tttitttrtcs;lfttr rlisix'rsrtl.

I
I
T

I
t
I
T

ti,t tr,.t,t"i,,,

Figure 2-5. Agglomeration of meial oride fume.

::;.,.:

l*
8,

i:

i:,::.:.
::']

-'EEi

i**J

,+-*:i

,i tu

..

llt,,t.'l <,,-;,t,t

r:

I
A]N POLIUTION
MANU,TI, U
microns and a standard geometric
deviation of 3,
this implies ( assuming a
normal distjbuU=on) that
haif the mass of the d^isi
Jr-p*"'#"ie,

,#i::?:H:

auoue
"o"Jri,
11"fi[:"::'o'*:,'/:-" L;#'r'#'ii"6 - rr +a
e6 microns. A sorid'flt:.111"',tH ilglz'uCi
;trlf ,;d"^#::
Hf,?l

*
'f

;:

*tx

Z-2. possnra Snerls

"?H",1"+"i,r:tg
U^r*rro^r.
ptro*i"- - .i^f.

o.
prarrcurAT.

Shape

.{-m_eonN"

, dust bears

Sait

(Particles, Above Lrsually

proximately As Spheres
)

Platelet

i,-

Lint, Plant
Fibers
Carbon Black.
Smokes

locs

Magnesium Oxide

"rir,"i".
3#ll},1-;T,X1i,"tj*"h.*-"Jio,[",",",'J["ctjonsbv
-a,,iu;ffi

#iff:*:r"*Iu?
H:
tainer (
ieighi;r a"ir,ii llXL.*.*"Iy, the
"l".ity of o"" i"*r,"r-1;l'J^":,ii
rirse1,,J

.at

of

ou1

ri; ;;HT"T,,$*ti inq;:fi;l

ledigrentgtion -*htr;;; # *"a* ,o

;;ffi3::'
weigh't, oi

cate size distributjon

analysis can be,made

:j-,,"i$

I
i

,h

"*#;

ffi

";

ns"

of

A"-A"ii,"L?L""a ,oa,_
rir"

"il

:"i:?:X

:f '[j'.XTf l";

shape obvi,ously has a iripiffcarit

efiect
^_r*S"
on
settling velocirv. U*[ tfr.orar"Iff
*fi;";-;;
based on sphericir
;a"ff'#L shapes
.+i* I-,.*il.;
settle at lower velocid".:
tllo'i[i." u"r"a
on settling rares yield data
that ;" *rr" rp?frliljl
to collection equjpment ;h;;;
;"o#'; iffi;i;
settling, but- which or"
u"ari"Jj-Io1"Ir",o
orr"
migrarion of the
"r.ti"r;ll;;;;i'tl"sr,
mec_hanical collectdrs
and
"" *
ot wet se:.rbbers. in fllters,cyclon&. In mLy typ.s
-elil;rarH;;ecipitalT:-*d other rciads ,f ;.ji;;;'H#
mecha-

*ry

;i#' *ilHntT L,*:: ";ril# ,,1:o

prr-#;;';j"l;ff.

.,,*

j. +"..r.1fl]t

J l"a ;,:,,t?tfi""rtiT.-*-.:::'t''
""p"nf" "*

,rJ"rti

zui'i;;' ;ff , 11"'i:?""Lix-lil:

"
hnd
of dusf ("f ,i ;;;;.r"is

conhoi). For best work, the

calibrated b,, o.,i".os"o;1";#;q1':'r'?;.,
"q"**"i,rl
of dust ia question_from that
pJ*i .". ,f
-ll""ir'
mercial equipment
gr""

_*I

cheaper results of adequatZ

il.r

,""rrr.y. **

small parhcle is released

to fall un
].f "
o,i g.^dly, it wilt .";o";
T; ;.,
f.:::,
toward tfie earth unfil
&s resistance o'f t,
the mofion of the brdygravrtational force, at whichil;;;";;;
;;;;"":;,
rarr.vvtth a constant velocity
krowu ," tl";i
v.etociry.- rn" ,"1i.u1,""'ri.?"T
):dTgwill,be
,l
!9,lel a planeproportional t" ,fr""**"
norrnal,tO.direction of motjr
"i,f
:j.r" Jn
pressure
th"-ilJ;;:.h;
Pf_
*ryr*ic
_r!e. r.ollowlng eouations"fare_used
io ca]bul
s;ttring ierocity,
ii'r,
:."T1lI
t.(c're. stzes tess than
about lO0-mibrons iu the
or,rrise o us f ow r e gior;
Eq";ti; ; ;-;"rr'i.. r,
leY.e:n jbour rQLand
mediate fow

&il;;t

rh0.l;**; #,i.

Ed;;;;"#f,
ucles greater legion;,r"d
-tfua_I0@. r*i"ri* in*t *U"li*
" "' Y, -- e,g*Vlgp;.
- ,!-o*- '- (E
!,
: 0,2oprz/tg!s4/?t7/zu.t/3
i,
_I.
V,:[3prg4,/pr],t, i
,
"
1E

vr = terminal
cm/sec
Po

settiing velociiv,

= partcle density, #cm"

acceleration due* to- gavlty,

I :

cm/secz

wil-

":.

",
rapid, some
of them are
to very
-,1, sma]] narti
r

of 3-B feet per minute

end of the ipectrum L*g:P"rticles
3t-th9 upper
vo_mrcr-ous, w-iII fa"li
at a rate
lj.e{o-+
of r3.B
feet pL
-_^_ __. : jt-i:trr,lrlil#r,ff:,L:l}

b."o

Befiave Aerodynamicall.y
ap_

Talc

Chains

at""*r"rlJi"r'irl_,ln:"T,

mercially available

Asbestos

Needles
Fibers

ita uo

same

Ellipse
Short Rt Cir Cvl

Mineral.

"

nique is eirher useless;;

ing and tliere are
some cases (see Figure
ii

-Vica

Solids of Revolution

l.oose

Crysta.is

;;ilu J"i'#lPi;. bu

ffi
*t:
iJlii*
now
"'i"ff
the Particle
," A:;";d":;;."'

mi.*.::

Tehahed:oa
Octahedron
Dodecahedron
Icosahedron
Cube
Irreguiar Crysta.lline

.measurixu

offiiffi

i;Ha-;Xh:i'?o'"o"Jl'"f i"Ht:H:t
'iduar observer "ii:-',:*rA:l 5:.',",u*
leter. resuits il tl. ioro.m;;i"1*,:,:y,

Pollen, Fly Ash

Hegular polyhedra

j::*::, )rorYreldaaslq;i

about particr"
quire J i'rg6 d"s*

Examples

Sohere

I
I
r
I
I
I
I

?RCPERTIES OF .{EROSOLS

d. Mechanical coniferous wood

pulo

t
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
p. Soot blowing coal boiler

I.
I

q.

Spre3der stoker flyash

Figure 2-{i. Photomicrograpfts

t. oit

of various matlrials.

.oot

.t

].0

:il

.,]
,:,..;

".;.
,t

tl j

;,i
i.r i

AIX POLLUTION }IANUAL

4:

particle &ameter, cm

il

f;:]:

ffi:;;Ti"H;

lsz"*

00"jpp4'

Y' : 0'34Pr'/'4
Y, : !$6;/e4t7z
where the terminai ,,"n{"g verocity

.=
.!

;x?iriffr",,ir*ri?f:,:fi:*"::t

= equarions
rhe rhree
can be soived ror standard

v'

:. .!
:l

'"")
(Eq.

iI

:':i3iu:,t":;'"TlrffiLf,{*b.T,

","i,
za) fl!""l:::tJ: ,*""1"t"'"a d"ti"g-i
"
lecfrons

@q.2-5) tion.

produce narura.
,, I].1;',? ' .";:t"ot;:ffi1"*1.to
(toi p, i" ;;*r. pu, cubic r. Electolvtic
}lechaihas-Electron c
-microns) *f, *"r,ipu;;;
].,gh-dierech.ic trqrid-scha
by 1'96 ..rII convert tt'"-**ii,""iU*
tby siparation of rhi-rorid interfac
per rninute.
an<i riquid
?"1' i1"*"""; .. *pu.,
trTJi$:{:?T,t!!tt*ui*1ii::;,.ru:
:T*,?.r
cept
in analysis of complex p-Ayri*f
*ieracnons bel. Co"J"t potential_Free eleckon
tween water droolets iti t",.iuutri
tuan
o. p"rti"tu *"rtp.otential barrjer due io i:he
I
difiere
3.T*';?:ir;:*;$;';;o"Jo u,,;J"i; run'cuon.or *" -","i, in contact. :
-'
w-4""p"'ti"1"'
centimeters per seccnd'
centimeter and d' h

j._t

:
'fl
-,1

:s
-':1

.:.

.::

are.farring in the stream,T:,r*F,

they are-supn".t.a
.u1
and can b' lieo to.rait
ffi,";
ticles get smaller' the air, which **tlv.

iq:: {Hr*,:n*-5fr,I;t'

*or".ri.,
-{;;:
ii-L*por"a

".;#;;;;{
;:

molecujes in ceaseress
act on' the particle as a

.urfr"" ]ayer ("r""rtt doubre-iaver,

tioo or *" uqoiaty
reatrs
tion of nr. ai"pr#,ith
"i"n*ruon
negative cha

rr"a"**r.r"", oo;r; or
;;

4.
-' llntacf separation [t iu.o; Eiectr
ioo,r", of dry, nonmetallic surfaces a
separation (surface work funcu
iu"nt
- ron Dinr:sion
5
;-?;*._E]ectrons

disconti"rl*'*"ai;r".

ts no lonqer totallv-supported
bv

i;
.;11r;i^iig^"
"

b"*""n
nl{r5f*h"jl}"tX
*:t's',,. H;i:Hf"x #'d:-*J""J::%:,T ;:::",'f:fii:Tl'I"*;Lffi"*d*
[:l"Ty:l

fe
where:
/1
u

AI
--1 1 + --"

tf;
(Ee.2-7)

r, -- radius of the particle,

centimeter
= mean t p"il
--- 5a urvre- ' '--.
".
cules, centiiaeteri at 20o C : 6.5 x l0_i

Naturar

"*

t[rra

oo certaia indust

;:::i:T#mtiii:*,:h*nt:
r:r rlYs

tions.ls

oiih;;ffi;i;

and

:hgg-"t

2.6 CONCfNfiiff=OrV--

'i

Tle

concen&ations of 'materials
four

A,= lls +
"..p(-r *+) (Eq 2-8) i^fiX,ffiXff';fl,U ff.": *#:
n
rhe
A will * eTnI ri"'tft**o
pa{cJei u r*g"'-'-", i
I
o'<+

./
,I

'l

value of
and
and only becomes
ap".ry"rig"in""",H'**aes
the mean

2,

lfffff:!"".h1":defrmds

upon

ric.te size. - 11 ts

.;,';E;'T;;

particle
6*=p*ir-r#.d;;;Ji ;"=JT.iT*:*ffiiffi,ffi"[*"#
",'tt'uotr

ffi:p*
2 s ELEcrRosr-o rtc pRopERTtEs

rn scdirion to phvsicar
scribed previouslv. ,o,"ti.
;t;;';;;;les

,t"-r,

pos*bil

num,

ff:,::l"ek::ffT.ffiffij;fffl:1H

"a".***i*r".;"i;,ffi1::$:-*r,l:il:,Tji:?::r::ffT
may io
tl" aora, or to rapid_o,rtriard
diffusion.

.#TJ1 lT*.r the1, tend to be more inr

iff":',TH#,,":il,?t"T.:ti:il",'#:,"::"^-T-ii
-g";;:i;"
(aegative

-l- ".
lf?i?.il,.{,"#:tg""fn*
"ha.gu,

ruffiT

#Y:t,'d,:fi,"':

H":*:_"J "xtu.aar'fo,&* *"ir r.-sr_^ry

fff*,iiir:1"?,f ##m*;r ; il'J,
v wide ralge of

concenkations

t
I
I
t
I

T-rsr.E 2-3. Nercx-.tl ctil.ncrs

or souz RrpnrsENr.rrtye Drspsasoms

Dispenoid
Ra',rr cement

mix

Plant, L:.\.

35 35

Agitation
in air
sileam

Gvosum dust
r Schumacher
)

4 il

G^-inding,

drving in
flash dryer

CopDer

flDelter ousr
(Tooele, Utah)

f,lv astr
1

Phila., Pa. )
Leari fume

( I Ooele,

utah)
Laboratory
oil ftrme

I
I

0.? x 10'

1.4

40 50

10

0.2

0.4

31 26

43

1.9

'I

40 41

16

4.8

Grindirg and
drying in

n,

0.2

0.003

0.003

rotary kiln
Dwight-Lloyd

25 25

sintering
machine
Condensation
from vapor

50

0100

lection efficierrcy required for reducing the Plume to

dealt wlth in practice. Figure 2-7 indicaies that
near invisibility as 9$ oo a 3.g?/cu ft inlq 9o5
concentratiorrs sf afuborne" materials have been
centration, or an efluent concentration of 0'03
in
meter
measlnod from 10. milligrams per cubic
per
cubic
to
a
1ff
milligrams
the mid-Atlantic up
meter iD pneumatic conveying
'-*'-r,-ft'r:ffi#H.1"tr
Concenbations of specific materials in the air of
specific po*lliehtTraasmision
specific cities are lugirly variable, as has been resf,lft ror Eiertr;static Prrcipi:
particle
sizo
Distntrtloo
ported from ma4y sr.rryeys. They occur in a statis-;i;-.,;;Ln;;;;
Encienqv of:
.fli' 0 tarion
iical diitriLution'type oi pattern..6
Fly
e0
95 e1'5 ee
75
sqm/s
*High:,
2s41
+44
ro-zo
s-to
os
niit
dust coucJntrafions as encountered in air
b;
cleaning equipment and &scharge stacks ;t
la' ?.3;ffi- -3 i3 Eg 33
than
thor" E".t5,
i"d:o"a
!.rmeter), 3 Sg 7E ?i
'3
"'
"i9it'",i,y
:
grams/cubic
2.3
ft
(1.0
grTcu
foot
cubic
,.:
^"
and those dao.iifri. figure ,, io*.'' This is p"rtty- !"i,*?'t*:Ydio ft., ash concenbation at precipitator
due to the empirical obiervation that concenkations iii.i:l
iZcu ft; pricipitator voltage : 50 kv peak'

systems.

l$i$*"}^ffi"*"

o,"rY

In

10

r.6

Ii

r.

the limit discussed above'1,

ftrwhich is within
{/cu
Lurrent practice otr-submicron fumes indicates

various stack emissions of fty ash^and cites the co{-

thai

tha' 0p2 gr/cu ft iS rethrP-Iurnstq qgs-J9 invisibility'

an.outletlcoucentration less

quiisd to reduce

2.7 *1ECHAN/S1IS OF

CAPTURE

There
:ry:T$ TJ:]"1"-t"y.i-il,S;"4
devices qirrrently' available
Iutiou control
:9T*":'
ciall-y,, rhg,forcgs..oe?1tinpoq smail,particles in
SiiU liav-e--1*..,_1",99g:1"$."..1x.d..'tli:3te! ar9 alail;blA l:.
slTilt-+li pi:rIJq1B."..',".Y;
a9llE!t1c:
icteristics-iri,tl-e.r.pi1t4ry-."-"J.:ia"","i.-.3lp,ia''3,-5

"d.
estirrat*;J""h"ica1ly"inadqqu1te
th" *r"*ottrio, or"'io *Uior.iog"Jrl"g;1"d"g
.T"*d
.:
;'r{'
tiOns
of stacit
-Z+ enei'5sibu: ';.:: : :': ':'i . l-. " ' . ,--pregql!s-.4
ffr.Jl,U" light rausniisibrr.-t Fb"$
mUia
cfctole.s:-

geaefat, these

0.7 x

30

emiited from high sta&s. For very fine materials

the concentration will have to be less ,h#;"i;;;
0.0S gr/cu ft certainly, and perhap, I*, dil"g:,ij
gl/cu ft, in order not to be vrsible in most #;#
,iribiil#;;i sl[v lishrhs conditibns, Esdmates
"f
upon the
dependent
highly
dust Jonceiiration are
observer's obiectivity atd i"ntory response, the
diameter of the stack at the point of emission, the
color and optical,properries of '.ie dust 1i""i"ai"g
lrrrnio*-'
shape and refractive index), s\, color
"od
,.1.,?'i"r;-rr:1"rra*e;'il ih;-b1gkgro

Negativc

Tiochester

Electric )
Cypsum dust
(U.S. Gypsum

(su/g)
Positive

(?o )

Dispersal

i Staieline.
Chicago )

Speci-fic Chuge

Charge Disuibutiof,

T6;-S"&-f*t.rl

Method of

F1y esh

I1

?ROPERTIES OF AEROSOLS

I
+

t2

A]N POLLUTION T,I.{\UAL

II

(
EtE.

tl

I
I

ra

I
I

I
I
I

(
i

e$rv-q

:oxvtTloff3
:Gi,d6k.
I
l_-.........-.-..*
bd

h!,

1*",,.,,..,
.-:_-.-l

ii
i '*l

|irr1*" l

Figure 2-7. The concentraiion of materials in lhe

cipitators,) aud, forces that operate to cause collec_

tion, together with an approximate minimum particle size sep.arated at about g06. collectioqx eficiJncv
.t'*
(insofar as it is possible to generafize).
Six mechanisms caa be considered to be available to cause collection: gravity, centrifugal force,

ia':ertialirnpaction,directir.,;t"r""ptiorr,difi u"sion,and
eleetrostatic, efiects. Ttie magnltude of the collection'efect of each mechaaism is generally related
to partii:le sf2e, sma:ller particles r{"iriog'-ore ef-/
f91 arid':cost to reurove.l
Rem-.qyai,

b,.V

graoitdional fatiz is usuaily r+,

air:

rj

rl
ri

Courlesy Mine Safety Appliances Gompany,

stricted to - applieations

chip

traps

ih

settling

) for partides greater ti

microns ( teiminatyefikity greater thr

minute).. Smaller pirrticies'rr@ire e
mentation time or large volumes. CoI
predicted from partic.L characteristic:
Reuroval by centrifqal force b l
clonic dust coilectors *h]er" gas is c.,
" facto
in vortex fow. Ther "separation
outward radial velocity^of a particle
fo',r (y.) to the t *iinJ ,rnfi"g u
same particle under. the actioa oi gr

grven by:

I
I
I

T-gr.x

2i.

Foncrs lxrr.r,'wm.rc Su,rrr- Pl,nncr-s Cor:-ssrrox nq A-n Por.r.orroN CoNraor- Dsvrcs

PartiCe Diameter

Chss of .Ur

Force or lv{echadsm

Settling Chamber

Gravity

CvCone
'Large

Centifugal * Impacd.on

Diameter

Scnrbber

Inertial-Power Dnven

* Direct IntercePtion J
Impacion i Direct iniercePdon
_
Imoacioo - Direct Intelception : Cenirifugai
Cenhfugal
Intercsption
Direc
lmpaeijon -

Venturi

Tmpaction

Impaction

Simpie Sprav Tower

Pacle<i Tower

Wet

CYclone

lmpaction

Self-ln<iuceri SPraY

ii

I
I
I

ilter

Eliqh VelocitY lmPingement

Soin Glass Prefilters

Gep Fiber

isb"stot or -{lI

Glass

Iopaction -i- Direct Interception

IO

r
l*

; Direct Intercepiion : Difi-usion

Imoaction - Direct Interception i Di-ffusion - Electosiatic
lmpaction : Direct Inierception = Diilusion
Impaclion - Direc Inierception = Diffusion

<1

Elechostaric
Elechostatic

<1
<1

-.
loror"ooo - Direc! Interceidon - Diffusion : Eiecuostatic

Bas cr Screen Woven Fabilc

Reierse-Jet Felt

Electrostatic PreciPatator

Sinsle Stage High Voltage

Tw6 Stage Low Voitage

,
r - a7y oyr -Rg
-:

90y'6 elEciencv under

^^\
(Eq.2-9)

wnere:

Y"

r
I

: Difusion

lmpaction

Suoerfine Fiber
PhsEi; Fibr-Superfine
Cellulose Esier lvlembrane

r
I-

I
I

<i

fI
-

iaiercePrion

lm,paciion - Direci lotercePiion

Impacfion - Direci inierception

Bed

Hieii, Efr"i"ocY Cellulose-

--:- Direcr

Direct LntercePtion

*Miuio.u partide size colleced at epprcil@tdy

''ir

>5
>5

Centrjfugal -i- Impaction

Centifuga-l * TmPaction

Mecbanical Cent' Rotor

(uicrons ) "

Pollution Controi Ilevice

Sma.ll Di"meter

I* -

l3

PROPERTIES OF AEROSOLS

--

-vo:
R

outward radial velocity of partii; i; yortex fow, cm/seJ

linear velocity of rotating gas
the inret

;;;, "pp;*

* =

crn

:;"r1::1t*"

0.01

<1
<1

l,sul opceting onditioro'

Particle impaction and direct interception occur

on spray water &oplets in scrr:bbels of al tyPes,
and on filter fibers and granules. Figure 2-9 pr+
sents eficiency for single object-singie particle co_ntacts for spheres' cylinders' and ribbons' from the

orignal w-ork of Langmuir (as a function of i:he

ddensionless impaction parameter)''8 A more rs'

ieric-

: iy.i#':Tlo*,t,'" or gas

U. -I

path;

;:T:ft?:T#i::lff"ti:1ff:'r"r":f,-("r.f;il*:,

x*l*rl;"**::r:s*ffffi"ffi,xfi:T;
from'computer calculations'1'g "Target

the object,
am"r"trty*is {effnJ t th"r"'Eases as the rratio
y./R, (orT."/R,'
) as illustrated in Flgure 2-8'
-Ditr;^io,,
occurs when particles become srrall

due to savitv'

l,erti^at impactia\ and d,iraA interception are- il-

flid approaches
to have reasonable motion under the actioa
"oorlh
an o'le". in [e steam, it musi &verge-to pass of mJlecirlE trpact-f;.tr-less than one micron (sce
Figure 2-8). it^is a lelalygty slow process, so for
around. Th; J"rti, ot particles carried il tir" At ia
nearly
more
a
in
ant significant 'h1lrytg- oscg:lgs contab$g
causes them to continui forward
in ThE=E-cinity of the
;;4.-p.th,1h"atr they are deflected less and rm{ i.4i-a". musE-iemain
for a reasonable period.- Thi: lin:,its practrajectories of parThe
collectir
obje1.'
&"
o,1
-av-l,o,,ph
tical gas cleaning appiications of diffusion to low
ti.lu
-ioi*.eoters ,i" .a"u][rUt".
high efficieacy fibrous. or granular flters,
Jr"i rro* the finite dimen- ,eloci!,,
*;r;r*,
*.hf}
ogerilS;$ost
gntirelv lfrough mechanisrns
a
cori
essentially
sions of d" il;fi';;;*il"""il
*,tfi'*'#,:X?ffi"J;*f#fy:
r:,p:r
:,ffiS ffi#:'*;*::;:l'#"'Tn!:ni"tri; ttg,pqtd&.tk9 to a frltgl; aad to re*uce *t*
velo'qrl'y (a!
taiectoryIa, t""rrZfJ"t"a *ry-fl* Of..Pt # '. ;
lusuated in Figure 2-8. As fowing

[:fil,#i,*i"%*[#:f,raiy;:u.."=
:':..-f

-'Ii

::'

:l: : li :':3:-r-::'lf

,,:iffiLT.lffiiif"1,::
'': "f

-: :','"

t,

il

t
I

f
I

ii
li

AIR POLLUTION IvIANUAL II

14
l

a crossover point in the operation of these mechanisms in the vicinify of 0.5 micron 31 is6in:.1
filter veiocities of a few feet per minute, 'i/hich

t
t.

leads to a maiomum in particie penebation (a point

:,i

,l

{
J

rl

',

tl
:rl
i,l

efiect becomes operable only at un*

high velocities. Filter performance is L
plicated by addltional caoh:re effeq15
[ected material ( if solid ) . The collect,
act as targets for other airborne parti,
operation proceeds long enoush, the der
of granular particulate material acts'
mary separator; the filter matrix *1s1
secondarily as a collector, its pnmarv j
ing to maintain the granular layer on
sur{ace.

,r,i

il
,li

ril
ril
:iii

A is irojectory of porlicl cenler

which lust touches cylindricol fiber

ril

'al

il

INERT]AL IMPACTION

,i.

,i!

Trojectory o, porlicJe center

0,1

5EPARAr6il

rur6Ei, olvorl,ero,

*'-

Figure 2-9. Calcula:-.d impaclion target eificie

tion nsmber for ideal flow amund the trrget.

operate wh,
Elecbostatic *J"*rri
collecting objeci or the particle, or bc
electrostatic charge, or act to distort
applied electric field. They are most wi
and are most amenable to theoretical i

I
I
I
I
I
1

is troiesrory of porticle cenler ond fluid streomiine.

Porricle surtoce touches fiber st point of closesl opprooch.

DIRECT INTERCEPTION

I
I

is poth of porticle csnter

fluid molion ond rondom diffuslon:
C

due to

DTFFUSTOU

electrical precipitation. In ihe elect

tatorlT the particle is charged to some
value by high voltage discharge gasbo
then subsequently collected on a surlac
the opposite sigrr or grounded. Certai
omefies can be adequaElYbeated bY
tical operating diftculties are uzuaily
see-and solution' must frequently cor
perience.
The eiectrostatic efiect has been util
tion in certain limited applications, zuc
wool filter (use,&-in respirator filters,
(
bag fflters for air pollution control).
static effects- due.Jo -natirraily acqt
charge may also be importanH;r-othet
static fflters operated at low velocity; t
non has not 6een adequately investigr

Figure 2-8. Mechailisms of mechanica! filtration.

of minimurr efficiency for a given particle size)'

Higher velocities,yield higher efficiencies dhe to incte"ased impaction, Iowei veiocities yaield higher
efteiencies iue to increased difusidn, Forpaiticles
above a ferv sdcrons, the diffusion effeetbectmes
negligible. For very small particles''the ihipn"ction

BEFERENCES

1. Hsnpall, C., Sdill

2.

"3.

Porticte Stotistlr:,

Inc., New York, i1960..

Onn, C., and J. M. O*ru Ver,u,

urr

Iil

Vlacmillin Co., New York, 19

"ni,R. D., Padicle Size Dete,ltLiiGtl
Ceora"
Publications, Inc., New York, 1955,

il
PROPERTIES OF AEROSOLS
4.

il

il

'I

I
I
I
t
I
I
I
I

!*

*ud C. F.

Caur,

Patticle Size. Measure-

menl-Ioterptetd,iat arui. Appli"cotialt, Johl Wiley

Sons,

D.

&

Properbes"

of

Fine:. Parricu.late

r\Iatter," Polver

Test Code 28, 1965.

Dn-nl n, P., aod T. Hercrl hdilstridl Dvst,2r:.d, ed.,
VlcCraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1954.
DrxNrs, R., L. Sr-vr-m1,ry, C. E. Bu-r.a.rcs, E. Katst.rr.,
D. M. lvlrnsoN, anci P. Dnnrrm, "Air Clearing
Studies Progress Reporc ior July 1, 1955 to June 30,
1956," USAIC Report NYO-1809, Harvard Uaiversity,
March i959.
Wrrnrw-Gnav, R, and H. H. P.r,rrsnsoN, Smofte,
Edwarti Arnold a Co., London, 1932llcCnoNs, W. C., anri !I. A. Ser-zaxsrtoi, "The
llicrosccpic Identiication of Atmospheric Particulaies,"
APCA Annual Meeting Paper.6l-10, APCA, Pittsburgb,
Pe., i961.
:

o.

8.

10.

11.

Fnsr, ![. W., "Iostrumentation for Particle Sizing,"

n Enctlcloped.ia. of lnstrumefltotion for lndustrial HUgiene, litive*ity of llichigan. Aan Arbor, 1956.
Yrrrrr, C. D.,. D. H. Bvrns; and A. D. Hosrr, eds.,
nc1cloped,b of lnstrumentdion'for hdustri,al H1giefl"e,
University of Michigan, ,{.un Arbor, 1956.

SocietrT for Testiag and Materia'ls, "Symposium on ?articie Size Measurement," ASTII Special

12. American

..

Inc., New York, L963.

American Society of Mecha.i.cal Engiueers, "Determin-

ing the

r
I
I
I

Ina,''rr, R. R.,

Techdcal Publibation No. 234, ASTM, Philadelphia,

1959.
13. Laos, L. B., *The

Basic )Iechauisrns

of Siatic Elecki-

fication] Science 102, 573. (1945).

14. W:lre, H. J., in Ebctrbal Prechttditvo Fqviome&ak,
Eng. Proc., The Pennsylvaoia State University, University Park, Pa., 1961, p. 39.

15.' CarxN, H. L., and 1V. R. Lexr, Paiicubte Clouds,

E. & F. N. Spon, Ltd.. London, t957.

16. American Industrial Hygiene Assu.,

Ah

Manual-Pcrt I, Eoahlation, AIII-4, 1960, pp.

17. Wryr:s,

Polbtiat
17-30.

H. 1.,

In"&BtrbL EloAro*aic Prech,itAioq

Adciison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.. Reading,

\lass.,

1963.

18. Laeyr,:, C. E.,

io

Chem,bal Engineers' Haadbook,

VlcGraw-Hill Bock Company, New York,

196O.

19. fuc:r,r.msoN, E. G., ed., Aerod4rcnvic Capture of

ticbs, Perg^on Press, Odord" 1960.

BIBLIOGR{PHT
l.

D,rnres,

C. N., ed." Inhahd

Pergarron Press, Oford, 1961.

Particies

Par-

aui

Yapouts,

il

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;fi
:ii.

ril

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PROCESS FACTORS AFFECTI NG

EQUTP{wENT SELECT\ON

rill

CONTENTS

;ijll
:ll
.1il

3.1

r,il
,i

:,il

,lr

rii
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3.'1.6

iil

3.1.7

:]"i1

ril

I
rt
ti

carner gas

Adsorbers
Combustion

3.2 Control Equipment Selection

3.2.1

Amount

3.2.2

to atmosphere
Amount of contaminant entering the
collector

rl

of contaminant

discharged

loading

3.3 Process Characterization in Control Equipment Selection

3.4 Properties of the Garrier Gas
1.1.1 Carrier gas composition

1!
:

.:

:i,1

9.6.4 Contaminant Sotubitity

9.6.5 Contaminant sorhabilitT
3.5.6 Contaminantcombusti6ility
3.6.? Contaminantreactivity
3.5.8 Electricat and sonic pioperties of the

Collectorefficiency
!.?.3 Collectorselectiori

Carrier gas temferature

1.+.? Carrier
3.4.3
gas pressure
gas viscosity
Carrier
1.1.1
Carrier gas density'
1.1{ Carrier
humidity
1.1.9 Canier gas
gas
combusiiUility
1.1.7 Carrier gas
3.+.9
reactivity
3.4.9 Carrier gas toxicity '

istics
Propeilies of the Contaminant
Contaminantcomposition
!.6.1
3.6.2 Contaminant

3.5

3.2.4

:'.1

3,4.10 Eiectrical and sonic properties 0f the

3.5 Flow Characteristics of the Carrier Gas

3.5.1 Carrier gas flow rate
3.5.2 Variations in carrier gas fiow rate
Changes in carrier gi! properties
l.: g Relationship
3.5.4
to air moirer'charaeter-

3.1.3 Cyclones
3.1.4 Mechanical coltectors
3:1.5 Wet collectors (Scrubbers)

Oontrsl Equipment Types

3.1.1 Filters
3.1.2 Electrical precipitators

contam.inant

3.6.9

Contaminant toxicitv
3.6.'t0 Particle.size, shape, and density
3.6.11 Co nta m inant hygioicop icity
3.5.'t2 Aggtomerating characteristics of the
contaminant
9.q. !q FIow properties of the contaminant

3.5.14 Catalyst poisoning by the contam_

3.7

inant
Representative Sample of Contaminant

^J

.l

3./ coNrRoi

EQU tP/.ilENT TYPES

,Conhol-equipment may be classiffed into-sEv_
erat genera-l t-ypes: fllters, electical precipitators,
cyclones, mechanical collectors (othir tb""
scrubbers, adsorbers,
"y*a
io
:flf)l
which the contaminant is burned as thi
"qrip-*t
ieans for
its control. This last category includes afterburn_
combustion,-and similar appaxatus.
11: .rttdc
Some
equipment combines elements of mole than*
o"g. RT:.
.For examplg there are cyclones in which
is
sprayed" and there are scrubbers in
-.",1q*d
ytuc! cyc.lonic action is employed to remove the
,iqyd
$ogl9rs.- Packed i:e,t'filieri operated wet,
a3a qlcked bed scrubbers are alike in'consbuction,
the difference being that when ,f" a"1." is de.
rrfl"d to rernove particulate matter it iS a flter and
',vhen

it

is designed to remove a gas or vapor phase

16

contaminant

it is censidered-

a scrubber. Difierent

types of equipment are frequently used in series aud

;omejmes_incorporated into the pame equipment

housing. Thus 0lters commonly incorporate an iu_

tegral settJing chamber, a form of *ihanicai coi_

lector.

3.1.1 Filfers

ai""irl"

Filters-are:devices for removal of par_

rnatter_fronr.gas stre4lq$_by
retenUon of the
y,r:oo.r jo or ola porous structure througb which
the gas flows. The porous structure is m"ost
com_
monly _a woven or felted fabric but
can inciude

pierced, woven, or sintered metal;

*al"a.

of
Iarge variety of zubstances such'as
ffberr, **d
coke, slag wool, and ,*oa-. TJ.rs
111ings,
are operated wet to keep the intestices tiey
ae"a,
ffItss in general iroprove i, ,"t"otiorl
,,

"E'ii"o"y

il
il

I
I
T

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

PROCESS FACTORS AFFECTINC EQUIPVIET_T

be
the interstices in the porous structure begin to
parcollected
These
p*iti"l"t.'
nlf"a Uy coilected
suDticles form a porous structure of their ow!'
inierto
.orted bv the filter, and have the abilityin
I""t r"a sstein other particles. This increase
increase
by--an
acccmpanied
is
."LoUoo effcienc'r'through
th" fllter' -Therefore' io
;;-;;;t*" drop
the filter must be
f.ow.
m
d"*""t.
;";;;;
c;
cleaned' or
periodicallv
o.
continuousiv
5t,h"t

oeriodicsllY iePlaced'

' Ir, ,p""i"1'applications, filters a;e used to remove

nm or'rrpo, by teaction with the parficuiate matier reteined on or in the porous smrcture'

3.1.2 Electrical PreciPiiafors

Derrices

in which one or more high

intensilv eLectrical fields cause particles to acquire

.i""t'i"ri charge and migrate to a collecdng

"o
,*f""" are electriial precipitators' The collecling
,*fr"" may be either dry oi wet' Since the collect-

ioe fo."" is applied only to the parricles,-not to the

n^", tn" pr"rriri" drop of the gaJis onlv that of flow
iUro"gi, ! duct having the co-nfiguration of the collector] Hence, pr"ttrri" drop is very low and does
not tend to inciease with time. In'general, collection efficiency increases with length of passage
iLo"gh an electrical precipitator' Therefore, additional-precipitator seciions ar-e employed in series
to obtain higher collection efficiency'

3.1.3 Cyclones

eoitex
created *rtl* tl" *tf,ito.-P6.1t f-rti"r"t to.l:.--cations flom which they may be- removed tllTf:
collector. The-y may be opaated..eithel *g:-"|.Yj
They may eitler deposit the collected particulate
Cyclones are derrices in which a

SELE TION

3.1.4 Mechanical Collectors

(ofher than cyclones)
This category rncludes devices "virich
m*tt"r by gravity or centri'iugal
particulate
colleoi
force b,].t which do not depend uPon a vortex, as in
the case of cyclones. These devdces include set'iling
cham,bers, bafied chambers, Iouvered chambers,

and de.rices in which ihe carrier gas-oarticulate

ma,iter inixture passes through a fan in winbh
separation o".*J. In general, coilectors' of this
are of leiati'relv low: coliection eficieacy They
"liss
are frequently used'as pre-cleaners preceding other
qrpes

ci

collectcrs.

3.1.5

Wei Collectors

iScrubbersi

These are devices in which the prime

means of collection is a liquid introduced irto thb

collector for contact w-ith ihe aerosoi.

Scrubbers are primarily emploved to remove
gases and vapor phase contaminants from the carri."r gas, but ire sometirnes used to remove par"icu-matter. The liquid may either dissolve or
late

chemicaiiy react witi the contaminant collected''

Methods'of efieeting contact between scrubbing
liquid aad carrier gi io"lrd", spraying the liquid
inio open chambers, or chambers containing various fdrrns of baflesfgrilles, or packing; flowing
the tiquid into ihese suuctures over weirs; bubbiing
the g"s through tanks or houghs- of liquid; and
grt i'o* to create droplets from liqurd
"tiliing
intro<iu"cei ai a location of oigh gas veiocity ' The
liquid can frequentrly be recirculated to the scrubber after the collecied contaminant is partially or
completelv removed. -In, other cases all or a part of

:'"^"i'---ii*"" f" ailrrJ"a--Iu general, ,'r, lorrg

X",f;}L",,or elements of the scrubber remain
;i;, pi"rrr-rru drop does not increase with Lime.
il;;;iipr;r*. drop increases with increasing gas
i'"* li,I. Collection efficienry tends to inciease

*'ffi,IiAi:f;X,1.T,?J[i[X1",',J,4]1:j,:r"*, n* *:T,t?trir?r d;f:.lTtXf.ff :fr*"i

ly of a difi"redt type, for ultimate collection'_-As
eflueni gas is effectively prevented.
iio"iJ*ifr',he

'-1--long as the interior of the ryclone remains elean'

1a
to
-:
pressure drop does not increase witi time' Up
,
J'l'O AdsorDers
iertain timit.-totl collection efficiency and pressure
ti,o"gn'* cvciiue; bed'"p
' Devices in which cootaminant gases or
co-otinues to in&op"
p.*r*"
only
h"rtt
E;t
-'cr;"1;;;
i*r.d
retained on the surface of the porous
are
vapors
fre..
are
crease with flow ,*t;';;;.
the carrier gas flows- are
quently used in prrrU"t,- r.tdom in sgri.es. Wben *Jdio* through whi&
most commonly -used is
mediurr'
The
a special ads.orbers'
they are used in ,rri", li i, to
design
of''raq adsoiber is
The
carbor:'
"""o*plishactivated
objective, suck as tr pr"ria" ;te"*n- *oia U"
riat
of
a flter for p'artieuxate matter in
to
sr-irarto,fi-"dust discharge of the;;&:r"to*u
' , that the"gas fows through a porous tred' Ifowever'
cycloue,io
tion, &ereby causing ih;ftrty
""rt"
, ',,':'";:-, .,.,.i,.-t** cie'of a-n- +ds,o'Eer, ihu pototts bed' is'fre'
functioning as a collector.,

ffi;;irh-i'-;-;;

I
I
a
?1,,.

{.

_
.

:.

:ii i\ 'lair- 1
. ..1 : -",.,
:.
]:::ji:_:_:::i+::;:rlill

jjlj

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AiR POLLUTION IVIANUAL

18

-tti

ii

il;

quentll/ protected from pluggrng by particulate

i:i

i!

irl:

matter b;z preceding it wrth a filter so that the gases

passing through t}'e adsorption bed are free of
particles. In true adsorption, there is no irreversible
cherrical reaction beiween the adsorbent and the
adsorbed gas otlpor. The adsorbed gas or vapor
can therefore be driven off the adsorbent by heat,
vabuum, steam, or other means. In some adsorbers,
the adsorbent is regenerated in this man-rier for re.
use. In other applicail.ons the spent adsorbent is
discarded anil replaced with fresh adsorbent- P.ressure drop through an adsorber that does aot handle
gas contaminateci b;r particulate matter should not
increase with time, but should increase with gas
flow rate. Tne relationship betw-een adsorption
efficiency and gas flow rate depends upon desig::
and the materjal being adsorbed.

:rii
-.ii
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:rii
lrlt[

tlil
ll;

,|ii:
l'l;

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iIll
lliri

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fil
1

3.1.7 Combustion

In

deyices of this ciass, combustible

organic contaminants are burned by tle oxvgen in
the carrier gas to products of as complete combustion as possible. fn some cases, combustion takes
place on the surface of a catalyst; in others no
catalyst is necessary. Combustion is used mostly
for contaminant organic gases and vapors, rareiy
for particulate contaminants:

be caused by tfie discharge. To evaiuate the"o -,

fects, computations will have to be made 6
1ii
concenkation of contaminant at ground 1evel ao+ll
stuctures above ground resultiag from discor")
under tle conditjons.cottemplated. it shoulct
i.
recognized that stack height, disc.harge veioit1 a,j
temperahrre, wind _directicn and velocity, arrn6s.
pheric-stabfiy, and local topography all'influence
rground ievel conceurrafions. Hence, lu additjon ro
compuiaii.ons, it mav be Cesirabie io have U"r:d run_
nel tests made of a model of the proposed insta,ila_
tion. Tnese several considerationJ are discussed in
Volume I of this NIanual.

3.2.2 Amount of Contarninanf Eniering

the Collector
The amount of contaminant entering
the coilector is, for an existing installation, Cererl
mine<i bv measurjng ihe gas voiume dischargeC ar:ri
its contaminani loaCing. For an jnstallation not )/et
buiIt, these items must be computed hom prccess
data. As will be pointed out iater, i.i is tnponaxi
to klow the variatjon in discharge volume and contarninant loading, as weil as average values.

3.2.3 Collector Efficiency

lV-aere

3.2

CONTROT EQU :P/AENT SElfCr/ON

The prime determinant in the selection of conequipment is the maximum amount of contaminant to be discharged to the atmosphere. Wiih
hrowledge of this amount plus knowledge of the
amount of contaminant entering the collectory.the
required collection eficiency can be computed fiom
the equation:

toi

Ldr6ry

.
ffide'w=

Other forms of this equatiou Eue more suitable for

various practical circumstances and are &scussed in
Chapter 12.

3.2.1 Amount of Contaminant

Discharged to the Atmosphere
The amount of contaminant &scharged
to the atrnosphere is, in some locaiities, prescribed
by air pollutiou control regulations. Where not so
prescribed, or where it may be desirable to dis4*gg less than is permitted, it is necessary to d+.

cide the amount to be dischareed. This decision

shouid be based upon the adveEe effects likely to
t:

t
I

f,

tt.:

t-

.'

material to be coilecied

is

particle size may be determined. Col]ector ef;ciency may also vary wiih gas flow rate and wii}
properties of the carrier gas that may var--u- wiih
fow rate or with bE. ThEie variations need to be
considered in determinin g collector effi cien cv.

o* @i''h"nrl
oi nffi'nt
die]
faro
f.Mt
( atqiug de @ilector j - i ctqged tp the aEtrgh@ l
mt
of cotubst
ltailg ths milador

tle

pardculate, collectors have diferent effciencies for

di$erent sized particles. It is therefore necessarj/
to l<now or compute the particle size distribution
so that the coilecdon eficiency required for each

3.2.4 Collector Selecfion

From, an analysis of process variabier
discussed subseqrently'in this chapter, it may be
come apparent that several c.ollector types can pro.
yide the requirefu,Ietor eficiency. lt is ti:er
neeessary to choose f.rom.arngxls&ese collecicrs tlt
one best suited to the irxtallation in question. T}:i:
involves consideration, of first cos! operating costs

maintenance cost space, foundation, weight anr

po\

/er

requirements, contaminant disposal,

erc

Where there has been prior experience with Ciffer

ent collector tytrles on tl:e; proposed or a. relater

process, this experience shou]d be consiiereC

W-here it is possibie_ to obtain experienee on a- pilo
scale installatiou the results of such experiencr
should a-lso influence collbctor selection;

il
r

f
I

pRocESS F-\croRS -\FFECT'NG EeuiplvtENT

of the ease with which the poilutant mav

chii"e from among 'u 'oul*to'

tvpo

:1,fru*::,:l.T::*:,iTlfi*,'nH",T,-T#
iL' q''i
the requir",,'"ot'"-oJ:

ffif".trul
fl**ift;:1X",:,il'f',;fr:
-lvitl:T,*:j:
it

+{

those meetjng
gas and

t'e

contaminanis

can-ies.

"*1.,t

;li*"JJfi"1ltJJl.tr'or,r,"

f":;L,t:,"}X',X;;Tro#"1"j,i:tJdl#'ffi:ff""J
wta" .hi p'o""" I' o ti'" dra*"gboaid ind

Xt[:X ;X,3"t.'"ff:ft

carner gas

,T

reac'liviqv'

and *irt".:"':il"'i::i"tH#:11i::?X.f ;,,l*l

it is generally
of their
larcwledge
sarv to have precise

the contaminant aie known,

frequentlv possible to base desigo

,po., . closely parallel existing process.. To pro'
,id" , margin for error in the assumptions made,
it is wise irr"s',-,ch cases to incorPorate a.saielv facior in the design so tlat changes required to improve collection eficiency after the piant goes into
operation will not necessitate major reconstruction.
il"f, *i"ty factors inciude, for example, the initial
provision of motors somewhat larger than the

process,

it is

-irriorrr'o horsepower computed'

: ,4 PROPERT/ES OF THE CARR/ER G/5

J3 ' 4.., Carrier Gas Composiiion

humidAs was,p'"":9:'+ofl*: ii' composi;;: 1H:!'',"fi:".#ffi;,r'6,,"i;.ffi;-;;J.ii"!:
latter
o"iy3 it *Iecis its physical and
important
is
#'these
rion
sJni""ft;;;;-'lrr""y
bicat
are
.po" l.*'p.irture and p.Lr*r" as well as- -_ chemical prop-erties. fh3 ch,eTi_cai prcperties
depend"nd
be
chemical
may
thele
i*portrnt'to ihe extent that
Hfi;i5;mposition. if reactiviry-[ .o"rtr""a ,i
and the
;JG"; b't*."o the gas, the contaminant,One
ffiffi;,;ilili"rlrala-*L"liiitz, the above list
comits
contents'
or
as
structure
coilEtor-its
of prop"lto-"ppiiJ;r;Jii" the'contaminant
gas
components
between
reaction
of
example
mon
;;',h;1;;, g"r.
eqoip'ment is w-here gases containing zulfur
In the special case where the contaminant is
""d
metallic parts of
oxides arr-d water
: particulate, there is an ad&rio"ri;;;;'pnyrl""r
'*po' "oi'ode

elrt upon composition are density, viscosity,

lilxx"'1l.;:#*i1ffi"'f;1':?':r".5"sg,":* :::fi1:il,"i.llu:'**ffiff*T,=5*E#::^i,i:

H*ei;mi":,r*:*#"Ls[d:"ffi

#l

342

Hl';:::l;iL?""J::.r,emper

packing

pr;;"";;;. ;f-;i;";;'[""t"d-*rt".irt,.

ature are og th9 vohine,of the carrier gas and on

;*jf

*#,:,

lhr::ffii':"::."?ffi*r;:J:*JJ"["":1T0.*i

"*;"*t*16r,'m

l' aud tte concenfation of the contaminant per unit

using accepted techniques. Fo*o*l-of the propertu"niiqi'"t'
**n1;;-;,,,.-:*.,centation
',., :l-Lol-r11"'.IT-th't'r*;1';1i tt:T:tt3:::"Tf;:
ties mentioned'
mentioned, there are no acuEP\.*
is itself the dri..iog force for removatr.
""c"6U
translatabl'
:, i
B"tl" p."pl*a;s are not always
:.q-i
:
, ti;.

the

*:li,';:, *n::i,il'i:fj::

uniess constituents are

il-i-}rem;iut "#
properties a,ene1{major
The
chemicalli.
,"""tirrg

r
I
I

f.o"id. a direct measure or

"oi "h'*i"'I
caTer ffii-i]::T:iiiX
in
,i*, ,l"it concentratibn or loading and
the advance computation of many of ihe prop-the
properties for
grt, ,"a vanaiions in boih loading
utti"r, ,r"h as those of the particulate phase, tlat

must also kaow their

urrneceschemical
r
ne\^i
a
of
case
the
in
i{o*-"r"r,
Pro.J,,poritlor..
I
be
computed
rnust
properties
physical
cess, these
ahead of ttr.'oo the-bails of an assumed chemical
torpositiorr. Where the acfual phvsical properties
II
p.ou" to be difierent than those computed, lt may
be necessary to precisely determine chemical composition to compute more accurately those physical
fI
dlfficult to measure in a field installation'
iitf"ttl",
^ fh" prime physical properties of &e carrier gas'
p."tti'", "t* usuallv independenl
I-ternpqgtu" -iomposition

to

;;;;;;;;;'ri;rtTaft';Y;1J#,?:x'
T"::iHi:;l'"x
propgr-

rI

Ir

tH"T"i::"H'"7
:""H:X'#'IrTgilrl$t:;j "corlectibiritv"
bv a

"',.i:',t:L*:""'X*f;
phvsica.t ano
pi-ants ,rri p.o."rres. Wtere such erperience does
ihe carrier gas, cne must know its
variations
and
fow'
pro:pert'es' rts rate of
not erist. one must compute those pr-operties such
.t

li$m::"1,t':l':":;f":',rffi
ph,vsicai

19

measure
3.3 PRocFss ]HARACTER:.ATI)N /N
coNrRor EQUt p l;.ENi-srrcrloN H#i"""Jt"'?n*fi: Hhlli,",i;'::L#r"::?i,;
considered' Exampies of these latter are tiose for
basic
two
involves
seleclion
Control equipment
steps: first, the

sELECTioN

rii
:ir,

;f
,ii

il:

irl
rill
:ii
;l.i

20

:ti:

AIR POLLUTION \,IANU,{L U

il]

from a power siandpoint (cooliog by either ra6i,

tion-convectiou or evaporatiou will oot adci si-_lr'

ii
i.i'
;:;l

cantly

'lrl

crease

ill

lit;

:iill

.;li

iii

LEGENO

_ OILUT]OH COOL]NG
... EVAPORATION COOL]NG
.- RAOIATION. C ONVECT]O

jtl
,iil

jil

io the total mass-!"i"g h,ndled), .jfi

p power that would iesult from
ti

"dd;og
required mass of diluent ail is oearly cancejlet;
reducdons in both r-iscosity and ,oiome ;i-j
efiuent when it is cooled from elevated ,G;
tr:res to 750"F. Temperature of the
luy
""oi",
1 may have other indepea{ent signrficance
p""-oii,

to

-particular contr-oi iechnique.

Adsorption processes are generally exotlerrq
a1d ge- irnpra-cticable at fugher temperatures. ,r!
aCsorbabilitv being inverselv proportional to t-]
temperatures (w-hen the reacdon is primarily phys
7500 F
cal and is not inf,.uenced by accompanyingBd*i.
reaction ). Similarly, in absorption (where gr
solubfity depeads on tle temoerature of the
veni) ternperature efiects may b9 cf signiffqzpqthe concentation of the soluble mateiial is su,
that appreciable temperature rise results. In coi
bustion as a means for contaminant rernova_I, tl
gas temperatr:re affeais the heat balance, which
ihe yital factor in the process. In eiectuostatic pr
cipitation, both dust resistivity and the dielect
lstrength of the gas are temperature dependent.
Wet processes cannot be used at temperatur
' -where the liquid wouid either freeze, boil,
or evap
.500
0
looo
t50c
rate too rapidly. Filter rnedia can be used on-la
the temperature range within which they are stabj
GAs TEMPEFATURE AT
CLOTH F]LTER
The stucture must be of materials that retain thr
integrilz at their operating temperaturqs.
Figu.re 3-1. Change in fiitering power requirements
'ccoling of carriet gas.
Last, low temperafure gases from a stack Iollor
ing control equipmeut &sperse in the atrnosphe
Viscosity, density, _and other gas properties
less efrectjvely than high temperair:re gases. Co
sequently, benefits derived from pariial cleaning a
An important relationship to be considered in
companied by cool{ag may-be offset.if the cooi sta,
selecting a propr operating temperature is the
gas cannot be well dispersed. This is a factor
temperature.viscosify-density ( or volume ) relatiou-- ., rmportance'in wet"'cleaaing prbcesses for hct gasr
ship and its effect on the power required to move
where the advantage gained by cleaning is som
the required mass of gas. This rela'tionship is iltimes offset near the plant by down-w-ash from t,
lustrated in Figure 3-1 which shorrzs the changes
stack because tle stack gas is cooled.
p poyer requiremeats that result from ccoling
hypottretical efluent streams; from either 1800oF oi
3.4.3 Carrie-r Gas Pressure
1000oF; to the temperatures- show:r. atrong tle
_ I"- g_9gg-rtl,,-carrier gas pressure mu
abscissa, prior to passage througb a cloth fiIter. The
higher or lorvei than, aturospheric pressure requir
three crrrves originabrlg &om each point illust'afethat the confrel-"equipment-bedesigned as a arr
the difrering efrects on power resultiog ft.om cooling
sure vessel. Some types of equipmeut are mu,
by each of ttrree mechinisrns, radiafion-convgc.ti-op,
more_amerable to being designed ioto pr"ss*e ,*
": ":
evaporation, or dilution
sels. than others. For example, catalydc convertr
It can be seea'$at power requirements for an
are incorp_orated in pressure processls ior the pr
efi,uent streq1n will inciease only gladually as the
duction of nikjc acid and piovi<ie
-*"gas is cooled by simple air dilution down to as far
"r, ,;;;
"cooomj,
trxocess whereby aihogen i-ia*
as 750oF wbile cooling by either ex/aporatiou)r or .. aitrogea befo-re- release to the atrrosphere.
, radiation-conyection over the same range
Pressure of the,lan-ier gas is notl of ptime u
will result
iy,rapid decreases ih power required- Ever, &ougb
portance in particulate
Ior its ,
"o["""tio"1*"eIt
&lution cooling is tie mostl'-extavagant. method
fl.uence on gas density, yiscosity,
aod eie'ct i"a1 prc
COOLING

;ll

.,rl

'jill
.tlt
.l!l
rlril

ill
,ll
,rl

s"c

i,

.t,
9i+
i':
tf,-:

,"

EQUTPi/ENT

PF.OCESS FACTORS AFFECTINC

erties.

It

may, however- be of itnlortance

ceris
droice be-

3.4.7 Carrier Gas Cornbustibility

The handling of a. carrier gas that is
erplosive will iequire certajn precauor
flammable

of pariculate'
""U."=o""
can be ,rsed to overcome &e b'igh pres'
-;;;;
y,:::";;.;"tor. th. scmbber, reducing the high
i.I*"r tJ"r*ement thai cften limits the utilizatioo
favors
5i r"*tu}tt. In adsorptLon, high pressure
situations'
some
in
required
r"*o"rl and mav be

i"r

r
I
I
I
I
l---

I
I
I
I
I
I
t
T

Gas ViscositY
V;scosiY is of imporiance to collection
is unportant to
techaiques in lwo respects' First' it
( inertial
siruadons
many
in
,ill#"trr *ecranisls
preeiectrostatic
ald
collectior,
Iott""t.o", Sa'rit,v
Pariculate removal techniques often
"i"rir"""j.=
of the partrcies through th9 gas
-t""f"" -lgtahon
some removal force'
;"; ""aL e'r" iofuence of with
increasing visirr" & migradon decreases
riscositv inSecond'
g.t
stieam'
.*lq" ,f tf,"
and
the
collector
acros-s
tle
drcp
preisure
flr"o"",
consideration'
a
becomes
th"r"by
Power

3.4.4 Carrier

tions. Tae most important ol' these precautions is

makjng sure that the can-ier gas is either above '&e
upp.r*erolosive limit or beiow ihe lower explosive
li*ii t* lnv au-admirture ihat may arist or occur'
The use of water scrub'bing or aCsorptron rrav be an
efiective means o{ minimizing ihe hazards ia some
instances. Electicstatj.c precioiiators are oiten impracdcai, since thev tenci io spark anC mav ignite
ihe

gas.

3.4.8 Carrier Gas ReaciivitY

A reactive carier gas presents speclal
problems. In filtratjon, for exarrpl-e, tie p-resence

fluorides may eliminate tJle possibilitv of

""r"oo,
temperatr:re flltratioa using glass fiber fabrics'
higi-,
Il."-udro.ption. carrier gas must not react preferentirn.r- *ii\ '&e adsorbents. For example, sllica gel
is not aprropriate for adsorpdon oI contaminants
*h.r, *iie, i-apor is present as a comPonent of the
carri.er gas steam- A-lso the maglitude of this
p.olt*t"*"." be greater when one is de4ng-wi&
n gf, temperatur:e process' On the one hand' de"ui*i*"ot"mg the use of waier may be eliminaieC

if

3.4.5 Carrier Gas DensitY

Density appears to have no signficaqt
real gaicieaniog processes' aithough
most
ia
efiec
-difi"t"oc"

betieeo particle densilv and gas

,1"
andensity apPears as a facior in the theoretical
ccilection
ceafifugal
alvsis of ili g'ar,iiational anC
tJran
a;;;";. Par"ticle density is so muchingreater
density
gas
changes
usual
the
that
sas density
f,a,re neglig:ble efiect.

71-

above reasons, scrubbers or ad.sorpdon tow'ers may

be particularly aopropriate de'rices.

in

&e
ir* ,p""irt ,i*rtioor, as w-hereand
other devices
scrubbers
eficienry
#"":b-+
The available source

SEL-ECTION

3.4.6 Carrier Gas HumidiiY

Humi&t,v of the carrifi gas stream may

be important to the seiestion or ge.rfonn1u"",.* too.

from consid"r"rtioo if the carrier gas reacts with

water. On the other hand, scrubbers may be especially appropriate in ihat thqz tend to be relativei-'z
r*a.il u"h r-equire small amounts of constuction

material so that corrosi.on resistant components may

be used with lower reiative lncrease in cost'

t,o1equipmentin""r;;;-;;aibasicai1ydifier1n-t3.4.9CarrierGes=TojrLcity

ffIl"f,l#.:ffi1?"0*lJ,i?ELx';;HTffi;-soeciar**"S;:T"1H'*1J';"J:"Iffi'il":
$#ifl"ix1x"fr: i:,}:YL:et:. "ffi"T::: $,ffi:1Tlr; H"$:.:%:i1#J,r,::*' ":i
probleml'
and
tion and aggravation of corosion
dition, thJpresence of water vap-or may

lh;",:Hi"TT**#,.",i
ft

ts 'O- ;";h" ;;"k rho"ld be i:nder negative pressure the

tnflu3,1e
[;-r*k must be ottight constructiou. Sibce

1ffi#:":";".rff::^ff ;:t*:xrs"" ffiIeHi:1,,,H:H#t':'

hoppers, i{ eo*eetiun i. by

catalytic combuition qry be.an important consid.eration in the heat balance that Inust be mntn-

to.r-?ffi

i"*1""",

from thi

":x

1*y

tained. rn adsorption it mav tend

::#"t::.tffiffiLH:::"ff:""ffi*Y?y#"#
capacity of the bed if water is prefe'rentiaily-or cc1;;;i."
jlven
in.
currentiv adsorbed with the contaminant'
fiffi; ;;), ,"f;" ,gg1o*.r"tiou and pro3.4.10 Electrical and Sonic Properiies
duce subtle ellects. The above-mentioned -conof the Carrier Gas
siderations are the 66jrl limitations upoa ihe utilizaElectrical properties will be important
;btrio tne obvious
tion of evaporariou ;Ud;
to- elechostatic precipitation because the rate or ease
power advantage ,u"#il?i-,r#n
where humidity is a serious pioblem

i";;;d;t

tot oo" ol-tf";,, of io1+1!9n.yri11 i4ry"S'removal. mechanisn:5'

::i

'*.1.'

'

if

i,;

ili

{xr
ril

rl i;

il

ii
r;i

ri

.i
rli

i,iil

iltl
til

AIR POLLUTION ivlA.\U-{L

il

;ltl

ili

iI

Generally speaking, iatensity of Brswnian motion

and gas viscosity both increase wiiir gas temperahrre. These factors are im,portant gas st'eam characteristics that rolate to &e "sonic prope*ies" of the
streaq.. Increases in ei&er property will tend to in-

,;il

crease the effectiveness

,i,l:l

:rill

l;ri

1rl

rilii

iii,i
llll

;il

lltl

ill
fi,I

iil
,il
ti
dl

#l

ii
j[l

il
iill

jil

rili

'[l

ilr

ill
flr

il
{r

dl

l!
{i

$'

tr

li
il

1i

It
r1

Ii
ti

li
ll
it

ri

il

ri

ii
i,l

i!ll
I
i'
ll

ir

3.5

use of

FLOW CHARAC'TER/S7JCs OF
CARR/ER G/5

3.5.1 Carrier Gas Flow Raie

The rate of evolution lrom the process,
the iemperature of the efluent, and the-degree ald
th" **ot by which it is cooled if cooliag is used
fl* tl" rate at which carrjer gases must be beated,
and therefore the size of rernoval equipment and
the rate at which gas passes through it' - For eco'
reasrls it is f,esirable to minimize the size of
"o*i"
th" *qoipor"ot. Optimizing the size^ and velocii
-eta.tlc.tiip involv6s consideration of iwo efiects:
I 1 t redr:cion in size results in increased power requiements for handling a gyen amount of gas be=
J",-,r" of increased pt"r-t*J ioss within the contol
a"J"" *a (2) the efiect of velocity or the removal
*eah*oitmt' must be considered' For exarnple'
higher velocities favor removal in inertiai "q"ip*3"t "p to'the point ot turbuleace but beyond this
increasid velocity results in decreased eficiency'
In gravity settling chambers, flow velocitv deter*i"Zr rrr" smallei size that will be rernoved' In
scrubbers, eficiency is directly proportionai
"""t*i
;ielo"t,y rl"""gi tn" t,rtilm. Io "utoti'titi", "4o"ity af"cts fibn relistance to.mass transfer' In fflt'adtn, the resistance of the medium will often vary
*itil ,"locity because of cnanges in dust cake permeability *ith flo*. In adsorgtion, velocily-across
the bed'should not exceed &e ma:rimum that pErmits efiective removal. Optimum veloities have
not generally been established with certainty Jor
*v o"f the cont'ol processes because they are highiy
t rlir"rr"td by the iroperties crf tle contaminant and
by the design of the equlp*"11
carrier g*t
ment.

"i

"t

3.5.2 Variaiions in Carrier Gas Flow Rite

Rate variations result in veiocity

changes and thereby influence equlpmgnt eftcienc,v

*ai."tt*" drop. Various control lgchliques have

aie"l"g abilitiei to adjus to fow. &ange;' Init

situatiois where rate variations are inescapable'
to: (1) design for.extreme.conditions'
ir
;;p%y d",.i.""t thit wix conect for flow
i;t""""tt".y
ihrog"r,' ot

1S

use a collector &at is inhe-rently

''adapted

positive in its operation. Filtlation is most

I

'

f
tf,

i
!l

a.

,,1

presr

-wiii which sonic enerey can

be used to produce pariicie agglomeration.

ll
itl

it

posiiive barner ior -particulate removai.

iro""rr is, ho.rever. subject to pressure dlss
tons and general.lv rhe+u nouing equipme:
not deliver at a ccnstant rate when pressr.trr
increases. In most other conkol techuiques
tions in fow .riil result in'change in ihe efi

trll

rI

extreme rate variatj.ons because

to

ness of removai.

One means icr coping with rate odaEis.

iwolpectors ia serles,

one-avhich iir

oer{ormance with.ircreasing fow (ior u:

multicycJ.one) and de whose per{orman
creases with increasinq flo:' ( elechostatic :
\a(Vr

r.
Carrier
3.5.3 ChanS.S-lF

.r,

",,

f;i,"

Y#:H":iffi

Gas P*op

*+"tT

gis flows; and thoselg[ere'rariations

"^i=i*,
are cauied by pro55s changes 'vhich als'
varjation in the composition qggmperaturl
carrier gas. Var+ations in contarqjlffiL conc
and coiposition na7#ur simultaneousjl
many carrier gas properJibs change l1hen c
tion and temPeratue change, equipfrent
must give these changes recog-nitio:r'
Cariier gas properlirFrn{r aiso change w
There ** pto""ts"s where flow rate remaint
ablv unifc^rm over a process cy-cie but wl
composition goes thror:gh a cyclic variad'
problems are essentialiy the same- as when
variation of both composition and rate'
s

3.5.4 RelationshiP to Air

futover

Characteristics

C6ot'oi &6eiques &at resul

I
*essively increasing collector pressure.
gv
be
Eme will require that cbnsideration
efiect on air mover selection' Fabric filterl
fr""t tfru best illustration of this efiect'.'\
cake during the filtering cycle
;;"
"it;
to flow' The b9r9a
incred5ti4'resistance
generallY reduces centrifugal far
;;;
lVhere #e-r"tolt*t fl.ow variation- c:

tol"i"t"d [v the prcce$EJlositive disi

biowers or other special precautions mut
oioved.

' Lotlr., meihod of coPing with this

to maintain constar.t fl.ow by inccrporarr
sure operated dbmper- i" S" *+ d'-t":',P

or"ttr-ri" drop across the flter is low-, as u

il "ft;t cleaiing, the damper is in a par:i:
position to addlressrue drop to ile ryste'
p."s.or* drop aooss the fi1tar increases,
Lola"p orr ih" fabric, the damPer aut'

il
;

PROCESS FACTORS .{f'FECTINC EQUIPNIENT SEJ ECT1ON

of phase ai temperatures nea.r those normally eristopens,enough to maintain the sum of the filter presirg
i:: conventional collection equrpment (unless
constaat,
drop
th"
damper
pressure
drop
Juie
^od
ihereby foaintainine eoistanlcy of flow rate through such change of phase is relatC io '.he actual re-

ijil [::: " f

ilffi,"*: "ix* lT;' i "ilfjff T.*e,
temperature
sii-.rations determinafion o{
^

f
r

3.6

ciNr

3.6.1 Contaminant

at

"H:
[]f",,ti"?f,ir'**1":","ff",1#'""1"ffii:t

Composifion

&e contaminant. For exartple, ah:minum Clorjde

iU'3;""$fx1L1*LIH:':i#ffi*&jffi
iamjnani,,&::lfrii,t';",rxll:Hi,*i:"fi
pr-operdes are,
chemicai p,opJ.ti".

ff

OF TtjE

aulNANr

1RO1ERTIES

*"d the chesrical

#d,l}r:'rl""Xn|irlt.fn[:f,fn:J"';"f,;:

;1r*:l

important mainl; as thgv affect physicai iemoeratures that co*or"only edst in *an;z i,"p"r
"r
propeJtiel', As a separare ccnsideracon, composi- .."""i-"i*p*.,,
selection and conh-ol. of &e
ton directly afrects the use or value of the collected

* *T,

ffxt frt?'i-r:# :'*H:i}i r:it"i#?:#ifi

r H;:i:Ji;i'tffit'f,::,': *L":["":l* x- r1,;:',t ;':'rff,x**;-,, "t';U*:i:t
J

I
r
I
rI --,
II
II
r

II-

I'
_
I

*"::i:[:l::ii"Hilxr"*ri+i*
is to be used ul
ot shipped dr-r, a
proc,ess

material

&e {umes of

difier# *-",rf, ;"dr*r;"i

banks oi

lector is indicated.
Just as the ca::ier gas composition can change i:T:TH:*::;Jlr:",""f::1i##:1il1*"]j:1
a cyclic process, so can-the composition all other metals p.i.r".rt in the gas remaining in the
T:lgh""'.
of the contaminant' In the seccndary 5msltjng^ of
vapor phase. A drop ot tempEratrue betwien the
aluminurr, ** p"-ttod oJ evolution of extremely ffne
first and second collector bank condenses another
metat rume which is +,rren cotlected in the bank, and
so forth until all metals present have been removed'
physical properties vary with composition, a collector must be able to cope with cyclic composition
3.6.4 Contarninanf Solubiliiy
changes.
Solubility of contaminant is important
absorpton,and scnrbbTg. In ilt-o.padsorptiorr,
to
3.6.2 Contaminanf Loading
degree
of solubiliry is one indication of rhe
tion,
the
Load.rng influsase5 different types
cf
""^=^_
.ease of removal of the ccntaminani. In adsorption,
;;;;:-;,:*-;_-::*;
collectors in different way-s' For example'- cyclone
sohrbfihy mav be
imoortant to ,,Ie ease uritl which
- - ---!
effciency increases markedlv at high dusi loadings. ----converslly, extremely higir loading may overta-r the adsorbent may be regenerated' In scrubbing to
remove pardculate' solgbrlity -will provide a secorr;"pp;;, ;;;per, o*h'"k", iap"cilv, hocesses zuch .
dary removai mechanisrn to aid the basic separafing
as sonic agglomeration
quite sensitive to
forces.
"rL
changes in ioading.
Contaminant loading from many proce-sses:aries
3.6.5 Contaminant Sorbabiliiy
over a wide range for the operating cycle. Ten to
1. r
1r
I ne sorbabilrty, or ease wlu] wficn a
oDe varlauon m loaClt.trg is not uncoutmou. uEe ex!
_^_!-_jr_^
_^*^.1^;
L.,
^,J^^-.l1- or abby ads^orption
contaminaat can be
;;il;;;;
a process is &e ope4 hearth furnace,
-removed
sorption techniques' is-a function of a number of
is soot blowiag in a steam boiler.
.
properties. Generally adsorptiou.is demoie
,,
,
1.
,
"n.:th""
.::i":;-I"
tjontarninant l6zding may also vary with carrier
^^o-iar ;::; basic
::t:'::^::_
the procesl-P;:g*--ffi+]3e,l1t:,1'
A priml example is dy ash in fue lo"9.as
s"'-r;;';;.
.,4
Iiquids
are
erposed t:
gas rrom a stor(er ured coal rumace. an mcrease m
i?d Tl::""flT^:-1Pjit*:
fid
true sas now rate is the resurt or an rncrease 1D
::I1-.'*l'^:T*"^,1i.^1
eltner
*"rd-velocity sf air thoueh th. coal bed and
-1i"T^*^"j?1::"-'^:?Iie
.
tne
ls
moTe
sold
and
ColTlDlnatron
or
'.^1^^r--,..
r
.!
.
i
r
Uqud
---- r gas veiocliv in ,r-.]e,_-.^..
ereased
. r, DJ/ cDemlciu.
&e F.gnace,'.rot}, of wirich
r . .lPerremrflent Decause it 1s accomDarueq
:?, - -- ^: ^, r_^_ rL- f_-^, L^l r^ rL^ -^lncreasethecarryoverlromt-heruelDeorotnegas
.tr
,r
,.,
1
\!

#"i:P:J"#tfi,:,"'!t,ll*rffitii"*l,i

t*T

up- li:, "-': *: lg::^t:

u- igi'!'?l;i'j

ste"T

-- _

tTH;f[?il:';:i.T,:'H:';:XTl,T"ri3l:

3.6.3 Contaminanf Phase

In most air

cleaning operations,

the

contamjaant to be removed w-ill oo1 ood.rgo chauge

erties of temperafure, pressure of the system, &"rirical ,composition-_of gornfqYnin4nf and sorbent, and

,. plubilitl,

as

well as r:ndefined properties such

as

------'-.-

ril

_.:____:_:-::..:.
j

-.:-=::::-_=:.=.

,ril

Il,rl

1':

il
i

,rl,

:ii

tll

iii

24

ti.l

,il:

$i

:iii

rll

&e nahrre of ihe surface forces on adsorbing

solids

'::'j

iri.

AIR poLLUTIoN NIA\UAI

',ii

are cf ccnirolling importanc"

l;il
:'ii,i

ill
jlii

",::i

;:ii

lli

3.6.6 Confaminant Combusiibility

Cenerally, it is not desirable to use a
colection ry-stem that permits accumulrtion of

.ri+

-ll

fii

'{i

illi

Il

"pockets" o{ contaminant i.hen ,e"

co1_
lected is explosive. Systems t "L"tr**ant
such ma""df*g
teriais nust be protectld against
acc.imulat on of
staric
Elech.osiatic
precipitators
are not
-cnarges.
suiiabie ,because ot
tendency: to spark. Wet
.their
collecton by scrubbrag or adsorptioo *dthod, *ru
"air?u
be
.especiaily rpp."prl"t". ifo*-""".,-roo.
suci as- magnesium are .owophor:c rn the presence
of small amounts of wat6r. h
o.
"ombustion i*th
must te con_
lithoqt a catalyst), explosibfitT

illl

.x
.r,il

iill

.lil

rfl

al

rti

.tii

rll

lll

.i

,fii

lrl

ri,i

,ill
tll

iill

.tii
:ill

i|

rl

iltl

'll
il

',il

- ;;y;;Jf,*r,ioo.

sicierec.

[i

3.6.7 Confaminani Reacfiviiy

#t
i[l

il

Certarn obvrous precautions must be

iaken in the selection of equiiment for the collection of reactive contaminanis. Jn filtraticn, selection
of the filtering media may present a speciai proUf"*.
In adsorption, certain situa-tions ,"qrrl" that the ad_

,#i

sorbed contaminant react with tie adsorbent so

that the degree-of reactivrty will be important. For

uses where scrubbers are considered, agryavation

of
corrosive conditions must be balanci"against the
savings that are possibie because corrosion
resistant

construcijon requires relativeiy small amounts

of

material.

3.6.8 Elecfrical and Sonic properties

of the Contaminani
The electrical propertie, of thrl"oo_

TI

il1

fi i

i:i

ili

Ilii
iirl
it i
irj

lliI
(l

EI

ii[

:L if

,LIT:

taminant may influence the ^perio.rrrance of

several
col-lector types. Electrical prlperti.,
o",l contributing fact'or- influencing"r"-.oosldered
the build_up
:? soiids
ot
in inertial colleCors. Ii= eiectostafic
precipitators, the electical properties of
the contaminant are of paramount importance in determining cailection eficiency and ;n-fnsn.e
the ease witb
yhich it is removed by periodi* .t"r"lng. ln fabric
filbaUon, elech-ostatjc' pl"rro*.rm may iave direct
and observable in{uenie upon th" prl""r. of cake
formation aod the subsequeirt ur." Jf cal<e removal.
Ja spyal towers or other ?orms of scrubber in which

liquid dropiets xre forrned and contact between

tiese dioplets.and contaminant particles is required

tor parficle collection, the elecbical charge o, both
p,r1U"]$ and droplets is an important pricess variable,. The process is most eficient whed the charges
on thq droplet athact rather than repel those ou ih"
particle. Soatc properiies- are si{.:aficant wherrj
sonrc agglomeration is employed

II

3.6.9 Contaminant Toxicity

The degree of contanlaxol
iniluence collector efiicrency ierrr riro_
^

necessitate the use of equio*o-i;:;::'

ult"a high efficiency. tonii,v
means for removal of colleqed-:,ri'i!
;::
the collector and ttre means
_;::
"a
taining the collector. Hu*.lru,--"r^ll!
taminant does aot influence .Jr;'..*:'
isms of any eollecnon technique. '"^"''

3.6.1O Particle Size, 5hape,

anr

Size, shape, and densitr r,

factors that deterrrine the

".,"g"*i"
sisting
-movement of a partic"l. fu;,;
These forces are a major iactor i";;;
effectiveness of removal Uy *""*t",

lectors, gralriiy coilectors, '"""U*ir.

elechostatc precipitators. l" ;r.t iil,
prime consideration for any C*ri.", u,
filters, in which particuiate i. *lt".t*
instance, this force is balanced aqainr
moval force ihat is applied in the"con
and the magnitude of il. o"t fo.." t.o
move the particle wilj determine the e
of the equipment. Even in the case ol
and shape of paiticle influence both coj
cie_ncy and pressure drop.
Size, shape, and density of a pardcle
Iatable to ter:ninal settling velociiv, whr,
dust characteristic of greit irnporiance,
of equipment for parriiulate control. Tl
ship is erpressed by Stokes' Iaw l Chapt
tion 2-1) which equates the veiocrty
particle wi.ll fall= at eonstant speed be
balance of the frictional drag force and
ward force of gravity, to ,the-properdes
tjcie and the viseosity of the duid'throug
is settling.
Terminal settliag velocities, or partic
terrninqtigns=,.,based orr terminal seitlio g
may be determined by.any of a number
techniques^ and-_rrqed io evaJuate the difi
are io be anticipated in removai, of l
Power Test C-o--de-2&, ( lb6il=tEtermjn j
Properties of Particulate. IVlatter" bv the
Society of \Iechanical Engineers is recor
Thc only analcgous sitriafion in gaseor
is found in adsorltion where molelular
lates to the adsorbabi[tv of the gas.
molecular weiehts must bL in excess-of .{
the contaminait can be sseciively adsci
Since size has the previousiy'discusl
tancs to the'ease wit6 which individud
are removed f:.om the gas skeam, it is api
r

PROCESS FACTORS AFFECTINC EQUIPMENT SELECTION

will largely deiermiae the overall

eficiency of a parlicuiar piece of conkol equipment.
Generally, the smaller ihe size to be removed, the
qeater is ihe erpenciiiure requireC for power or
Jq*p."rt or both. To inerease the eficiencjes obtarnable wiih scrubbers it is necessary to expend
additionai power either to oroduce high gas stream,
velocities as in the venturi scrubber or to produce
fineiy divided spray water. Cyclones will require
that a iarger number of small uniis be used for
size distibution

I
I
il
il
il
i$il

il

I
I
t

lugher eficiencv in a -ziven situation. Both the

power cost (because of ',he increased pressure
drcp ) and equipment cost ( ior a muluple unit instaiiation) will be increased- Iligher eficiencies {or
elecrrostatrc precipitaiors 'vr1I re-quire iiat a numbel of 'aniis be used in series because ihere is an
approximately inveise logarithmic relafionship berween outlet concenh'ation and the size of collection equipment. A_ precipitaior giving gO% effcienqr
must be doubled in size to give 99{5 effcjency and
uipied in size to give gg.9% eficiency.

deposit of silicon (or an oxicie of silicon), and

metals such as mercury, lead, and zinc, may make
caialytic combusfi.cn impractical even though effluent stream characieristics are such that it wouid
otierwise be a suiiabls lgcl']nique. Other than by
mechanical attrition, cataivsts are deteiorated bv
four phenomena associated. witi stream content oi

condiiion: ( 1 ) surface coaiing of the granular

by particulate contaminants within the
gas ttieam, (2 ) coatrng by parUcuJate products of
oxidation, ( 3 ) chen:ical reacCon with gaseous components c{ the stieam, and (4) bed temoeraiure
levels ',Iai wrll cause sinterins of &e catalyst. These
stuucture

often overlooked ccnsiderations must be. taken into

account when selecting a caralytic o;adation system.

3,7

REPRESENTATIVE

SA/APLE OF

CONTA#IN,ANT

In order to evaluate anv contaminant and

predict
the ease or eficiency wiih which it can be
Hvgroscopicity is not specifically recollected,
lt is nec:ssary io procure a sample replaied to any removal mechanism. However, it may
resentatjve
of the way the contaminant erists in
be a measure of how readilv particulate will cake
the gas stream. Such evaluation is seidom possible
or tend to accumulate in equipmeut i.f moisture is
because the process of coilecting the sample, represent. If such accumulation occurs on a,fabric-dispersing it for measurement, and measuring the
filter, it mav completely blind it and prevent gas
of interest ail involve handling ihaf may
properties
flow.
change such fundamenial properties as effective
3.6.12 Agglomerating Characieristics
particle size. For tlis reason, laboratory investigarions and evaluatjons of a contaminant, while they
o{ the Coniaminant
provide ihe best avaiiable basis for design, are deffCollectors are sometimes used in series
nitely limited in their utilily.
wiih the first collector aciing as an aggiomerator
Because of this, the preferred way of evaluating
and the second coilecting the particies aggiomerated
ability of a collector type to collect a con'-the
in ihe first one. Carbon black collection is Brl x:
is io pass a poriion Ofl th-e gas stream contaminant
ample of a process where extremely fine particles
the
taining
contaminant into , a so-call "test unit"
are first agglomerated so ihat they may be made- to
the
brought
plani site. The'test unit is a pilot
pracficably collectabie.
plant sized collector employing',-he same eiements
and forces on a fraction of the prccess gas fl.ow as
3.6,13 Flow Properiies of the
a fulI scaie unit would apply to the total gas fow.
Contaminant
Thus the test unit operates on a sampie of the conThese properti,es are maiuly reiated to
taminant as it exists in &e gas steam. A test unit
&e ease with which the collected dust mav be &sgives results identieai to tlose from a fulI
seldom
--scale
charged from the collector. Extreme stickiness may
unit because SEdje bfects alE-ffirays a factor
elimiaate the possibility of using equipment such
in performance. However, test units give more re,s fabric filters. Hopper size depeuds in part on
liable results than laboratorv tests using redispersed
ihe packing characteristjcs or bulk density of the
dust.
collected material.
lVhere it is. not practicabie to use a test unit,
testing
must be done on a collected dust sanple,
3.614 Cafalyst Poisoning by the
koblems of contaminant collection and redispersion
Contaminant
do uot exist, of course, if the contaminant is a wellTte presence of traces of materials
defined gaseeus substance, not reacting witl the
such as silicones, which on decomposition leave a
carrier gas or other contaminants.
3.6.1'l Confaminant Hygroscopicity

r+
:#
j.

sp,;

4/

MECHANICAL COLLECTORS

lntroduction
Settling Chamherst
Qr-av_ity
4.2.1 combination settling chambers and
Radiant Gooring Devices
chip..rraps
!.2.? Collectors
4.3 Cyclone
4.3.1 Principles of 0peration
4.3.2 constiuction
4.3.3 Efficiency
4.1

F
F

4.4.3 Jet Type

4.4.4 Loniiir.tion
4.4.s afii;i;;.y'-

42

4.5
4'5

,-.*,.Fowei'Cinsumption
1.1.i niiiiiiiitv'-4.4.t
'--'

Dynamic

4.4.9 Costs
-Fiicipitator

principres of operition
t.!.1
4.5.2 ot;;t,-;; iiraracteristics

iilrmU:ful,iil;-' F
iii
fti,5;,ili'umption f:i;i C;,i;;{il;
4.4xHi-E!:lii&1]il]^'?t^g.?l...1I!i{mi':l.diil.-..-,
Type
-ld
4.3.5 Costs

4.5.5

4.4.2

4.s.7

Principles of Operation-Saffte

4.t INTRODUCTION

Emoien.y ,nd. Retiabitity

Applications

The reason for keeping collector &mensions

d***ti
ilffi r#::,{.:,iil+:{,,J:'fdij*1"*
in-

sp*#
..?::::: i.fl"JT il*ET'
Thre-e of these-gravity, centrj,fugal force,

tinguishing feature of mechanical collectors.

-and
ertial.impacdon-.-ar,e..the most im-portant ihat
dis[tect"oi]ca colectors rrray be ,convenientiy
"mechanicaf'equipment
the
so-called
class..
grouped
into two major types, gravity ana ine*iai
llsoitn
The last two mechanisms invorve 4 s'nstreined a"peoaug on the *"jo, ,'"p"rriog f6rce. Th" d;
'oi

---eblaga-of fuiddirection at such a rate tha! e1ticle motion is determined more by partcle- inertia thau by fuid drag forces, wilh
the result that

"rsn::.

g6op,

H::

g'"*y

derices,-

is

["I

*1arge"

J
"o*it
r"ttfig Ia"-*tior
il
oi only
d1"", ir.p"rtt"" q
The se-cond, much ""J
larger, group consists oi
"y"lo
--i-o

m-o'ffio a corh,ed ,rort"* *itil

which inertiai forces-cordirutnwlg proar".-.

in

resistance, increase dt! ah. square of particle

&ameter (see Chapter.2)._ThuJ.hrgest.pgtia"s
are separated most easily. From the itandlioint
dirnensions of the collector, the smaller'the
quaed &stance of tiavei across streamlines,

in operaion-except thlt th" change lo il; ;t *;

)
d.ueiggn.is usuilty db;;t";; l;;";#il
fr
chamberi). F-rr-ally, dynamic separators *" * *-"] F,
cial class'wherein'ihe'fl*d;;;;'lf'"#,,-"r"-,
rotating imfm,:.tret:"G" ir th; dl!"|nbd"n"; d

' *1,?:ili*?l?.":"i;y*ri*,:t*"r,mx

minimizing the.se collector dime.t*ions even comparatively

particles could, be sepaSglg{. b7
-small
these two ibrces. It rs a seccnd basc charaiTe.ristic
of "mechanicaf' equipmert, however, that these
drmensions are still ver,v large, when_ erpressed as
multiples of, the partigie Ai*"t"i- tl*kor", thi,
equipmeat-has an inhelenl
]Fper limit_on performance that i1 determmed by'p.article
dia-meter.

^
..,. 26

.ri:s{ogtj-p"cuonetirst the elemeut ,,: Frl

"19yr"n;
self
or its housLg.
It should be nlted that many mecianical eol_ j
.lectors
can be operaterl a*lo, *ei: Ho*erer, ;h;
F
water is used, ii p*.fo*r!
;""#;
#"
"rb';
tiou such as the cleansing of
collector-;*f;";in some cases, it ma;, form part of the llurd.
t

Theuseof

t!"*

waterinthesea;;L;;;ffi;;"l*o.1.
i*r"*.bb.r-r-ih;;;;i -,
;. ,:. r_..

as scrubbers, since

)-

of as that qorP. of devices that depends on-gqar-itn

_

of
re.
the
greater i3 the removal eficieocr. ftereforfiy -

ua ,of"fy

r'au:::ru:i*tl;::,"rf,.nffi
.i:1,rf"ry'&i*i5t%":"*'ffi :i;g:
"mechanical" coilection equipment may be-thought the
fuid st'eam
*{;f:'f,ffifi"l::,::#H'*-'*TTf,j",'."i,1u

d
1

_ -,.t,."; . E

.I

F li
I

**'j

!r

il
il
.il

r
!

\,IECH,{\1C,{L COLLECTORS
se}f, usually in the form of droplets, acts as ihe
primary ccllecting element (see Chapter 6). A1though inerial iorces also operate in bue scru'bbers
they cannot be classified as mechanical collectors,
accordiag to the above defiaiiions, since in scrubbers the collector element dimensions (&oplet
diameters) are purposeiy made within an order of
magnrtude of the particle diameter.

4.2 GRAVITY SETTLING

where:

D, : Mini.srum sjze partiCe coi_

lecred @ LW
"fi-o"o",
Ja : Gas yiscosir*r, pounds
per icot
second

H - Chqmber heighl feet

V = Gas veloci.ry-, feet per second
g : Gralitational consiant, JZ.z
feet per second
t L : Chamber length, feet
P? : Particie densifz. ccunds per

CHA/UBERS

Gravifz settling cham,bers are among the olCest

kaowa melhocjs of dust ccllecfion. A settling cham-

P :

ber, as '&e aame imp,lies. is usually a long rectangri-

foot
This equation is only Lheoretical an<i a sharp particje size riiyjsion cannot be obtalned, main& -due
to hrrbulence and eddy currents.
Efforts have been mad.e to
the eftciency
-rmprove
of_ gravity serJing chambers by bafles and various
other methods. One efort has beea tle addition of
closely spaced- horizontal shelves placed with;n 1gs
chamrber jn efiect making a mulUtude of horjzontal
tays and provi<iing more uniform air &stribution.
TE yp" oi' settling chamber was neyer widely
used because of the difrculv in removing th!
settled dust from the horizontai plates.
While settling chambers are simple in design and
can be manufactured from almost *y *It.ri"l,
they are infrequently used because of the exteme.
ly large space requireulents. and the reiatively low
eficiency. Where settling chambers are used- they
are normally foilowed by-a more eficient collectini

Iar chamber large enough in cross sectional area io

reduce the air and particie veiocilv ,nC allow tl:e
dust to setcle by grayity ( Figure 41 ).

il
T

il

Figure

4-i.

Gravity setiling chamber,

For a gravily chamber to be efecdve, the air

veiocity through the sbuciure Eust be uniform and

relatively low. For best results, the velocitv should
be 60 f'eet per minute or less. The structure must be
of suficieut size so that the smallest partiele to be
coilected will settie o-ut (see Stokes, iaw, Chapter

device.

2) ,T!: e$eiency of a senling cham.ber havtng

good distribution at inlet and exit, may be e.x]
pressed by the foilorying equation:

,'

n:"

1@u, L
EIV

(Eq.

al)

4.2.i Conrbination Settling Chambers

and Radiant Cooling Devices

The combination settling chamber and.

cooling device has been *iduly os"d io the metal
reffaing h$*ty to partially colieet large particulate
ard to reduce the gas temperature to -tfri ffnal coljg"ti"S delrice. One of thehore comrnon files, the
"hair pin c,ooler," is shown in Figure 4-2. t',.' '

where:

! : Efficieucy, weight percentage of

particles of settling veloity u,
ut : Settling velocity of dust, feet
per second
L : Chember length, feet
il : Chauber height, feet
Y : Gas velocity, feet per second

I
t

cubic foot
Gas deusifv, pounds per cu.bic

ii

1
ri
:l
iril

i,fl
l]il

.!l

it
!i

rx

'H

Combiniug Equation 4-1 with Stokes, law, the

maximr:m particle size that can be completely
separated mayk calculated by

ll

iil

il
lll

(Eq;

42)

'

fl

It

tf

*;\;{i;',.
..':

BrBl:{l,..

i't#,

AIN POLLUTION MANUAI II

The length of the thair pin cooler" will depend

ou the iniet gas temperature and the desired iem_
perair:re at the outlet. Duct veloiiies are in the
normal conveying range of 3,500 to 4,000 feet per
minute. Hoppers are connected to dn autornitic
d'.ut removal system or manually dumped.
Materials of consEuction are ,o.ir.Uy heavy
gauge, welded steei pipe.
./

4.2.2 Chip Traps

Chip kaps are devices that rely on an
abrupt change in direction o{ air flow to collect
ccarse materiai. One of the types often used is the
bap, or dropout box. The u"ap (see Figure 4.3) is

tr

1-.5 to 2.0 velocity pressures based on ttre velocity of

the inlet duct.

4,3

CYCLONE COITfCIORS

4.3,1 Principles of Operaiion

A cydoue separator is a skuchrre wittr_
out moving parts that separates particulate matter
lrom gas by
-transforming au inlet gul stream into
a vortex conffaed
wjthin the sfucture.r A tyoicel
cvclone design is illustated in Figures ++ aod4;,

-"-

F
E
d

qw

EDDY

tu4,w

2 D-2"'l. Y1P.

*'

.D'b

Gf,

t4

REMOVAELE COVER

"F -''':V

irY^,;
{r
a,
'v

{-t
-z

4
3-

F
-

Figure

+i.

E
E
E

Chip trap.

a boxlike stucture having a bafle to change the

direction of air {lorr. Coarie particles *d ctT,p. hlt
the bafle and fall into the _hopper.
Traps are normally used as- separators for exT"T+-coarse material Ttey are'used to prolg4
&e iocal exhaust system, dust collector, *a pri*J
air rrover from foreign objects and tash, -or to

s_eparate yery coarse material ftom ffner dust.

Grain elevators of.ten use kaps directlv behind, the
h3ods exh.au-sting_belt coor&7o. poirit *a ,pill
chutes to belts. The tsap is used-to
seprate ial_
fgeable g'ein t!a{ may 'bo,rnce" into-the hoodfhg u'|p is usually so l6cated tha.t the salvageable
E?:n is aliowed to fall back onto the conveyor
belt. The pressure drop for baps will o"g, &t*.

Figura_Ei.

_Typicat

cyctree.

and various ;6ltcrtio"s Effit

alrd discharge
are shorvn ia Figure 46: Becaus" of tbis relativ.e
simplicitv rn desim- cvclones.ar.. i-o*-",;-:i
can be constructed,, of many mlterials'op*or" o,
meeting nearlv any conditions
,"rrE rtLerpres_

"i

t'ft":ii; "I*Tirrm,?"*"#

E
E

#i"HJffi# E
*:ff*: F

tactors lead to exteasive alplicatiou of these devices, especially where

*oa.r"tu" I
is requiied.
#:807,)"rty

ffi:"}'E;il,

.G
F

tli

,J@

AIR POLLUTION IyIANUAL

and others,''' hard alloy-steel consbuc'don is recommended. For op"r"tjoo above 1200oF, it is
necessary to use stiinless steel, refractory-li::ed,

: a numerical constant (which

varies among cYclone designs
but is constant for a given
dimensionailY similar design)

YO

D"
1i
f .,a

: particle &ameter
: i'n"r"g" tangential velocitY
particle densitY

,l :

particles (aszumed equal

that of the gas stream)

of
to

gas viscosiiy

Jyclone bodY diameter (same

a.s 2 d,, in Figure 45)
variables in consistent uuits' Note the

D" =
w-ith all

of &is to the separation number-(Equ"and the complex variation of eficiency

a1),
tion
simi-larily

with the parameier.

Theoreically, tie efficieqcy of p-articulate removal of a given cyclone design will increase as
the value of L" inct*rses. Thus for a given design'
eficient operation is favored by au increase in
oardcle diimeter (and density), by an increase in
iangetial velocity, or by a-decrease in
^,rurug"
cvclcie diarieter or gas viscosity' Equation 4-3
explains why small particles are Bot captured very
oi *hy ^ de"t""se in body diameter
"ft"i""tty
"high eficieney" cy( to the ranqe oi so'called
.too"t ) is so !fiective. At constant volume throught
, decrease in D" not only raises the value o{
il pn
se, but also indirectly causes an increase
b^.
in-'V,", the combination of the two effects being
.o,.glrly proportional to the cube of the change
in D".

II

firroace-qualitv carbon steel, or other allovs if cost

considerations p ermit.
I{ aci<i o. oti*, corrosive gases are handied and
if cooling below the dew poiat occurs, corrosiou
may be I problem. The djrect use of water such
as ior wettid wall operation or in droplet collection

also resuit in corrosion problems' These

^^y
problerns may be minimized by the use of ccr-

or alloy construction' Wet

operation usually decreases problems-due io erosiirr, horr"uer. Oo ihe other hand, if a cry dust
is collected in a wet cyCcne, corrosion and dust
caking at the discharge may become problems'
iosion-resistant linings

4.3,3

Ef{iciencY

Most cvclones operate in the low i 50ft\Ov") and medium (80:.'t-6SE') overall eficieacy
ranges, depending on the size of -the pariiculate

-.i"r'
'Iiigh

haidtud

a=nd

the cyclone body diameter'

efficiency" or "small diaureter" cyclones are

genIrally coasidered to be those uine inches or
i"r. in diameter. Typical eficienry ranges for
various particle sizes aie shown in Table 4-1''
Tanr-r 4-1. Trprcer ErrrcreNcv BaNcrs ron CvcroNr
Cor,r.rctons

EfrciencY (%)

size range (microns

fficvclone

'o

4.3.2 Construction
Figure 4-5 shows a firical d-gsig* f9r
a conventionaf tangential,inlet cyclone':.The basic
dimeasions, expresied in terms of the oudet &ameter, d", repiesent a good compromise behneeneficiency and pressure drop for.-most proP-er- apolications o{ the cvclone.2 It will be note& lrom
Fig*" 46 that this "rypicai" design has been urodifid, without apparent-problerrs. For examplq r1
W;. (b), ,o i6ou is used; ln trpg (c) an' axiai
iniet' li provided; and in rype (d) qu bodv is .horizootal. T,hese chaages affect performance, in-a
variable, but not aecessarily detrirrentaL way: -Design factors &at signiffcanily lfect pressure drop
anld eficienry are discussed below; - ' Erosion of the inner walls of a cyclone frequendy
occurs and is a self-accelerating Process that ca-n
iesutt ih severe metal wear of th. cyclone' bod-y
in- smrll area, with ottrer areas only slghdy
" Erosion increases with dust loading, pareroded.
tiele size;,speeifie gravity and hardnessi of &e dust'
and with vilocity of thd gas-, For &ese condidons,

[*
t:

rl

ll

i..

50-80
80-95

5 -20

15-50

95-99

40

It

is possibl", o.t

cyclone

50-80
80-95
95-99
95-99

theoreticai basis, to calculate

the efiiiency of a given'- cyclone design agatlst

, koo*rt particuiate sotp.niio, using various de
rived uqoltioot for th; "critical p,ttiql" stze,"
that is, the largest size not separated. However,
since any- pracdcal device is subiect to-a rar'dom
distdbudo; of particles aeross the width of &e

sas stream, it lo-llgws. that a sharp size cut cannot

Eu made and a particle size-[cienc,v curve is the
result ( see Figuie 4-7 ). Th-e-stcuryes are usually
determined by actual performance testing on ltnown

susoensions

'.;-:-::is
increased.
eficieacy
by inoeasing
dualitatirely,
43)
pre'
(Equation
as
explained
C"
of
the-value
viouslv, The tanS,ential, velocity c?n be increased
by using higher inlet velscity or a higher iatior of
bodv diameter ,to gas' oudet diameter. .'6vclone
pt"'
U"ai' i""e*l (or cone,leugth)' is a factor

,"rt'"d erpU"itty in Equation 43.

"ot
Elow.eveq,

it'is

e
4

q
q
4
q
4
I

4
1
4

q
4
d

J
J

d
d
q
#

MECHANICAI

COLLECTORS

afecting the selection of cyclones for particular

upward to rhe gas outlet. "Eddy {low,' also

occurs

applicailons bave, been outlined r:r Chapter 3.

an-nular space near the top of the body,

auows some particles to be lost to the out_
Som" cyclones
*itn
I:l,",
"r. "q"ifp.a
snaveoEs near tie gas inle! which
are, however,
only parbally zu""".rIrd in eliminating this trouble-

:r,Y
wlucn

In a tangential inlet cycioue (Figure 4-4),

gas enteri.ng near the

top

2s

the
of the cylindrical body

,*p"iot.

some feahrre.2

The rnertial separating force

in a ryclone

radr-al component o{ simpie cenbif,ugal

ffi

(the

force)

can

/F
\v/

+*
l-:l

i
I

i--l

i[m:-=

t---l

iir-^-l

II

ti
ll

I-7

?',-%1t--#

&DUSi

(BI TANGENTIAL INLET

PERTPHEFAL Orso.l6glie

E
i

OUST

e) r,r,^rcexrral rruc:t
AxrAL

*strARGE
al<a

%#

I.it
NIf,
!r
l

rt
1i
tl
l-/"^'

t----t

\/

u/

OUST

(o| ,orxterPEFIPHEFAL

DUST

IN

LET

DISCHARGE

{cJ nxtar- rHler

ANO DISCHARGE

rigura

4.i-

vadarions

; :r;;"; i,", ,n,

t
,'

dischar$r

'_'

be expressed in terms of the taageatial vel'ocity

component of

gas steam aud then represent#

in the forrr of-the

a ratioJo. the resiitancu oi tbe g*,

,t
v
Figure

il
il

*,5. Dimension ratios 0l a typical

cyclone.

^reates a spiral f.ow downward between the walls

the-discharge outlet and the body of the cydo,ne.

*r'Ills main vortex" continues

dovm to some point

lear &e bottom of tho^ cone, theu ,urr*r* it"

directioa- forming a 'vortexir": *nf"U.t"r"*

(assuming Stokes' U;1, IoUrwir;;

practice in air clgani'lgl!S-r-..". When tlis """upi-a
is d-one,,
the force calCqlatlilEi ihe etzqcege tangeritij
-and
velocity betweea cyclone eenter
*jI, th"
^"a (which
ratioaf r"pjr?Ugg force to fluid "xi
resisrr,,ce
may be called .thtucenkjfugal 'parameter') is:

,- Ua-:

Kp, Dr'Y r"

PDo

l'

(Eq.)

t.

where:

C, :

cend.ugal parameter,,

t]/erage
dirn6n5igalsss

:i ,;,
').

'
.:

;il

NIECHANICAL COLLECTORS

lnown tlat effcrency rises

optimum for a tangential inlet cyclone (see Figure

as these lengths become

4-D l.

*e:HHi :i"ffi
ai11;'#*H *A;;notion
of the Particles'

high eficiency and pracdcai

To obtain relatively'diaieter
cYcloues are. often
gas volumes small
in Figure 4-10,
illustrated
as
Eperated in parallei,
and a singie
plenums
aad
outlet
lrt"t
*ith
"o**no'
In order io approach the same efficienry
dust bin..
from u,ie "bank" of rubei that can be obtai:ned on

S.::i",*"'i* t*dl"i
from tle
of
flftil;;;
"oo"io-* Particies

t7zt:a 1-1. TrrrcerU

.{R AT lf i
eFsisiaNcE 3.0
LOAD

4.6

_-__-lN-

w.G.

GAAUS eer. cU.

r;,

---.1

I
I

8.11

(in

OIAMETER, YIC-RONS

curve
Figure 4-7. Typical fractional efliciency

t-

Body iength
Bociy di:ameier-ouilet

ol a

cyclone'

resion of the discharge po:t is mirrimized-by h:

.t3rrilJ Utav Iengthl fr shouid be emphasized
cy is not directlv proporiional to the
tfrri
"d"i""
value of C' tut merely increases as C" increases'
in a complex manner. Thus, doubling the ent'y
vetocity will not cause a corresponding increase in
eficiency, that is, a haiving of penetlation' but
;11 ;;;; a variable increasJ in coilection dependins on the initiai condition. These efiects are usuaty determined empirically' Figrue 48 illustrates
thB observed variation of efieiency as a function
J- J""g"t in inlet velocity, particle size, and
dimensious for a tYPicai cYcione.

r
.4

cyciSne bodY)

io d"sign the dust hopper and h:bes so ttrat the

bottomi (dust discharge ) of the individuai tubes
do not plug.
/

if this oicurs, the afiected tube will

6BON EXPANOIilG
]iLET VAilE

----t-\
YV-.,'l
EsHorNG-1 \l/r
rxLErvaNE

\ v

\-r_

,l

ffi
I [___]

tt
,C--]

L,KJ

/\
//-\\
It)l
ltv/

l\--./
I

ilft

z
c

(AI STANURO [ILE7

ALL 0.73 MICRON

PARTIC

Figure

I
I

good dust discharge

Involute (see Figr:re 4'9J

til

..

,
INLET VELOCITY.

Figure 4-8. Varjation

and inlet velocity.

2"-31", minimunr)

a singie tube it is necessary t-o equalize gas and

particulate loads among the tubes. This is accomplistred by designing for constant pressur-e across
ih. "rott-i"ctions of &e tlree common chambers
(plenums and bln). Care must also be exe:cised

U
G

d. (a" =

:.J
1{ d" (plus
design )

Inlet design
Oudet lenqth

PARI]CLi

Iiru:

Optimum Dimelsion or. TYPe

diameter ratio
Cone &ameter
( at apex)
o1520z5{

-r"lirxcaNr:'Tr'

Desige Factor
I

"AY:;"J:"

fT.

PEF. ilIN'

of cyclonic

efficiency

with

diamelbr

*passl'.

,t"^*

+g.

TYPes

all of the dsst in

it handLes.

of

cYclone inlet.

the-

ppdgp of the

gas

Collection efficiency on dropiets is beiter than

that on dry particles of similar size because re-

entrainment is iess. The added use of water sprays

inside cyclones can'be effective in two ways: by
wetting of walls with resultant decrease in re-entrainmEat of dry particulates, and by producing
a basic increase in iollection eftciency by t-ue particle.droplet 'impaction." T'' &e latter ,ease the
cycloa'.e -cray-aq!31[i,u-b" egl4 :!oo.q.qrf orm like a Eue

32

AIR POLLUTION MANUAL

Ii_quid scrubber (see Chapter 6), the

cenkifugal
acuon separating smallel particulates previously

i]
Dy

rmpacron rn larger droplets.

Tliese
.
-1-P..* have
phenomena
been investigi.ted
oo^*
l*Uor^io.i
--o
-..
sca]e..

4.3.4 Power Consumption

^;;a. p1we1

.cbTs

ior

operauon can
loss characrer_

<iry.

..T..dr.,{ ery,ti to tie pressure

fr

' ;:,: ilil1#"*1"1'TXH'#tiJffi[g

#
of
jropi,
oneumatic. prociucUon
::-rlo,. power
requirements
are more fiilly
idc1f

discussed

E
lcss cepeuds cn a ;;"";
,:.'":iSJIrX"*;=
variabte-s but is usually in Lhe
order of I to 4 iqiei
reioci$ heads, w.hich io. rrft"ri rpiliJatio.r, .rilt ,

prcciuce a range of resistancl

acout d inches water gage. Aitempts
have ixen
marie io relate the bzuic i"sistan;;i

lr"*'*rr-rii" i"i" F

inret and

E
""iliii*.;*;-;"# ;fi'ffi'#
d"p"oa
":

Ihe best method

results.'

cn ire rreasured pr"rr*.'d."p

"pp"".rlo-l""io
;;

.:tr*T
!ffi.f'-t;."'',11[-3:,iff"i"T'eier'
z 3

A'I

5-z"s'

hish'{nciencv

cvcrones'

z i l aur'r'

;;r;
oT,#.i,fier ilau to'reiy,;;-3HfiH

.oH i#::.:Tl"ijuff l*'.ure drop is rerated

z 3 l rurtnl

z 3 4 5t18n'

E
E

ltl

1!

6
o
o

fr

.D

lO'
,g

4
b

A6

4
Y

dl

lrl

trJ

e
d

Figutr

+r1. K facror in

-j

Eq.

*,4;

rl .'-. "i

...1

t* r"offi]$i;{iii:*
' 1:-:;'

-.
,

t"

' ria-:-...::
.

r..::',

. "'rl':
- ) ..

i,-i:
.tilii:,.ii

.i

,r

':

lvctiiri'dhmerer and.pressure

ros:.

d
d
I

**d

il

MECHANICAI, COLLECTORS

I
T

I
I
I
T

where:
AP

caused
header joinrs.

K : proportionality constant (see

- Eigure 4-11)
a = gas flow rate, cfm
p : absolute pressr.rre, atmospheres
is = gas densitv, ibs,/cu fi
T : absolute temperafure of gas,
cB.

4.3.5 Reliabilify
Because of their siroplicilv of

of

Totai cycicne costs will var,v depending

on maieriels of construciion. special featr:res, aad
installaticn costs. Cost estj:nates for tle cyclone
iiseli', unicstalled, have varied from $0.07 io $.0.50
per cubic foot per minute of capacitv*, as shown iri
Tabie 4-3.'
T,r-rrr

.1-,-1.

CvcroNs Cosrs

T9

-j L

L:ifial cost $,zcfin

Moro.
CPEAATEO

)/'.11

Lighr
Dub/

eorARy
VALVE

Capacrtr - cfm

ro"JT
srx- I

ousT l]l
A. SIMPLE CLOSED DRUM
PRIOOIC OUMP

at the tube-

4.3.6 Costs

cyclones are arnong ttre most trouble-iree particuIate ccllectors available. Other than erosicu and
corrosion, pluggrng of the dust outlet or cake
buildup on &e walls are the two most ccmmcn
operating probleros encountered. Tne forrner probIe^m can be minimrzed by proper design, as illuskated in Figure -1-12. The lafier problem can be

#
A7AV ,/
FIL}J

gaskets

aperation.

design,

1,000
5,000

8. MOTOR OPERATED

i.0,000 and greater

VALYE

0.15
0.08
0.07

HeawY

Standard Duty'

0.20
0.10
0.09

0.50
0.30

0.25

r-inctrrdq nultitube uniu.

A typical cyclone, of moderate capacity, will

&erefore cost about S0.10/cfm, uninstalled. Iusiailation costs wiil vary depeading on the particular location.
For dry- operatjon, tie major operating cost will
be calculated on &e
be that for power which can -hch
water gage, per
basis of 0.2d horsepoweipe;
1000 c4m. A comparative study of annual oPerating
crists of various dust colleciors, -including power,
maintenance, aud costs of water (where used),
but not amortization, shows for dry cyclones au
average of $0.06/cfmlyr and for wet cydones
$0.L6/ctm/yr." W1ietrJ0-year amortizafiou is included the total average annual costs are $0.08 and
_$0.20, respectiveiy.-These-figule! qplly to a 60,000
cfrn installation and-would be su-6ffiEEa11y higher
for smaller-capacity systems.a

XECHANIqLI'
CPEFAED

SPtsEFICAL

SE6iINT
VALYES

OUI OF HASE

SPHERTCAL sGl,lENT

vrryei

''

FOR HIGH PRESSURE OIFFEREI{TIAL

ry
Figute

41112.

Types 0f cyclone dust discharge.

minirnizsd by ar,y of several metlods-elimination

of condensation through insulation, increasing iniei
velocity, electropoiishing of inaer walls, removal
of prbcleaners (if any) to allow "scouring" sf walls
by- coarse mate:ial flushilg, or grorrnding,=-de-

pending ou the cause. of the. particular problen.

With multitube units a' major operating problem

by leaking

Si:rce c.rclones are of ccmparatively large dimensions, buildup of lavers cf pariiculates, when it
occurs. does not aopreciabiv a$ect pressure loss.
ConsequentJ.y, flow variaiions in the system, due
to chauges in operatine resistance, are minimal.
Conkoi at local exhaust hoods, ,rheu they are part
of a svstem employi::g cyclones for gas cieamng,
can Jtherefcre be eSaected to remain uniform regariless of changes in oartculate loa<iing or length

pressure drop, inches w.g.

il

I
I

is often

(Eq.a"a)

4.4

}APINGE uIENT SEPA,E,ATORs

'

4.4.1 Description
Impingemerit separators dqpend on'.he

inertial deposiion of particulates, in a discontinuous fashion, as the gas passes around or through
specially shaped obstactes or opqnirrgp,,A: *fr

AIR POLLUTION }{.{NUAL II

the case of cvclones they may be operated wet or

lmpingement seDarators, as opposed to fiber
ilters, make use of obstacles and openings with
dimensions in the order of inches oi feet, in tte
form of b,-ffies, perforated plates or shaped. orifices.
rrlev. usually cperate in the same range of effi_
ciencies as cyclones. By special desip *id th* ,.u
cf ,rater, eficiencies can^be lmproied a.t the ex_
pense of iacreased pressure loss or total power

gas side to a collecfing hopper, which may

or-lgry
not ccniein water. In t-h; conical lbuver (Fifir;
*blow{-1+; .approximately i-l'& o,t the gas, &e
dow:r." [avels the length of the coie with the re
maindel passing through ihe louvers. wherein sep_

gy.

JI

it
fl

requirerrenrs.

sEccNoaFY COL!!Cfofl

/,/ousr

concafl TFATE' rrro

Lnprngement

,separaiors are a large, hetercger_

otrs grcup ot co.llectors ranglng from simple bafie
plates to complicated shapes. -In orde, to simplif,v
&scussicn
?f .this grorrp tiro types that are repre_
sentative_ of the majority of theie devices wrtf Ue

drscusseC.

4.4.2 Principles of OperaiionBaffle Type

The simplest forms of bafle separators
are Lhe zigzag bafle chasr,ber used for oil or water
droplet eiimination, often in series with other col_
iecting
and the cornmon cinder kap used on
^stages,
stoker f,red
furnaces. A somewhat more^ sophisticated form of bafHe separator is the louver rype,

illustrated ia Figures 4iS and 414. In the'iai

louver (Figure 1-13), coarse particies impinge on

/rr"o'-'oz"('

AIE
INLET

Figure

+14. Conical louver impingement separitor.-

of large partlcles occurs rn a simi.lar wav

in the flat louver fvpe. Thus the ,tl&dow;,

arati.on

as

gas becomes concentraied wit^h particulaiJs that

are,subsequeailv sollssled in a secoindary (cyclone)
collector from which the blowdowE gas'is reciiculated to tle primary collector.
The inertiai separati;rg force Laat occurs in bafie
Impngement
can be characterjzed ttF*
ihe concept of.separators
\topping distance,,-t1l, djJ;. ;
particle will trsvel across bending gas sbearEliiles
before being stopp*d by fluid i.rit^nc". lVhen
ihis distance is expressed as a ratio to*e &stance
ot havel required for collection (a variable foactiou
of the bafle of louyer spacing), a dimensffiless
parameter, similar to C. (Equation 4-3 resulis,
),
which characterizes the remoial effcieucy of the
derrice:

, -

K ?rDr"v^

(Eq. a5)

it.l) r,

where:

I^ = average i:rertial paiameter,

dimensionless
V
rt:anfriericaiccnstant
density
?o = particle
-1i+_n_.
n.
:_: -.paracle
diameter
y, : ayerage .i,.elocitre+particles
(bafies)

r_/p

Figure il*13. Flat louver impingement separator,

be_

, :: #ffir",""fi*

Dr_

&stance between louvers

fbaf_

fles)

and either bounce ofi or are washed ofi the iouver. with all variables
in consisten{ ,ni[5. It wi]l be
elements iuto ihe so-called "dust circuit- whil_e. ,_
t!I^-fg;
li'"tq,r"6on 45 is, nearly
:'.;,, ia""d.J
"otua-tlrt
smaller particies make the turn and are not
,1.i*Jiiru*t-o*
,
43; the. maior
+th
lected' a secondarv eirculating ar1 flow, b "oib;g
t"i'tli*L*^.terisuc.
F.rq,-.;:
{1""n*"
collecior
vided to carry the <iust concenf,ated on the aitty;,;.am.'*ion ls nb".x, Dr;
f"IJ"J*acing
instead of

b",

VTECTL{NICAi COLLECTORS

diameter' As with C^, itle value of

I", merelv shows the
,i"' .rff""U"n parameter,
maior cperating varithe
ot
imoor'.ance
-ltor;."
nvclone body

collection efficiency--increasing.ylth
not eecessa,ily propor'Jonallv lt should be
of
;':id"d ihrt .ficiut cv *iII depend on the le.ngth
of.
coilection'
stages
of
nurnber
the
and
,fr" Lrm",
of the nrimber
;;"*;t as on /", similar to ihe efect baffies
(i" th:
longer
Thus,
a
in
i;t
rycIone.
;i
use of
the
or
,iir""tio" of fl.ow), recirculation,
overwill
increase
in
series'
banls of these devices
devalue
limiting
a
to
up
eficiency,
ill-.oit""oo,
V^,
Dr"
and
Dr,
values
oi
rle
reiatve
bv
i"r*in"d

^ii.;
;"';;;,

;;#il

I
I
r

I
t-

I
I
t
I
I
I

equipment are comparable.

4.4.5

ttris qvpe of impingernent separator,

the gas stieam is directed as a hi-gh velocity jet
ciuough perforarions or nozzles and iulpinges perpendl"cularly on a flat suri-ace pla9ed i'l the Path
ol tl. jei. The basic separating force for jet impingement separators is identicai to thai for ihe
t"d" ryp". I{o*eret, because of &e higher jet

velocities usuallv employed, together with the

right angie turn &at the gas must make, the colleition eficiency of these derrices is usually greater
than in the bafie type. The inertial parameter
may be used to charicterize the performance of
these devices with two changes: Vn is now the
average jet velociiy and Dt is the distance of jet
tiavel from orifice or nozzie to impingement surface.

4.4.4 Construction

E{{iciency

Bafle impingemeD.t separators, in {.e:rmost often in the low overall efiienev

eral, operate
range ( 50-80% ) . Zigzag eliminators are- not of

*rl"h use for partides smailer than abcut 50

microns. Louver colleciors feici gor;d effiieacies
down io abcut 20 rnicrcn particles.

4.4.6 Power ConsurnPtion

4.4.3 Jet TYPe

Il

devices than wiih cyclones silce*.

with impingeraent
-for"ces
are often greata in,' the {ormer 'tr
inertial
class. lvlaterials of conskuclion for bot}l classes of

Pressure loss q'f impingerrent separa-

tors extends over a w'ide range depending on

unique design factors and gas veioc-ity. Simpie
baffL chamb".t ,t" usually operated at aroun<i
1,000 feet per minuie w-iih pressure loss in the
order of fracrional inches o{ w'ater gage'6 Louver
collectors ci the conical tvpe caa be operated at
from 2,000-5,000 feet per minute (inlet velocity )
with resistance from 0.5 to 3.0 inches water gage'?

4.4.7 Reliability
lv{ost impingement separators are comin op er ation, be-rn g -gener a-i1y
ii*ll^r to cyclones in that respect. Small size of
Dassages creates more dificulty w-ith plugging on
L"aru" lo^dt of fine dust than is experienced 'n'ith
p

aratively

tr oubie- fr ee

cvclones. Problems due to the use of water are

d'iscussed in Chapter 6.

Because of the wide variety of impinge-

meni sqlarators available, most of which ar9 of

proprieiary design, it is dificult to generalize atrout
design or construction. Examination of Equation
4-5, however, shows that for optimum perforrrancg- -*
V, should be maximized and Dr, minimized. The
most eficient designs, therefore. are those with
small openings between bafles or small diameter
jets coupled with short jet-to-plate distances'
Siu&es oJ the jet irnpaction phenornenon il&cate
that ihe jet &ameter and iet-to-plate &stance
should be-atbout the same for optimum per'formance.s It is conceivable that irrpingemeat separltors could be made to operate at comparatively
high effciency by maintaining high gas velocities
aud using smal1 spacing of collector elements.
However, high presiure loss and the possibfities'
of piugging 6ave evidently prevented the development of devices of this trrpe.
Impingemeat separatori are subiect to &e same
problems o{ erosion and corrosion as are cy'
clones. Erosion is probably more of a problem, -

4.4.8

Costs
Cost

fi

gureiToi

G,[i"g"*ent

seParators

are not readily obtainable. O-ne source gives -a

;;g; i" first cost of s0.10-$0.2t;/-e* for &e whole
ran!. of impingement separators but not includLg"th" stap"i onffce ir impingegent "bafie'
d.e?ices.' Puichase costs for the simpie jet type oi
separator are reporfEdli in ihe range^ of $0'1F
$0i30,zslm.' Published operad-ng q65f -ffgures. are
reven'more scanlv, bqt p."t"-ably-sEUlar to ilose
for cyclones.

4.5

DYNAttAtC PRECIPITAIOR
The dynamic preipiiator is a combined

fan

aad dust collecting deviqe, normally furnished as a

complete packagJwith a hopper which acts as a
srrppott base. The dynamic precipitator is manufaitured in wide varieties sf 5izes ranging from
150 to 17,000 cubic feet Per minute.

:,'::*:':i

a--.-.

:',.

-t-t':;:!..r --. , *ii

da:dti.

.41a1

AIR POLLUTION },IANIJAL II

4.5,1 Principles of Operafion

A typical dynamic precipiator is showu
in Figure 4-15. lVhea the impeiler, which consists
of an inverted strearriined ciisc to which is fixed
a multipliciq, of h,rperbolicallv shaped blades, 1s
rotated, a vacuurn is created cirawing ia dust laCen
air or gas axially at the center inlet A. Heavier
d.ust carticles continue in a staight line until inI

t-

in the hopper

ecuals the arnount of dust removed

kom the air steem.
.The hopper must be dust tight to allow sei,Jing
of the collected ciust.

4.5.2 Operating Characteristics

The d1-aamic precipitator acts as a_
forward curved fan and as srch has no pressurq
"loss," &e oni;z loss being the utahanical *"fr-t
ciency. llost sizes of the dynamic precipitarors E
can creaie a negative static pressr:re in excess oI W
14 to 16 inches water gage. 111 sizes of ,,he dvnamic precipitator lall into A:r lloving & Ccndi- .p
cianing .{.ssocralion Class iY fan designaton (abo're E

;li.: :ffi ":;x"fi

i".' T'"|8' xil*='Ji"o#.

mai be obtained. fF
Care must be exerciied in using the .drrnami" {
precipiiaior rabies or cur+t*rnce the o!;c
;
precipitators are usuall,v rat$in total piefsggi p
ings, higher negafive pressures

4.5.3 Power

Consumptiof>

Since each of the dyramic precipitatbiy

can operate over a wide pressure-volume range,
fower consumotion is- dependent on the se]ected

Figure, 4-'15. oynamic precipitator.

tercepted by the disc B and theu follow the cr:rvahrre of its surface. Lighter particles are intercepted

by the blades C, which due to ttreir shape -and

rapid motion, cause the particles to be precipitated

on ',ie advancing blade surfaces. ThJ contour of
the blades is such that the precipitated dust partjcles move outward by centrifugal force toward
tip of the blade. At the point where the
-th"
heavier and &e lighter dust particies converge,
there is a- comparatively aarro* annuiar-opening
D tbrough which the dust escapes into a surleunding annular chamrber E. Tha cleaned aii or
gas is discharged into the scroll shaped &scharge
F. From the anaular coilecting chamber, the dust
is conveyed by means of a secondary an circuit
maintained by the tips of the iinpeller blades. These
tips cause the dust particles to follow the outride
waII of the chamber to point G where rle secondary air stueam and dr,it are defected into tbe
hopper fl. The secoudary air entering the hopper
is permitted. to reiura to &e anriuiar .collecting
chamber and tlus apjalrins a continuous circuit.
r{ny dust contained in the sec.ondarv ciicuit is
prevented by centifugal force from ieaving &e
annular collecting chamber. The dust concinkatialn in the secondary circuit will automLtically
adjust itself so that ihe amount of dust settliug,

F
B

dre )
operating point. I{ selected in the aormal operat. fr
]
ing area, the precipiiator will have a-mechenical
eficiency as , iro in the range of {0% i;5C#. Th;H
difi'erence in mechanical e$ciency between ttre L{
dyrrauuc precipitator and a prop"rly selected fan
for the same duty (typicalli. W-ASq may be re- Fl
garded as the power cost for dust coiiection. I#

4.5.4 Reliability of GilTlow

Sincg the-precipitator acts as , fo..r*ra H
curved fan, the air volume will remain constant

l:'o:";"'TH' o?ff:'Hi:x"ffi

uo*

"r:fl:

*g
fr

4.5.5 Collection Efficiency and

Reliability of Gas Cleaning
Gce collection eficiency is dependent
on tle pardde-=rize, shape; aad density, a dust
sample is required if previous applicatiou data are
unavailablelAs a geneE-ffie'ihe collection efffciency o{ the dynamic precipitator falis midway

a
fr

betweeo those of'the conventional cyelone and the

h-igh eficieary multiple tuh typ", tut unlike the
cycloae's, is a}erost indepeudent-of size. By main,
feining practically the same spacinr betrreen the
blades . for ail sizes, the forces avail"abie to colleci

small,u4its aad the,.larger sizes araila,ble,

Collection eficiency is practicallr constant over

tr

&e dult on ther blades are basically th.- s*rrr* io

H
r'.f i
ul*d

}IECIL{NICAI
Taar-r

4J.

lvlxcsemcer.

Collector
Type

Soace
RequireEents

Range
CFIvI

,Effqgacy
by Weight

Setdiag

Large

Soace

Cood'
Above

Chambers

Volume

A-vailabie

O"iy '''

COLLECTORS
Q6r.r n611q11

EgurlteNr

Pressure
Powerb Costs
Temperature HP per 1000 oer cu ,ct Applicatiou
_
Inches ErO Limitatious CFM Cas Crs
"."L
0.2 to 0.5 700-1000'F 0.04-0.12 .01-.05c
Preccllector

!-os.s" iu__

lbr fly

Limiied
only by

-ao*

Limitadon

ash,

netallurgical
dust, can be

Nlaterials of

used fbr any

large size dust
pariicles above

Constructiou

aU//

Corvendonal Large
Cyclcne

Normal
Range up
to

Approx.

Sffi

1io3

on.

2Op

5O,0CS qfrn

700-1c00"F
Limiied
only by

.03-.10c

0.24-0.73

Woociworklng,

oaper, bufrng
-:bers, etc.;
're]l suited rbr

Ilaterials of

Construction

dr,v dust

particies in
20p and
above range
Hrs-A

Medium

Efilierc.v

Cyclone

Norqal
Range up
to

Approx.

itoD

807 on

700-10eu"5 0.73-1.2
Limited
oniy by

10p

19,000 cfm

.07-.15c

Woodwork:ng,

narerial
conveying,

product
recovery, etc.;

lvlateria.ls of

Corsiruction

well

.suited

for dry

dust

particles in
10p and
above range

il
il
il

Vlu-lh-Tube
Cyclones

Small

Normal
Range up

(nrt

on

4.3

700-10ffi"F

,09-.-1.5c

1.1

to

1m,000 e{m

Precollector
for elect'ostatic precipitator on fy ash,
product re-

covery, etc.;
well suited for

dry dust

particies rn
5/r and above
range

Dynamic
Precipitator

Small

17,000 cfm

8O% on

L1p

I
I
'l

90%

No loss
( r.rue lan/

70O"F

Power

con-

.05-.15c

sumpUoa will
depend on
selection point,

buffng, metalworking, etc.

Well suite<i

mechanical.
eficiencv in

for dry

Space

Separator

Available

9OE on
10rr

Ooly
Limitation

t
I

1to5

700'F

dust

particles in

usual se(ecHon

Impingement Small

Woodworking,

non production

range lrorn

10p and above

40-50c

range

0.24-7.2

06-.10c
.
.

Certain types
used fbr
coarse particle
ccllectjng

fl' ash,
cement cliblcer
:---6olers.
Hecent
boiler

desigts used for

cleaning atmospheric aii to.
&esel engmes,
aod gas
turbines

.PEs" dloo n basd m rtan&rd onditimCFM x T.P.

bPryc omuptioa figred
&on IIp:
.Mecraub,r cficierT

i','

"*ned

to b. G596.455-ME

\
t.

AIR POLLUTION tvtANUAL

tie recommended operating range of the dl.namic

precipitator,
.regardless of its yariatj.on in speed
or exhaust volume. For exan-r.ple, at slower impeUer
ry:*r the parricle noves more slowly bui the
residence trme is longer and therefor. th" trajec_
tory is pracCcaliv ideatical.
,
While staadard constructiou materials are grev
cast iron and sheet steel, the precipiiator scr.ojl
and backhousiag can be firneished cast from .rari_
ous stainless steel alioys and a-luminum. The im_ ,
peiler blacies ean be siainjess steel cr otler allcvs.
The standard preioitator can b. op"r"i*d ;;';
iemperahr_res of 700oF. -{t elevated-terrperahrres,
use of water cooled bearings. stain_less ste'el blades
and rivets, and radiation ,ii"ld fo. inboard bearinq is reccmmended.
.

4.5,6 Selecfion
.lpptication of the dynamic precipitator
is similar to the cvclone's and would be based'prim_
arily on particle size distribud;; th" lort. au"-

sity,.quantii, and particle shape.

S.eiection oi' ,.he pirticular sizi of dynamic
pre_
.
cipita,tor is Lhe same as an iodustriai
usually selected.to match the size of the"*h"rr't"r;
dust con-

veyilg pipe and in the inlet velocity range of

/ o
to 4.500 feet per minute.

3,800

4.5.7 .Applications
dynamic precipitrtor is normally
,.^^J
r^- ..
used tor
the_ft",,
coliecfion of dust produced by grind_
ing, metalwo-rking, abrasive cut-ifi saw, woodwork_
-ing, -nonproduction plastic
bn$ag, or rock drllt
exhaust, and, can be- applied to tTe cofl"cUon
of
?oy &./,'granular durst. The ayrrr*i"-p."cipitator
is not recommended for the collection oiio"g
-rr,d U"ty
ffbers, iight materials 26h
nJf,
fio.
", "odusts, or e-x-tuggreiy large, heavy
prJ"f"s. The
a*t
..foat"
lrght corn hulls will
through- the collector
to the clean air side, while th" filge h."vy par_
.
ticles_ will "bounce" into
the .l".rr rri-rJ""*. eko
the dluamic precrpitator is not suitabl" fo.
h,on o.i exhemeiy fine metallurgical fumes, "olle"_
as from
electflc arc melfing furnaces.

t,
i

iI

?TnilX1*""",'H:::'

-.

d:;,y,ii"*",:.* E

*Jllj:"
air
pollution problem involving *iiUitity oi ,t""I
ciischarge. The visibilty of an"fi;;;'',rJl
tion of- the ugl" ,+"".*g surface
.E
escaping material.
area
pol**ail_
Der
-surface
creases roughly as the
square of the particle
E
wnrcfi means that removal of g0 to 90 percenrsiz" &f
otr
a dust load can remoye the coarse partrclis
witiout
alteu.ng ihe stack discharge
^pp"ri"""".-tubf, *-l compares characteristics
of the ,a.iorrs E
.
,lcnds
ot mechanicai collectors.

i,*il;

REFERENCES

1. lo*,
fu*

A-,_ C., p. D. Busx, and K.

]. Crru.rN, Cgchte
Cgllecrors, Amer"ican petroleum lostii,rte, N"w
Yorlq igs5.
2. Ceru-r-v, K. J., "Sour_ce.- Control b;, Centrifugal Force
and Cravity," m Air poilutiott, vol. II, iClt.*,
.a.,
Academic press Inc.,
york, 192, pp. iii-zst.
^ Jo6rsoN, Li. 4., S. K.New
.r.
Faupraxonn, R. DsxNrs, M. W.
..performanc"

F-nsr, and L. Srvarur.lN,

C1u.""t"rirti",
of Centriflgai Scrubbers,;, Ct ot"i[ fai]'ering pro_
s:ess 57 ({), 176-88 (April, ts55).
. Gu.apm,
4.
N., We, Colleaors, i.nericrn .petro]eum

5.

Iustituie, New york, 1960.

Rrr-2, W. E., and ;. B. WoNc, ..Jet lmpactors for
De!gt*1""g the Particle Size Distrjbution of Aerosols,,,
Ir-SAEC Repori S0-1005, Universiry oi

6.

1951.

iffmi.,

Urbana,

Frrrror.a.rorn, S. K.,
N'1.

f . pnfiisn, did
],. Su-vrxrarN,'CLeaini.
W. F*st, Handbook
ot A;r
Harvard

Universrty-UsAE^C,

D. C., i952]pp. 5g_71.

-/. Gorrscy,c:r, C. Washington,
F., Crat:ity, Inrtial, Sonic, od,
Thermal C-oll^ecfors, American iut ol"r* ir.ilt t", Nu,,
Ycrk,
1959.

S. Mournoss, C. F., 'f6tr4inmgaf Separatjon,,' Chernicpl

l"ci*Tg-ffi
-(10),213-23fi f O"t l"i, r9ili.---'^9. PExR:r,
!,..H. ed.,__C-ivtwical Engineets' H'andbook, 4th
ediUon, McCraw-Hill-Bgok Company, N-e.,v york, ig63,
pp.20-67. -"='
BISLIOCRAPHY

Y^gol, P. L., Arr pollutian Hon.dbook, McCra,,v-Hill

rJook (nEpany, New york, 1956, pp. 13_45.
.rhe b".ig'r-;J p"*o*"o"u
2.
J.,
fr4SMAqJr.
of
eas-Cleaning
Equip;-e"i, 1V{odern
tttsttfitte al fr'uels (Lond,on) 2g, 5g ( Febn:ary,
1956
1.

iirr*T-rl *"

Ei

).

---:-:

fr
E

e
ffi
i.;,-

s/

FILTRATION
CONTENTS

5.',l

5.2

5.3

t
il
il
il
il
il
il

t
t
I
I
I

5.3.4 Costs
5.3.5 Filter Selection
5.3.F PerformancgTesting
5.4 I'Jigh-Efficiency Panel Filters
5.4.1 lntroductlon;
5.4.2 Typical APPiications
5.4.3 Piinciples of OPeration
5.4.4 Produci Design
5.4.5 Performance Dharacteristics
5.4.6 Costs

lntroduction to Filtration
(Packed Bed) and.Mat Filters
ii;;;il;tliliers
-52-.i Di;tirgu iitr ing Characteristics
5.22 Filtration Theory
5.2.3 Filter Resistance Theory

5.2.4 APPlications
Fabric Filters
5.3.1 Theory
5.3.2 Basic-EquiPmentTYPes
5.3.3r Filtration SYstems

to flow, and achieve

5'3 deals wiih
Seci:cn
*od"i"t" io low eficiency;
flters;
and Seccloih
high-eficiency, moderate-cosi
space, provide low resisfance

5'.I' INTRO DUCTION TO FILTRATION

In the broadest sense, a filter is any Porous

tiJn 5.4 discusses the ulta high eficiency filters,

which are prohibitively expensive in use except
where inlet dust loading is very low and where

structurg composed of granular or fibrous materials,

possesses abfity to remove suspended matter
fro*'* fuid that is'passed *uough-it' Gas fflters
in the
*"v b" used to ,.*-otr" suspended matteraerosoi'
an
from
mistor
fog,
lorir of dust, fume,

that

ma-rimum cleaning of the gas is necessar,v'

ft ul*"ai"*-'may be c--onstucted of arty. material

s.2

comnatible with the duvironment in which it is to

be rised. The fibrous or granular materials may
rn deep bedsl mats, or fabrics, and
ba
"o"rg"a
may be iationary oi in motiou. Despite the wide
,o""t r* of posiible combinations, the filtation
J o"irr. as applied in the ffeld of air pollution,

itself io a few universal consideratiors:

the problem always involves fluid flow &rough
, poiot t medium,'and there -is always deposition of oarticles on the medium followed by a resulting
increase
dec^rease in void volume and proportional
^d'op,
fflt'ationio i"titu"." to fl.ow, o, p."rrrir"
"t
progresses. Where the perceniage of voi<i volume
is ipidly reduced with time, some means for

i"dr"",

nerlodicallv'aremoving solids must be provided' The

fllter ii governed by its -abfity . to

of
"afiay
eficiently collect pardculate without developiog
excessive resistance to flow. Properly desiped: filters can be used to collect almoit any material at
any desired level of eficiency. The ever presert
economic balance is eficiency vs' cost of equiprnent and Po\rer, and for some tfp-es, replacement
of fflt", *&ir.'fhe three.classes'of fflter discussed
in the subsections of this Chapter illustrate the
*ia. ,"tiuq, of options that are-available in strjkt t thir balance.'section 5.2 deais with deep bed
ant mat ffIters, which are generally high in void

'

DEEP 8ED

FJtrrRs

AND hlAT

F/TIERs

(itcxra

BED)

5.2.1 Distinguishing Characteristics

Deep bed and mat fllters are distinexbe:::e
the other fpes b.ufrom
zuished
"heirilrosiw. Deep beC fiiters'tte composed of beds
if *"rl-,tu o. hb.",r, materials, arrauged to provide
, o=orori cross-sectjon. in the flow path of the gas
toi" "i"ro"d. Mat fllte:rsare a-lw-ays fibrous mateare generally thinn-er tlran the deep led
rials; they
qnp" t ielatioi to the length of -e." section' but
a1L similar in priniple. Filters of this class often
contain gT-ggq; void space. Thus, ihey interpose
orrfy minor impediment to gas fow an$ have
higL "dust storagJ ca'paqity mth .only'mod=est in-;;;;t" in air flo"* t"ilstaoce as dusl is collbcted'
iib*"r"t, most have'Jimile{ life,= as only "i. few
used tor coctol=of'liir-pd@n are cleantt
"a "teGenerally, they are
-U1".lPpiiea to very ligbt
d.ust loads and are designed so ihey rray rem11n
l"-r"*i"e for prolonged periodg' They are usually
constructed of-nultiple small elesreuts that are renlaced. oeriodically. In this respect most types
fifier m-atkedly fr6m induseial cloth. filters, yhigh
*rUy--l*"it be clean.d -(io piace) -periodically
at rblativeiy short intervals ranging frorr a few

39

-i::+.:

l' .

..,

,.li:

:,"i :a: ':,n:

'm&"
ia
;irt

tiii

{]R POLLUTION N,IANUAL iI

tir

lil

minutes to a few hours. The several exceptions all

invoive some system for washing of collected dust
irom the medium; these are discussed ia Section

tl

iit;

lii
ilt
,{l

;iIII
lli
ilr
t,t:
11i

rll

Ii
til
ltl
r1l

ill
ri

r{,
HI

li
Ii
ti
rli

iI
i
rii

tl
)

,l
li
;

fI

i
i

i
i
i
ij
i
i

i,
;
,
i

i,,

5.2.3
.

Oue important characteristic of deep bed,_or mat

^,
filters
is their porosity, 'or high proporiioo oi voids.
Tae spaces surrounding i"aiviairailements (gr"o-

ules or fibers) are much 1arger

mechanisms of col-lecdoa
rn rieep bed or mat ijtraI,,:ho*r^ typic-al sbeam lines
around a :ohere
l_ol.

of a cvlinder. ot

:.^
i.::|"i
perpendicuiar
veiocity,

to flow

cfiameter;r;ffi."d

;;;;;;t"*o'r,,g
"f li""r;;;;G
Vo. As the sueam

^"oa

*1

U.oa

tlan the aerosol

particles ihey are designed to: capture. Therefore,

sieving, orstra.ining,-olparticies ijof oo importance j

ffi

in the collection of fine particles (those smaller

tlan. 1! microns ) in cleai filters. Sieving of in_

dividual parficles or "cake filtraiion,,, wi'ich

d
I

be_

comes a sigruficant factor in particle collecfion when

a.closel;z-p-acked dust layer builds uo on the
surlace

of some ff]ters, such as'the c-loth tlme. is of Iittle

importance with this class of filteri.'
(Section 5.4) are simi.lar to deep
,bedL'ita-6iters
filters. Theoretically, their mechanism is basic-

#,

ally the same; howe,r"i, the filter fibers are finer

and.more closely pac-ked, resu.lting in much higher

ethciency and much lower
-dust holding "rp^Lry.
Theyz are discussed separately
mainly beZause their
-different.
practical applications are so

5.2.2 Filrrafion Theory

Of the six mechanisms of collection
*scussed in Chafter{ .U"" ;" ;i d;*;;
,*
in deep bed filters.
fsrtance to pardcle

""pto" direct^ ioterceptior,,

Thur?.;uu. ineltial- impiction,
and diffusion. In theory, all of the .off""i"a
i*u_jy* maEer &stributes it-self tiuoughout the^deep
bed or mai fflters without fomning a ilgh
resistance

Figuie 5-1. Eleciron miciog;-aph

blue on filter fibers. X5700.

a"rilmt*
o,
.p"*{
bed.
Theiefore,""r.;i;A-;r#"".
all ,f ifr"
Tth;n -*1s
ol
the bed mat-erial, as well ,; th.;td;H;;r;:
"fe*""i,
qcleq fi:nction
i";#t,-;;-*r]"i *a"; ;di;;""r
gloonal dust particles
*ry a.iorit.--fi# +f.
Iayer of

ltusEates the rype of depositioo th"t wrI r.sutt.

i.or conditions such as tiose depicted, the fiIU.a_
are complex; cotection trr!"t, of
!:l-mechanisms
*?ny $zes and orientations are present and Ipatial
reiatio.ns continuously change *itni" the
b5d as
filha.tion progresses. 'Conditi"bns th;t
mrrch more complex than those ih
";i;;;",system
a simple
rtogl", clindricat etement is ionticfrn!
1
sbeam. Nevei
:pneucal .parficles in a moving gas
theiess,
concept- of a deep -bed composed of
,the .
unitonr:ly sized, isolated cyiiaders or spieres is,
instances, a fair approximatiou if reality.
I some
In
all cases, it provides a reisonable ,ta.ti"s p"iht
for an examinaiion of th"';1;rj"ii"rjillriJr"*{luence particte coliecuon i/ Ja"p-tJ-tltol, of,,
ax rypes:
Figure 5-2 is helpful in understanding some of the

meih,liene

_ --:--

:fT

ilqid lirrqmiin!
_-__
-

pqt?iclr

Doth

Torqrt .lflcl.nc, :.X,/Ot

Figure 5-2. lmpaclior o, pad:cles

on a cylinder.
,

fo::d

the,obsta-cie, Iarge particles,

because of their

rlerEa, _tarl

to iol]ow the cunring fow r:ath aud

st'ike ihe cytinder. ro, tAJ plfujl""#
,og*

' :;+{t
..

of a deposit cf

:{jE'

E
C
AIB POLLUTION \iANUAL Ii

E
l no
c) v.v

9
E
ql

c
.;

0.6

?
U

o
E

-o

o.+

=o)
C

o.2

(Seporotion number'

Ploiinum

rlrs -

I nil'

Plolinum

rirs -

Tungsten

rire -

2 mil

Tunqsten

xire -

4 mil

kd

7
j,

mil' '

*l't"

cylinders'
of inertial impaction on circular
Figure 5-3. Experimenial efliciencies

where:

Np : Collection efrciencY 9f- lldi

vidual ffber"for Pure &ftusion

C, : DraA coefficient
n. = R"Y"olds' uumber
V : Filter face velocitY
Dr : Diameter of fiber
KCDt : Difiusion coefEcient = 5;;5;
K : Boltzmann's constant
C : Qrrnnihgham slip factor
Dp : Particle diameter
F : V:iscssiY
collection
Fisure'14 ,hrr. tfPiAI vaiuis fo1 tlibcYlindrical

hll[fi;

ijr.,,'r,l,i

i'a'ted

fr
*

H
o
.9

d
i

O.

above parametersthe'i"gie
fib.r; ,tt"li*ction o{"?"
tbree
In dractice, interactions occu' among.the

efiect-is that col*#hiffi;.i *u"*-l-ru"

""t
forces is highfro* til

lection eficienry

;;;i;"4; *'i, "i

;;;il;Jd

be"o*Ui""a
;;t"d*d"al.escieucres'
or the mechanisms
;r;"

thlt afiect collecf;;"t*,il*;n"ir,ty'"'"aloo"i

a
tiou Lv tte others. Fot e*ample' sincg gartille
cenby-dj'ect interclpti-"1 Yi:' its
;ilT ;J
surrace
the
";;sh.
or b,1z

d;;;;
H;;-.rf.i#
targe! th. 'b#;;;
of the

9r
iim "ui"lo"ss through

pure diifusibn'
Figure 54. Collection etriciency for

by pure U"Hffii"o.
E
hy this sgme c
particies
of
aumber
the
5ir-plu,
''er'
i;;,h;fi;6#dti#" r"v"' -"v Le inoeased *

*hi+

particles. must move

tie target is reduced

reach
'F-r]r-*oan"t
significantiv bY inertial

efiects:

f1

s
F

I \.

FILTRATICN

diameters within th.e rauge of our interes! t}:ese

collisions resu,lt in adhesion-and the process may be
considered irreversible, at least untii such jjme as
substantial masses of particles accumulate. Some of
the smaller tariicles will follcw the stream iines and
will, because of the tendency of the sbeam lines to

element is shown

tlat a

#_

:.p3+o"
3umler), experimentai resujts (Figure
inertial irnpaction
) show Lhat

c-J

gravitatronal seitling a sifoificant factor for

h,",r::pdgl eficency ((Ni) by Torgeson"

lr,rlt
show ?f
the reiationship:

_i;"il.;;";#":i:';:;:'i?T*#:#fi J:
ticles are cojleited on in&viduai fibrrs o;

Nr :0.0151r

t;;G.
The factors influencing these three imporiant
mechaaisms of collecti.on-have been the obrect of
numerous studies to evaluate their relative'eftrt.

parameter. For particles

:r:y,*:forces,
ertiai
the collectiog

Cr

f,

. a:,

'

Eq. 5-2

Drag .oeffcient of ie-trrs"t

Reyuolds'number
= Dameter of particle
Dp =
Dr = Diameter of ilement

.-

R.

spherical granule or cylindric^f

,I-

,T.'(*)

whe-re:

U.f, , U*ri" dimea_

infuenced by io-

caplbilitv of a stgle
nU"i,'f*own as its
r1e-r!al impaction eftciency or tarEet efficiencv
(fl,), is defined as the fraction of iarticles of 'a
givea size, in the volume swept out Uy
ti:e surface,
which str:kes the ccliecting srr.f""!. --Fo. flo*
arouud a- cylindrical fiber, as-shown in Figure 5_2,
{l plltic1es initially between tA, st.er* Iinles a and
.6 wiil hit the bodv- ard tie- iarget eficieucy is
X1/D1. When Stot<# iaw is appiief,i" to
tl" motion
oj tl.e p""i;;; i;#'"fi;A"y is a tuactiou of
the dirneosionless group. Imo,lt n as the separation
number; &e relationship bet,,.eeu separafion num_
ber and properiies of the aerosol and-th*.;I"adh;

ceases to be"im-

portant for values of the square root of the separation number below about O.+. ft is evident
fro; tbi"
relationship that in ffitation through beds co,ntain_
ing equal numbers of fibers o. gr.Jul"r, the highest
impacdon efficienies ,ndll be-obtaine<i wiih
the
filters composed of the finest ftbeis o, gr*.ri"..
r ne maxtmum collecdon eftciency
that can re.
sult from intercepiion is (1
n),ib..i*
flow irr
tie ran-ge of Stokes' 1aw, erperjmental
determina_

particles less than 10-20 mlcrons-in diameter. This

means ihat inerfia, direct interception, and difiusion

mecianisms may be characterized

;1)

, lVong and Johnstone, haye made eroerjmentaL

determinadons of the inertial .i*,f,actioJ
effciency
( Nq ) of cyUndricai targgts
$""Ai
wrLtr the square root of the""a
"oo"i"t"d
separadon
num,ber as
Figure 5-J_ lVhereas-theo.eUcal analysis
:l:.y,1, zero
rnc:ca-tes
target effciency at a separation num_
ber of 1/16 (or 0.25 for the square root of the

parqicie might set'tle' by

Consideraton of this work is helpfui i"

ing .how filters function. Each' of the"rraortuoa_
in&vidudl

(Eq.

{ = Separation num,ber
V = Gas land particie) *ppr&h
_ velocit,v
r i" : Densiil- of paticle
,u : Visccsity of gas
Dr: Diameter of element

tle sepaiation zone,

Signrficant ihennal and. elechostitic forces have
not been dernonstrated to exist between the usual
combinations of aerosol and deep bed filter media,
is_

5_1.

where:

gr1viry onto the fiber or into

nor

in Eqiiatron

e : f (Do, V1"/tBpD1)

become close- together as they pass the extueme

diameter of the obstacle, be L a flow path that
passes close enough to the obsiacie, or iarget, to
make physical contact and thus be remolrejl from
the aerosoi. This ls kaow-n as removal bv steam_
lined coniact or direct interception. id<iiUonal
collection is a$ecied when verv smail partcles
(those less .&an i micron ), which are originilly oui
side the zone of sueamlined contacf, srale contaci
mth the ffber because of random movement caused.
by molecular ccllision (Brow-nian moi5on), The
movement projects ihem against ,he fiber or into
the zone where stoeamlined contact is efiective.
Elect'osiafic and *.hermal attacton between particle and fib-er may also act in a manner to biing
particles, which w-ould otherwise pass around. i
granuie or fiber, inio sr,fi6isntly cloie proximiiv io
make contact or permit oiher ieparaie for.es to
come into
-ll-ar. A similar analysis .oorrid apply to

the probability

.{1

Particles of velv small diameter show considerabie, Brorn ni", *tttncot

aic"* .
raad-om moUon from a reglo-n'of hieher to one
of

;d 1;;j;'

ly

_ lower concenbarion,'ifi.d-iilifbrm,

aisEl"uir" ir r[_
in fflffifou, peii"cffilr; fr; th;
gas sfeal to'the targei,'as A.-a".*aation of
partclgs at the target=surfaces is zero
l;r"*i";
tarned.- Thus

no iuelastic
).
"onirio-,
The- collection
e&dency of an isolated target by
pure d.iffusioll No, according to Torgesou,, "rarie.
as snown in Equatiou LS.

(crE")o
No = g.7,
-

o*

(Y

Dr1,.'u
'-,jfr:,
ir!
7.-a
, .

(uq-g-s)

il
il
il
il
il
I

FILTBATION

Collectioo in real situations is fr:rther influenced

bv fiber-tefiber interactions, which are superim.,lr"d oo the above discussed mechanism interac-tioor.
ro that an analytical solutjoq of the combined
efiects of impaction, difrusion, and iniereeption is
gnusuaily ccrnplex. For detajls'of tfus reiationship
the reader is referred io Chen' where combined
mechanisms and ffber-te'ffber intsactions are considered and the net effect of fiber interfereace is
shown to increase the cclleciion effcienqr cf the
individual f;lier eien:ents (Figure 5-5)'

considered interconaected channeis of small

diameter. Pressure drop across the fiiter is related
to the lengti and hydraulic radius of the channeis
as follows,

Al:K V i (12'
L 8D"? f

I
I
I
I
r
I

AP :
L :
K :

ir
rl

.
t

ii

dD. O.72 !|.!on!i

ip= O.24 dr"'o'i

(dr)or.Z.l atcronri fi: {7 ehl!.c

(drld'l'5

ilrctonri rr =

:
ri cm/ttc
I
I

c.cr c.cz o.o3 c.o4 o-05 0-06 0.o7 o.ca o.o9

0.lo

a (Voiuma lrociion oi libE in fiit8r,

Figure

5-5. Efecl of

neighboring fiber inte#erence on effi-

ciencY.

The relationship befazeeu the collection e$ciency

of a singie ffber and of an entire filter is reasonably
exact for porous filters (with more than 90% voi<i)
but cannot be relied upon for densely packed ffiters.

among yoids volume, volume of packed materia.l,

fiber diameter, fiber orientation, and properties of
the gas steam.
Work by Chen and others takes a dif;ereat approach, where pressure drop is considered to be the
sum of the hydrodynamic drag forces on individual
eiements that make up the bed. The relationship
presented by Chen' is as foilows:

5.2.3 Filter Resistance Theory

The throughput rates for deep bed and
mat fllters have been show-n to produce viscous
fow; hence, Darcy's law ( see Equation 5-7 ), ap'
plies, and for a particular filter conskuction,

ff:w
where:
:
L :
V :
( :

(Eq.s-af

?ressure drop across fiIter

Bed depth
Average superficiai gas velocConstant dependent upon bed

:8lTHH,T

fr
f
t

demoustrated in these studies are appiicable in large

use situation!;
4.gr" to pa&ed fflters under

""rtii
relationships developed in these
studies are usefui
speciffc variables that inruence K

.-#iE H*tfft#

lP :---I.2

L
=

The air flow resistance of a clean Sbrous fflter is

not the same as its resistance after significant quantities of dust have been collected. Ho.rever, clean
fflters have been studied exiensively and principles

hessure drop across filter

Bed depii
Coostant dependent on fii:er

3 : Gralitational constant
V : Superficial velocity of gas
Dr : Fiber diameter
.u. : Cas viscosity
? : Cas densitv
I : Voids volume &action
1-l : Fiber voiurne fraction
Frorn ..his, it can be seen that pressure drop per
unii of bed depth varies with the relationships

,l

z "o

5-5 )

orientaCcn

I
I
I

(Eq.

where:

by Sullivanl of air flow resistance in

be

Shrdies

pgcked bed and mat filters resulted in the develop

Ment ot'a modification of the Kozenv-Carmen equalion, which utilizes the concept that the filter may

'

V=

(D.)'1

,-

f {-+l..

-------:-;:'g-/D,):''"--

(Eq.5-6)

where:

sP -:
L :
(D,) :
(

Dr ),"

V
p
g
l-f
f

:
:
=
=

Pressure drop across filter

Bed depth
Arithmetic averagefiber diameter
S,urfaceaverage fiber diameter
Drag coeficient of an average sized-fi.be::

Superficial velocity of gas

Density of

gas

Grarritational constant
Fiber volume fraction
Voids volume fracdon

This shows tlat pressuie drop per unit of bed

leag& is a function of bed characteristics such as
ffbei diameter, and voids volume withinr the bed: '
It should be noted that aP does not Y4ry with

'=#frw'':

V#;

AIR POLLUTiON VIAN-UAL

V'? as

I
l

} ,i

it might

appear from first inspection of Equa-

tiou 5-6. The drag coeficient, C, is not a constant,

bui is a fulction of Reynolds'number, varying inverseiy with velocity for rriscous. flow,, which is
characteristic of flow through f;ltering me<iia. Thrl,,
it can be seen that Equations 5-5 aud. 5-6 both
show &at lP should vary directly with veloeity.
That this relationship does hold has been demonskated erperimentally by many workers. For fur- r
ther detaii of this relitionsirip, see Ergun's artic.ie.i
Whiie ',Iese clean fi1ter ielaiionships cannot be
said to represent condi.ijons that will be experienced in service, they do provide some l'eeiir:g for
the effect of bed characterjstics on K in Equaiion
(A-{) and when dust loadings are light cr &oplets,
which run off continuously, are berng coilected (as,
sulfuric acid mist) such expressions may be quiie

more extensively than other derrices used in tirrs

service. It has also been applied for collection of
phosphoric acid mist and other special situations involving a broad range of'gas volumes.
Because of, the useiuloess of giass xad qslrmig
fibers over a rlide temperature runge, severai ag
proaches to theii use jn flltration have beeo. studied.
First, a/ ol.,t described performance characteristics
of deep beds of 4, 8, and 20 micron diameter fibers
at ambient temperature and at 1,400"F lor tiree
djfierent face veiocities. The eficiency fcr different
fiber sizes at three different face velocities is sho.vn
in-+ebl"e 5-1. It may be seen that filtratibn eftT-$r,s

i-1. Err=ct or Fbm Ssr

(

1.5 inch fllter depth; cupric oxide dust

of 8.5 microo mass

representative.

I
1

pollution becai.rse they generally can be appiied

only in special situatjons where these advantages
ouiweigh the problems arising from the fact that
design of a syste-m that provides for cleaning in
sef\.iee is usualiy prohibitiveiy corrplex. The main
commercial application, ultra-high effciency fflters
fcr removal of small emounts of particulate in air
cleaning operations, is discussed indepeadentiy at
the end of the chapter. Heace, this section will be

devoted to special applications exemplifying the

lcinds of problems that are amenable tq splution
with deep bed or mat filters characterized by"a
large void volume witirin the fflter.
Deep bed filters have been used to collect phosphoric acid and zuUuric acid. "Coke boxes"-deep
bed ffIters &at consist of lead iined or ceramic
chambers fiIl'ed to a depth of severai feet with
dosely sized coke rarlgrng hoa l/40 inch to,{ inch
in diameter-have been used in sulfuric acid plants.
Such equipment is generally capable of collecting
only entrained drbplets generated b-y_ mechaaical
means aad is not efective for submicrori' mists
formed by condensation: Despite overall eficiencies
of 80-906 (possible only because of the high perceatage o{ large droplets), zu& installaf,ons are
characterized by a, dense;. white plume. For &is
.leason modern-plants aie tu:dag more to deep,
'-beds' of ftne fibers of, .glass, stainless steeT; 'add
Tbf.on. The 'Brink collector," has'beer *udied

I}
ii r
;;F''
ili;

me.liau

0.02b to 0.40 grains per cu. ft.)

5.2.4 Applications
Deep be<l and mat filters ofrer certain
inherent advantages: ihey permit the use of inexpensive materials; the.r can be designed for high
ternperature or serrice in corrosive atmospheres;
and they are flexible with respect to the balance
beiween effciency and pressure drop. They have
nof however, been used widely in controi of ai-r

oN Fnrserlox

ErrrcsNcv

Eficiency, ri/t.%

--

70'F

Fiber
Diameter

110

feet/min

Vlicrons
4

co

YY

diemeter,

1400"F

400

400

s8
c0

g1b

feet/min feei,/min

20

700
feetT/min'

94

84

79

11

aVelcitr at indicated teop.

b1-inch decp fiiter
Tasr-x 5-2. Rrsrs:r,rxcg Rrse .rND Wuc:rr
Dsposrr.ED
(

i i

i
.!
t_
a_?
L 9

:!

20

4
Compos.

ni

Fq-rm.

Same dust as Table 5-1

i.

i4.s .:.
a:;
+
3dE

:!

:!

6.0
1.5
1.0

350
400
700

6..r--.400

r.?
'o
a
;>
l\

or Dust

:
L

::-

c;>
tr r

;Ej

1400 820
1000 10,000
1400 4,700
1400 2,500

iI
i!

9,;
6v

s>
.ij;
I x

,:;

211
120
115
360

';a

0.c5
0.55
0.15
0.05

ciency decreESEs-'ai fiber diameter decreases, face

velocity inc;eases, or. teJ-oqeBture increases. Clean
f;lter resistaace aad resistance inqease are showa

in Table 5-2.
. Silverrraa and Billingss described an automadcally removable deep bed fllter composed of heat
resistant (1,@"F) slag wool ffbers for'collecting
dust and fumb from open hearth steel furnaces.
Eiber layeis X inch in thitkness were'fomied continuousllr orr,,a rroven wire conveyor belt,with.a
fiber slurry. After suction &ying, tfie ffbers packed
to a deaiity- of 3-5 pounds pit
foot (Srfg

"rbi.

#
G
F

4
4
I
4
fr

I4

4
d
c
d

J
J
#

.!il
FILTH,{TION

.,^irlc) and ihe bed eniered the flue gas filtration

Ef;ciencies of 95-9s%
;;;;, ;t shown in Fis':re 5-6' f'ome
at filtration veihearth
ooen
on
*"J oUt^i""a
resistances of
and
minu'te
per
ieet
100-150
of
o"itil
amount o[
gage.
An
,..,.n*imately 6 rnches water
filter
the
initial
l}i',
of
to apprcxrmately
alli
"o"rt
flow
air
before
the
bed
in
*"infrt^ was u'ipped
(9
in'
vaiue
undesuable
an
to
i".t"r'tla
;;i;""
excessive,
became
fow
iesistance
air
1!Aen
w.g.).
the" fiber bed ',vas removed, w'ater washed, reslurried, and re'hrrned to the moving chain lin-i<
conveyor belt for another filtradon cycle' Field
i r' ftax.-io ca ifr PL ?qFE /4'
rr va'' GIES-3fr66ERED
2 t'io-,/4''YALL-{'L ixl3 fL
IU8'flS

!a3' ?"!2":r/4- iisJiolf,lo

49' I

r
!

RlN6-

optimum fiber or sand size distri.bution that wiil

ilter 1ife, but the Dresent state of l:nowledee does rci permit calculation of such an ideal
filter. In Drac'Jce, dense dust deposits do build

ma-ximize

T-r.:r-s

a.i. Tprcei Dme-BED Fu-rea Dar-l

Filter !{edii:m
Sand'

.!r \sarilinq capaciiy, cu. ft., nin.

Filter Size (wrci'.h x length
- h-idh. \ +

f ifi"'. Vj.ai"* \'eloc:iv (suPer-

,Housing
! 2':2"r1la"i8sj

Fi-iter medium
Supports
Fibers

.1.! Y&i llll.r Jd i9.n r'dtri

1un'

2!l'f

P!'nt e

r
I

t
fr
II
r
I
r
I
I

int)

Slag wool filter.

washing cycle.

At Hinford Works of the U. S. Atomic Energv

Commissiou, deep bed filters of graded layers of '
sand and of glass fibers have been used for removing

*;'m;"*T:i::T, E1*?':f#:f;"i":xT,'i:
-spent
fuel elements. Even tlough the loadfrom
ing is very low on a weight basis, tle contamilntensely ra&oaclive and high eficiency
o"ot,
"r"
filtratjon is a requirement, as weil as long life and
a minimum of servicings. Tables 5-3 and 5-4 summarize data on the compositio:h of bo& t.vpes
of beds. Both filters were- constructed of graded
sizes of elements. The objective in each case was
to remove the largest particles in tbe coarse fibers
cr granules at the'end7 end of the fflter bed and
to remove successiveiy ffner particles as the gases
passed through successiveiy smaller ff1ter elements'

'Thi,

*^, doJe in order to minimize the formation

of a high resistance aerosol cake at an ini91f4ce
betweeJ filter lavers. From theoretical considera=
dons it is evident that there is for each aerosol ar

) L0

$3.86
1.71

yearse

$0.94

s2.86

Sand
l4 to

or Gravel

Size

3il

io

2,,

Yr" a + I-.S. uesh

{ ro I U.5. meh
I to 20 U.S- Be5h
20 to 50 U.S. EBh
* to 8 IJ.S. resh

bFilter me<iiu mroisted oI tle packing *rangerent desiglated in

Table 5-{ r" 'f"piel Hanlord Specificarion.'
fiiter"Estimateri a 2 to 3 tiqs thar of sand
dFor aluminu spports. This would be approxioateiv twic' $
much

ihat the fibets could be washed and

reusd an ar/erage of 8 to 10 times before they
bec-a-me suficient-V degrade<i to be lost in i:ire

,f

co oc

)5

t/L)t

tests indicated

I
I -

layer Iisted

24
36

i{i.

cI rhe ioilomng approxirute..deprh: ud

"Fiiter neciium oosisted
rir.r'-&er."J-* i""a- lno" were suppoited cn a aoided ceramic
distritrurq iiiet2
1'
t2
t2

Fisure

6
OG:
years

$5.57

Decrh of Layer, in.

18x70x9

1.,1,6d

iln order, bottom

,15,000

0.76

I cta.l
(oilh(il

85x85x.14

icrai), n.,min.

Plessure DrcP, h water

Coilectron EficiencY, % aciiviiY
L]re
Installed Cost, $/(cu. ft.,/mrn-)

utass noers-

35,000

lor stai[less

steel.

up within the f,lter struclure and these account for

the major resistance increase. Neverileless, the
sand fflters have now been in continuous service
for approrimately 15 years with Yery iittle increase

ia

resistance

Dyramic aggregate b-ids, moving-beds, and similar approach"i t""" been used and reported in a
nuinbei of-special situations. One tvpe utjlizes
a gravel bed-()i-inch size) continuously {owing-do#nward perpendicuiar to gas fl.ow'-- The- bed
is withdrawrr from the bottom of the filter chambrr, ,"r""r.d to ft'esjfof ff.ne dust. and refurned
to the top of the bed. An annotated biblio-graphy'
lists usei of these kinds-ofi-fflters' dating back to
1-$2.4.However,probtemiasioiiared--WtthnaudlilS
abrasive
cation.

"ggt"gri"

have deterred their wider

Seif-cleaning mat fflters, have been used

ations wher"

-1earl;ngs

appli

in

situ-

&d not permit the use o{

filters. that did not irovide for iontinual remo'ral

of accumulated dust. The ffbrous mat rotates cotl'
tinuously tbrough a liquid batt so that dust, is

washed'from th-e fibers'at the bottom of. &e unit

Such equipment requires periodic removal' of the

AIR POLLUTION .!INU.{.L

sludge, and care must be taken to assure that fi.ber
arrangxnent is not drsturbed by the moyement of

may

&e

the bed.
It should again be noied that, except for mist
collection, equipment in this dass has not and will
not be applied to ccnkol of air pollution sources

l{:

il

-resuit

cievr.ce.

in diminishing the flow of gas thro,rgh H

5.3.iTheory
capture

oi

'

in control

parricuJate

equipment

h'ave

?E
-fr

T.lsr,a 5-4. Trprcel DSEp-BED Gr-rss-Frara P,rcnNc SpsqrFrcerrolrs

EIaaford"
J.T;rgical
Soeciffcation
Aorox.

.\pprox.

iDer

Fiber
Cost'o

uuss
Fiber5
Nrurber

Diameter,

800
450
115 K
115 K
55 P
28
,d{.

200
110
30
30
15
7
1

criccns

s/lb.

0.30
0.80
2.00

Densrtv

Deprh

rn.

Ib.i cu.

ft.

2.AO

0.9s

I2

lb.,,sq.

+-

lx
3.0
3.0

1.D

0.r-.'

1.2

3.0

ff

ld,rli::{lli'*,"'iuif'1,'fii:1iu:1.*"d'"'"'ive

Acrosors bv

/ 1o1
I 9A\

-trF)

/ ta.\

18

+l72)

Gias Fiben"' Part

'Dcigaed io-r an rctivitT collerion.efrcielcy o{ 99.99/6..?:asu-re drop for Han{ordr-ifietion is

proposed rpec!ficat.ion it should be -t .n. : I in- water, depending on'degree of compresion*{Appreximare purchoe cost as o(
June 1952{*+Wiil deoend on degree o{ comprruion. Values givel ue ior a 3-lb./q. It- dcnsiry.

rJi;friXt.**:.t'i::

It.oo" ;:"'

1.00

4.00

lb.rsq. ft.

t'
Tf-+

(1e)
18
o

IF

Sk of ihe mechanisms conlributine io

5 it. wat*; Iu

r' e' rz''+

bFiber layers lisied if, order, boltoo or upstreu ue being spcciffe<i fint.

in detail, in Chapter E. A ,"r.rrth S

mechanism, sieving actjon, alrn is of importance
in fabrjc filtration when .the fiIter cake voids open Ii
to
{low are smaller than the particles b.ing [f
--gas
coilected. As indicated in Chapter i, considerabll
attenlon has beea given to studies of these iodi- *

unti.l satisfactory methods for removal of collected

material in senrice is developed. Research has been

been djscussed,

conducted on approaches such as "shock wave

cleauing"" bui to date the problem remains unsolved and tl-re above examples are cited only for
.r]!ug:at]on.

5.3

r.iciual p64leni5s15. Unfortunately, litiie cf this E

work is va1uable in solving the practicai problems
associated with fabric flltration, where
or ury
number of the seven mechanisms will "11
be'ry"i: H
taneously exe'itlhg-inTiuEnces &at are incapable of being estimated.
-. Flb:i: filters opqatl:sg
fow through b",h C
the fabric and the deposited$aj
dust layer is yiscous. -,
Thus, the fundamental characteristici embodied in ,
Darcy'1hy:gliy. Darcy's equation is:

FABRIC F/ITERs

Fabric fllters are one of the oldest and most

reliable of the high effciency devices_ available
for the collection of dry particulate materials. Their
widespread acceptance is atbibutable to-a+umber
of inherent advantages, ihe most important being
that _they are a positive control, ihat is, they ari
eapable of majntaining 99% or better coilection
eficielcy despite wide variations in properties of
ihe efi.uent gas. Iv{inor process disturbances or
process cycling,will not resuit in a &scharge of
particulate to ibe atmosphere. Also, tley are simple,
to operate and maintain, not requiring -skilled
labor, and theii first cost is generally iower than
competitive types of control equipment with equal.
l,v high.eficiency. Por.per consumptibn js moderate.
Fabric frlter equipment is available commercially
in a wide variety of styles that can be adapted to
maay special problems of particulate collection.
Major disadvantages of fabric filters, are ihat
temperature is limited io tlat withstood by the
fabric, 500oF maximr:m tor fabrics currently' avpil,:
able, and that imprcper appiication or operatidn

rD

-.

Y=K-"'1il-

J,\

lEo.d-t)

A
where:
'-:'
---:
V: Average superficial gas velocity
K : Permeability of dust
d
aP : Pressure drop across the filter
,u : Absolute viscosity of gas
d
L : Thiclcress of dust cake
,..*:ffioffi

l,:i:H;X**X','**dj"L#;

proportional "ffi
we obtain:

G
,.1
.--111:,'j:i
-'-J

;il
47r

flLTNAT]ON

liuW

VW-

d.f:-':=-----;.(

l(r

(Eq. 18)

where:

lV : \Iass of riust cake

K, : K, modiied to include iactor for ccnversion of dust cake thickness, f,, to mass,
lV, w-iih viscositY constant.
This relationship Lolds for flow through the
dust laver deposited on a f;1ter clo& ai all suoer-'I"t 'ryould be encountered in gas
ficial veiocjti"i
f;ih'ariou. It is important to ncte that pressurg
rei-erre<i io as resistance in the
&op,

is Bot a measure of rnt;insic resistance eilhe;

tade, "o**oniy
'ov Equation 5-8 (wiich
&e
system representxi
in
would hold for-varjable fow tlrough a uciform
fiiter cake) or for fow tlirough the constantly
changing, non-uniforil fiIter surJace typicai of &e
*"dii*'-tl"t would be enccuntered in any reai
situation involving fabnc fiit'ation. For this reason, the term ''frlter &r5" expressed as inches
of water pressure drop across ihe filtering medium
per foot per minute of superf;cial flow velccitv,
will be ,-,t"d to d--scribe the true resistance of the
medium (fabric plus dust) in discussions that

follow.

t
r
r
I
I
I

Though there exists a wide varief of fabric

filter equipment, tl.re basic process has many characteristics common to ail types. In every inst:'nce,
particulate matter is removed by passing aerosols
ihrough a ffltering medium, which consists of dust
cake deposited on a supporting fabric stmcture. As
---: -'thefiIt'ition process proceeds, the mass of the dust
cake increasei so that ttre resistance of the rnedium
to flow (filter &ag) also increases. This necessitates the desiping-of equipm':rt to permit P*iodig
removal of aicumulatea scUC material. Although
eficieney wili vary with ilre structure of the fabric*and ihe'particle size of the' dust, entrapment by
the dust layer usually is tle pn'nar,v mechanis:n in
collecting the finer particles of the dust dispersion.
iurmediately after the exce-s dust
This is ,i,
"ueo from a ffItering surface.'Despite
has been removed
the efiectiveness of d6ening, a residual <,rrst l,,ver
wdl be present on the fabric at all times afier iis
iniUd e$osure. A trpical range for ihe dras of te
cloth after exposurq aad intensive clearring is 0.02
to 0:05 in. w.g./fpm for &e uaused cloth and 0.30
to 0.8{ in. w.g./-fpm for a fllter cloih with the
residual dust laye1.

The iotal drag of the fflter medium in sen'ice is

the sum of the &as rroduced bv the cloit with its

II

combineC or

I
;
til
'"1 l
qri.

residiai dust laver and the &ag of

dust tliat is deoosited on the'cloth after fiIt'ation

Droecresses oo ih. restored mediuur. One of the

-tl^

ciearest discussions of the reiaiionship between

these drag components and pressure drop is pre
sented bv Hemeon.to In nomeniature consistent
with this discussicn he shows &e relationship io be:

lP:

SeV

*#,,

w-here:

5r.:

Residual drag
filter cicth

of

.[q.

D-e)

restored (cleaned)

Values for Sn anci K, are not normajlv avai-lable

for a particuiar s;rs'ie:n. Funher, the'l are aJways
in{.uenceC in interminable degrees by orocess variables; for example. permeabililr may be signiicant1y influenced by superficial velcci.ir, V, in many
rito"Lioo.. A1so, S", as definei, is stlongi.y dependent on',ie efiecSveaess of the filter clegniag mechanism. I'nus. Equadon .i9 rnay be of little value
in esiimaijag 'Jre medium resistance which will-

be ex.cenenced when a particular fabric is used

with a given aerosoi.
Furtherrnore, above Equations 5-7 tfuough 5-9
pertain io the condition of ccnstant dust cake, or
io sP at any instant in the filtration cyc1e. I{ the
carrier gas contains a constant concentiation of
dust, the dusi cake will bujld at a rate prooorlional
to the filterjng velocify, so ihat the filter drag variance with iime rray be exPressed as:
(Eq.5-10)
AP;:APi-APi:R,L1V2
where:

:
:
AP1
aP, :
K. :
L:
,:
V:
AP,

Pressure drop at time t due to dust cake

Total frlter resistance at time J

Initial filter resistance of cleaned filter
Proportionality ccnstant
Dust concenkation in carrler
Time since'cleaning Superficial filtering velocitY

gas

cleaning methodii-so far developed

All plaetcai
-in
some nonuniformity in the effectiveness
of cleaning obtained in Cifferent areas of a fflter
cloth. Bec-ause of this, when filtratioa is resr:med

result

on a receutly cl'ts ned=cloth area, the rate of change

of drag o{ &e medium will varv,- at least iu the
earlv o"art of the ffiteitnrlycie. This phenomenon
is besi <i<, cnstrated-bi re{erenEe:t6-Figure 5-7

which rirows the typical relationship between fllter drag aud m3s9 of dust deposited- rifter flltration hai been i,*iimed on an area of cleaaed or
restored filter cloth. This curve inrlicates that
sls2ning leaves a nonhomogeneous and discontinuous ru"rface that is rubject to rapid ihcreases in
resistance whea relativgiy small amounts of dust
deposit"d and a new fflter cake is begg formed''
"re
C"*"""S"ent A rq>resents the :ng.ea;g during

48

AIF, FOLLUTION .VIANU.{L II

this part of the cycle. ,\Iier disconrinuities have

been iareely eliminated b,v preferentiai flow of
the dust-laden gas tlrcugh low--resistance areas, a
reiarivelv unil-orm surface has beea forrneC and
subsequent deposiiion of dust geuer-ally results in a
linear increase in resistance to flow as dust accumulates and forms a cake. Curve segment B repret,]

TolEl crcl.

ta.9

ourt orrmrablllly,.<, . ll-

Fillred du5.i moss, W(groins/lir)

5-7. Schematic representation

parameters for fabric {iiters.

Figure

oi basic performancs

be made r.rp of gas in bo6 turbuleni aaci .riscous

forv, so lhat total pressure drop wiil .iary .ri&
flcw
Ly ,o*" poir", bei-reen 1.0
-e.xponentially
anc 2.0
instead of directiv ,,vith flow as ii does {or
ihe
across the medium.

^P
5.3.2 Basic Equipmenf Types
Fabric fiitel equipureni na'/ be classifed as one of tiree basic tvoes, depend-ing on the
ureCeod of cleaning. Each of these classei is discussed. below.

lntenrvitie*tl4 Cleone<i. Eouipmeni in this dass

utilizes intererittent ci.eaning, Lhat is, a cieaniag
cvcie thai involves shutirng Cow-n the enriie filtratson prccsss and b'v_rrassrng rjre air beiag filtered,
qls6''l',g the accumuiatad iust c*ke trorn-Lhe filter
cloth, and ihen puttrng the instaliaijon back on
skearn. The iength oI the filt;aijon period is deiermined by the rate at which fi1ter drag builds
up whi-le ihe unii is cn stieam. This rate depends
oo the rate of t}:e flolv, Cust concenrration cr grain
loading and permeabiliqy of the dust cake that is
Ceposiied. A schematic for a f,vpicai rnterili.ttentl;r
cleaaed filter is shown in Figure ;aB. This is prob-

sents the increase in resistance during this part

of the cycie. Eficiency of the filter is, as would be

expected, lowest dwing the early part of the

cTcle while the cake is being repaired.
This relationship will hold for any dust-fabric
combination but the shaoe of the curve may be
signiicantly a.ltered by the differences in the
cleaning or the nature of the fabric- Highly efiective cleaning will lower the residual or initiai drag
value. Ss, and poor cleaning will increase it. For
that part of the cycle represented bv curve segment
B where the dust cake is formed, the specific characteristics of the dust tend to be conirollins as far
as the rate of increase of resistance is coicemed"
aod the perrreability, K,, of the dust will be re.
fected by the slope of the curye.
The above mentioned general relationships re.
iating to pressure loss through tlie medium in a
ffltration process apply whether the. area being
considered is a singie bag or many bags in a single
compartrnent,. so long as all of the area is pulin
seryice ai one time.
Because of the domiaant iriiportance of pressr:re
drop in equipment of this type, the &ag of the
ff1ter medium must be given primary consideration.
Filter &ag however, is but a single elernent of the
total pressure &op that determines fan and pcrwer
requirements, In practice, the total pressr:re &op
to, be overcome may, because of entrance and
exit duct losseS, be trrlce that attibutable, to the
6lter me<iium alone. AJso; tie total system wiII

Oqil6i pip!
Cl6on qir !id6

Bqlll! ploi!

lni!l pipr
C.ll piot

Figure 5-8. Single compartment baghouse

cleaning is inteffiiliinily applied.

oqlty air Jidc

fiiter.

Mechanical

ably the least'irnportant class as its usage is limited

to situatiogs wh.gre the prQcess cau be stopped or
process uffi.;f uao bF-iE-po.arilv &scLarged
without being filtered while the fi1ter Coth is being
cleaned. The relationship betw-een,filter drag and
mass of dust deposited for this fite of unlt would
be expected to give a curye of &e type showa in
Figure 5-7.
Periodicall! Claend. Eqaiprnent. A smond trpe
of, filter equipment incorporates pericdic cleaning
wherein filtration of the aerosol- is a confinuous
operatioa but peiodically a given-section of the

E
ffi
..3-r:

FILTRAT]ON

total filter area is isoiated irom &e balance of the

svstem fe1 qlesning. This f,pe of equipment is
u-xemplifi ed by the multicomoartmented ba g-house,

wh:.ch is probably the most important equipment

class as far as usage in large scale industriai filtration is concernei.

'is available in qany

Equipment in this class
configurations, two of which are represented in
Fisues 5-9 and 5-i0' ,111 rypes incorporate an una"iiyrng principle tlat can be e:rplained by reference to Figr:re 5-10, wiricii is a schemadc of a
si:,comparknent frlier uait showing fow patterns

.or five or six unequal drag values in parallei

(depen.l;.g on whether one compartment of the
slr ccmpartmeais is off stream for cleamng). This
requires that ihe comoartsrents on siream e:rperioo*qu"l fow beciuse filter drag of each iom"oi"
parrrrent
is cjiffereat.
Figure 5-lL illustrates drag values that miglt
be found in a sir-comparknent baghouse just after
Comoorimoni rumb6,

4 ' r =--i--

)i

o.-...I

ts ,.J
o+
Ed
LLE Io

il

I
r
l--I
I
I

Rotory di.6h{r9! volyr

Caos raclloil

Figure 5-9. Envelope filter.

-0

20

40

60

lllllf.'.,11'.1" j'-Ti;" ..--..

collapse cleaning.

as they would exist when oo. .o-f"rhent is

being cleaned. In operation each comparfuent
is in effect aa independent cioth area, which experier.ces varyiag eficiency, drag, and flow rate
during the flltration period between cleanings. This
con&tion arises becauSe cleani.g is sequential and
each comparbcaent at any given instant is'oa a dif.
ferent portion of a filter drag vs. mass deposited
crrrve $imilar to &at shcwn' in Figure F7. The
overall filter drag for the whole unit is compri3ed.

80

toc

for a six

compart-

Filler orec (% of tolol

Figure 5-11. Residual filter drag profile

ment baghouse.

Figure 5-10. A six compartment bagfiouse with dampers for

fillsr Crdg cl
bognou3s :0.68 inch6s H?O/fph
Averog Yqlociiy : 3.0 aDm
R63iduol

comparheut 6 has bee.u cleaned and put back in

service. WAeu this compartrrent comes back on
streap a flow pattern will exiqt wi& a manimum
vblocity In'the deaned unit. Subsequent filtration
wiII alter the velocity pattern, since, for any small
increment of time, the amouni of dust deposited in
each compartment will be proportional to the
average velocity in ffiEt compartment at that time.
This produces changes in corrpartment vel,ocities;
-ihe
Qgq-illustrated by
-as a.function of @e;of
Figure 5-12. Ii is iroportant to aote that even
though ttre average veloeity was 3 feet per minute for the entire period, velocities on the order
of 3 times as great occurred in comparhent 6.
For only one instaat in each cycle does a siugie
compartment experience the nominal veiocity of 3
Foi' a perio&cally Ceaned baghouse at equfibrir:m; the filter diag profile,and velocitrrpattern
will: be cyciicl For the eiample citedj compart-

3
4{-i

,'

-- t. :. 1 --:.

:;+.;.:$,:?:i;?i:'.,

50

_-_-^.---

*_

F.;

.\iR POLLUTIOII YIANUAL II

meat -Z wiii be cieaned on next cycle, and its fow

pattern will b as show:r for compartneut 6, Figure
5-72_

Cleaned Equiprnent. The thxd class

of-C^ontirwnJlg
flter uniis utilizes some iecjrnlqrre fo: cieaning
ot a portion of the filtering area wliihout its beinf,

Avtrgr v.l4itr: l.O |ra

idider oodrtnrnt iili.r dr!{: O.2 ia. tsA/lrn
I.ra.nor omodr,E.,r ilf.r cEq: Z.O i". t4tto^

T
I

i-

E6

ing that is activated by a relatively

smali increase
p Al, which causes the arees tongfriT-r"rvjce
to
be c]eaned until a preset mini::oum
:,p
is
reached.
With.this svstem the equioment
ocereies rvithout
cleaning cyc.les, therebv

;Hl**

in

ir;_ri#**.L*

rhe .Dressure a.op

"y.ri"
,".=o*-t.'el,,J.*j

Equipment ur this

i\
3

,i.

-6

-o4 F
I

I
I

c_iass includes lie reverse jet

cleanr.ng i, ,".o*pllrl*a by ,
moving blow-ri.ng, .,rihichl withour

^.
filter
where the

*^t"rrrotioo
servicg trayels rhe length of tl:re U-g, ..*""i"got
dust cake in ihe immedit" *rur.-of-tl'"
Uto*_.*g.
(.See Frgure 5-tS. ) A relatC
.q;#;
rype is
ihe aii pulse unii, whose indjvidual',-rb*, .r" srb_
jecte<i to a blast or jet of air
on the intericr of the
bag to remove dust thai is cojlectjns cn the extenor. Figures 5-14 and 5-15 are sc"heraarjcs for
ihese lypes of eouipment. For the sake cf simpli_
Air

-.....--

Solonoiq yolvr

g
E
IF*

ct.o'E{*FE

itr*

Figure 5-12. Velo_city pattern in a six compariment baghouse

as a function of time.
0!!t- 1od.n
dit lnlat
F6ii filts,
lub.

8o{ 3{pporl

0lrly 9or

ou.f rtaiald
Hlgh

Figure .$13. Btow ring,

principle.

on

in.ida ol

Solld.

it.

crluqr! dir blor! du.l

Figure 5-14. Bagfrlte,rs^cbaned hy air jets.

troo jdrida ot ctolh

rhich works or- ,n" reverse jet

isolated from the balance of the system. The filter_

ing mediirm in zuch units will nonnailv be sub.
jected to a continuoqs
?pplFation of cleairng forces
on some seg[tent of thb cloth or wil] havel clean_

.city gf nomeaclature ihe class of equipment will

be referred to as "continuaily eleaned; 6]ters in tle

discussion that follows.

Qoptinually-cleaned fflters are usually character-

by _Hgh". air-io=cloti rarjos, abfity to trandle

!r4
higher dust loads,

and more constaat hlter.resistance than the peiodically-cleaned. class of equipmeDt.

il
'il

il
il

cess lvil.l result in condensation ,rd cause encmstation and blinding of the flltering medium. Seccnd, it is importan.i to understand thai ihe fans
normally used with fabrjc fiiters are ioad sensitive
voiume delivered iails of as resistance to
-the
flow increases. This requires the use ot fans with
steep pressure-volume curves to prevent ''hunting.l
It sho;ld aiso be ooted that siace changes in drag
produce changes in fow that tend lo reduce the
corr$spondiag e{ect for AP, the pressule droq
across the filter svstem, r,P is not a reiiable index of
performance wnen deaiing wiih equiprnent in ',}e
held, This efiect will be discussed in more deiail in
the section dealing 'vith performance testing.
FiLter,,ng !Ied.ium.. The filtering rneC^ium, being
composed in the main of dust frcm ihe orocess
being controlled, is in a sense unique to each situationl For this reason, it is impossible to prescribe,
in advance, fabrics that will be most suitable for
a given situation because the characteristics of thb
duit la;rer cannot be estimated in ad-rance. Cenerally, in ir:dustries where filtration is introduced,
selection of the app.ropriate fabric composition,
structure, or finishes is seidom opumize<i for features such as endurance, cleanabiliry-, and overall
eficiencv. Usually after a few adequate materials
are found for a-particular anplication, they will
enjoy acceptance untii they are dispiaced !1 the
kial and effor process. The fabrics
",rblrrtiorr^1vmost widely used are best classifiable according to
their chemical composition and their generally accepted limit of thermal endurance. For the most
popular fabric materials the -rlnges of maximum
temperatures commoniy quoted for contjnuous service are shown in Table 5-5.

5.3.3 Filtration SYstems

The basic componexts of a fabnc filter

svstem

i; a ian and au-niiary equipment

rre
-.oodiiion,

neces-

transport. znC drive ''lle gas

medirim;
i['i"*i 1n" system: 2i the f]teringexcess
dust
mechanism for removing
il;ilr;g
-,.ir.
unreasonable
gkir-g
preveni
to
,*f'"e
['"*
;;1d "p oI resiitance to fow: aad 4)- equiome:rt
of collected iusi'
;;;-Jt to contain or dispose up
ct any comDrmade
be
mav
system
A sceciic
each gic'!'
;r.i;" of the various options- ircm,
paragiaph
the
in
Tnese are discussed individuall'
and ihe
rnedium
the
on
emphasis
ttilo*i"g, with

li-, ?

il
il

I
I
I

C:adninq illcnonis

rdoiv"

6ir inl'l

alqh tt!"utt

ditsciinq
-

C:adn

, ,l
t/trl

rir 3id.

-fl'

ouilr

Du3l-

od an

'air lnta,

il
il
il

oud..toitrtd
ool.id. ql f.ll

8oll16 piqi.

il_-

il

Te_arr 5-5. llr-.rnrul,r Tr.urunrgr;ees ron Popcr,la

Fr.rax Mror,r

Figure $15. neverce Pulse filter.

I
I

cleaning mechanism because variabies associaiJwith these components exert the greatest inIuence

on the primarT xneasures of &e efiectiveness of

aay filteilng rystem, its eficiency and the fllter

dr"g,
F:an and, AuiliorV Equi,potent. The faa and
auxiliary equipment are of secondary importance
in this discusiion but several characteristics are
wortly of mention. First, ii should be noted that
aualiary equipment may include gas cooling apparatus. The ieiationship between gas cooling and.
po*"t consumption has-been previously &scussed'
in Chapter 3. Because power is a. dominant economic consideration in filt'ation, proper selection
of cooling technique may be critical in a giveu situatioa. Evaporative cooling may be- inappropriate
because of the danger that poor control of the pr+'

r
r
I

t
B'o'i
;'rE

',:

,l

FILTRATICN

,ii

Temperaiure
Maximum,
Range, "F

Uledium

500-550
400-150

Glass ffber fabrics (Fii:erglas)

Aromatic oolYamide (Nomex)

Polyesters'& .{,crylics (Daeron, Orlon)
Wool
Polyamides (nylon)
Cotton

_.

--

250-215
180-200
2AO.?25

175-200
!:

for glass 6ber fabics the above materials

Except
-avallabie
in ei.ther woven or felted fabrics'
are a1l
Woveu fabrics are used exclusively in the periodically or intermittentiy cleaned systems. The felted
fabiics are used in the continually cleaned, leverse'
iet and air pulse devices; in &ese the high filtration
izelocities and continual cleaning necessitate ihe
use of materials that function as a closely packed
bed of fibers, so ttrat the medium presents a hom-

:a';:-i;lii.,F{,

52

AIN POLLUT]ON !I.\.\U.{L

ogeneous suface free

a:ter cleaninq.

of large voirls imrhediately

Cost fig;res for fiIter tabrics are riiinsull to estimaie. EnC ccsts are influeuced bv variables such

as ccst per pound of basic material, aumber of

pounds o.f yarn per sq,uare fcor of iabic ;equired

to give the desrred eficj.encv and wear resjstance
lgpe of fabnc 6nish that is apc.iied, and special
teatnents ihat may be required lor cleanibfity- or

fiber proiecticn. Recog";"ipg that the data'are,

:or ihese ."-rroor,'ihe prices in Tabie
,i6 are cferei. as approxr'ma:e cisr of "rypicali,
specuiatrve

gas Sitracon fabrics.

T-ulr

5-6. Cosrs or Trrrc.rr. Gas Fu_raa::cN F-r-gnrcs

Basic

Vlaienal

llaterial
yam

Costl h. of

.$

Fiberglas

60

Woven Fabnc

Costr'rd.'

.98 to $1.86

I'lome.x

sr.io
$ .30

Dacron
Orlon

lVidely variabje

Wool
Nylon

It

$i.co

,9 .70

.10

.11

Cotton

$1.04
t r.0L
s 1.77

Felted Fabic

Cost/yd.'
not available

$i1.50

.$ 4.82

4.82
D J.Y/

is irnpofiant to realize that characteristies such

fabric cleauability and fabric endurance in the

en.rironment for which the maienal is considered
are usuallv paramount considerations, which may
as

ou-tweish the first cost of the medir::n. Cleanabilitv

influences power requirerrenis

endurance

will

or efficiency while

st'ong1y in{.uence maintenance and

replacement costs. fle importance of these cost

items wiil be discussed in iome detail in the section on economic considerations that foiiolvs.
Cleaning Nlecharti^yms. Cleaning techniques currenily in use are as follows:
a) Mechanical cleaning, using shaking or rapprng devices. This method of cieaning li the one
most wiciely used in industr-y. Many varlaUons j:t
hardware are available to provide iinkage between
the energy source and the cloth to be shaken.
Coilapse cleaning
cleaning accomplished
-byb)
inb'oduction of a slight- negative -pressure-on the

interjor of the section being cleaned by manipulation of inlet and outlet dampers. (Such-an zrrangement is shown in Figure 5-i0. ) This cleaning
method was developed for and js used almost exclusively for installaticns thai have giass fiber
fabrics" which are aot suficiently resistant to fex
and- ahrasion to permit shaking by convdntionai
metho<is.:

c) Reverse fow cieaaing which is best illush-ated by reverse jet devices (shown in Figures
i13, 14, and I5).'This type of cieaning is-also
used in some units such as &e envelope filters,

shown

in Figure 5-9; which incorporati

woven

ffi"

fabrics and utilize low-er velocities for cleani-frg.

d) Souic cleaning, where sound waves a.e used.#to bombard the clean side of the filter eloth. This

*:Y, ;:,1*,':,

suppieurentarr cleamn"51T"4:',!,T',#:::"*T:H
g mechanism.
.{r. pulse cleaning, where a puise cf air rs
") on tle clean side of t\e fiitir Coth
apclied
to discharge dust depositi on tie opposiie siCe. (Thi,
i'rpe is showu in Figures 5-14 and 5-15. ) I:r tlis
relacivelv new- technique an air puise ii used to
create a pressure wave .-har tavels aicng the leneih
c.f ihe bag and dislociges rhe a<cess dJst.

.\:rv list such as ihis one.is apt io beccme

leie since

obsc_

iechniques can b-e devrsed. io imparr

cleaning fo.ces to th" cioulr. There is a sJoog
".oncmic iacentive to clean more ef,ectjveiy, soiork
n lhis area is api co continue. The econcmic rnoUvaiion becomes aaparent in the disCussion of
man-v-

economic ccnsiderations that follows whea the

relation of pressure drop across ihe neCi.un io
Dower cost is ccnsidered.
Dust REntasal Sustenw. Filtration equipment is
noi very sensitive to imperfections in removing coilected d.ust from the equipment, but o.u.rtf,"i"r,

some precautjons must be observed.

many filters operate on lhe suction side

of-Because
ihe main fan, some kjnd of air lock must

be

provided ai the bottom of the dusi collection hopge1 to prevent ( or minimize ) in-flcrv of air. Large
in-flow at this point will entrain heavy concentrations of dusi, which add to the load to be f,ltered.
Fcr mcst insta.llations handling air-duft lni-*t-,rr".
at suction up to 10 or 15 inches waier gage, simple commercial devices such as rotarv valv'esl chokedischarge screws, or double flat valves are satisfactory (Figure +l*).- If the system is handling
prccess gas, axplosive gases above the lower explosive limit, or is operiting at very high suction,
special precautions must be taken.
Also, coliected dust rnust be removed adequately
so that it does not build up into the filtei bags.
The rough-cost-flgures that have been quoted f-or
fiIter
-equipment in the sectjon foilowin-g do not
include allorarances for such equipment. It should
be aoted tlat in- speial situations this mav be a
higirly signifi cani cofi JtemT

5.3.4 Cosis
The tlree most important costs associated with farbric filhation ,r" th" ffrst cost of

equipment, cost of power, and mgintenance

First costs of fabnc fllters vary tremend,ously
cause of speciai probiems that mav erist for a
ticul-ar process. Cenerally, $2.50'per square
of cioth. area is a good ffg** foi esdJ:ating ia

E
i

FILTRATlON

*alted cost for the woven fabric,

generalize. Some .'lrnters have given data for maintenance costs,3,a but their figures eiiher sholv too
rvide iange or are roo speciffc as to equipment type
and process being ccntrolled io be o{ general value,
Nso, ii is impocani to realize ihat: maintenance
mav sometjmes have liu:ortance. out' of oroportion
to direct costs. For example, a typicai ce:nent plant
baghouse of SO.CCtr Crn capacity using giass fiber
iabrics might ccst $62,11C0. I{ ihe :vstern operates
at 2 ft;m, 25,000 squaie feet of cioth cosdng about
$4C00 ';vculd be requirC icr a set ot bags. $/lLile
tiris is a reLauvei'r small oercentage oi the firsi
ccsi for &e equipment, ii shoulc alsc be ncted
that ihis dces not iaciude labor ccsis ior insiallation

utermittend,v-

.i"^""a or periodically cieaned i-rniis exclusive oI

arrt dlsposri equipment' Since'.hs f,E:re is based
o" ,n" cioth area, the cost in a given siiuation will
a"r"od on the fi]tration veiocitv io be used' Nor-

maliy, filtration velocifr will iangg from l;4 to 3

feet per minute. A 50,000 cubic feet per minute
witn flt'auon veiocity of
."-p*t-""t baghouse
-*-ould
ccsi $62-5C0 exdusive of
Z-l-"it pu. minute
auxriiarr equipment ijrat
speciaL
and
dust disposai
a
in
be-necessary
Siven sii::aCcn' Ccsts :c'r
may
soeciCjzed ffies of equli>mert such as ihe reverse
i"t o. .h" pulse air equipmeni "rzould run higher
n", ,q.rr.-ioot of cloth but because hi-eher filtlaton relocides are possible rj:ev ma;z be economica1ly acivaotagecus. Ccsts Ior the eqr:jpment aie
abcut $1'1 pei square foot' Fiih'ati'on velocities
generally range frorn 3 io 15 feet Der minute'
" The most importaat operating cost to be considered for a fabiic filter instaiiadcn is ihe cost oI
power. Because cf the ccnirolling irnporiance cf
ihis cost itern, minimizag the Dressure cirop through
the filtering medium is a cr"idcal considerauon. Recalling that -rP : f(u) for flcw ihrough the ffltering
medirim, one realizes ihat power requirements for
fow tbrougb the me&um may be influenced in two
ways: by designing the svsiem so that ihe inherent resistance or filter drag is rrinimized, or by
increasing the fllter area so iliat ihe superficial
velocity is lowered. Again, it is lmportdnt to recognize that only the AP is a direct funcfion of fltration velocity and that inlet and outlet loss wi-ll
signi.ficance. llanv factors as---have ildependent
sociated with dust-fabric medium ha're been showa
to influence filter &ag but ihere is, at present, no
way to control tle value of this parameter by
optimizing the system. AIso, it is dij*cult, in most '
situationslto determine from either bench or small
scale ffeld tests what the velocilv-pressure &oprelaiionship wili be wben a iull scale unit is put
on skeam. Hence, the general bend has been to
resolve tle &lernma by going to larger ff1ter areas
(increasing tle size and cost of flltration equip'
ment) to minimize super6cial veloilv and aszure
that AP is within desired limits. Thus, the tvi'o
most important cost items. cost of operating- power
and ffrsi cosi of equipment. are ccunterbalancing
and until better contrLl cao be exercised over the
resistance cf &e ffltering medium to flow, it seems
unli-kely that substantlal cost reductions wi.ll be
efiected for this class of equipment.
The third major cost item, maintenaace, is infl.uenced primarily by the iife, and replacementcost, cf ',tre filtering medium. The wiCe varielv
of fabrics available and tle many special requirements of particular insiailations makL lt di{ffcult to

I
I
r

t
I

r*
ai
."f,:

I :

53

or allow-ance fcr ihe erDenses associaied with lcss

of production di::ing .nsiailaiion, wluch ma;r cutweigh the cosi of &e bags ihemselves. Iiow-ever,
baghouses ha're an advantage over some c'thel fzpes

of collectors in situadons where dow:r dme is criiExcess cloth 'area maY be provided so tlat
the filter cioth in ulciividuai compaitrnetis can be
changed wiihoui shutting down i,he eniire process.

ical.

5.3.5 Filter Seiection

As previcusly suggested rn Chapter 3,
first step in selection of a particular piece of
control equipment is deierrnhinq as completely
as possible what components in the process efiuent
are apt io infuence a particular tpe of apparatusIn fabric filtration this is most often approached
by insialiing a test unit to collect data that can be
used for prccess design. It is especiaily important
to know the chemical process character:sics because the fiitering medium may be suscepiible to
attack by specific ccmponents, and a wide choice
of materialJ is available to cope with this problem.
At this point, it should. be 'noted ttrat the three
classes of- equioment discussed earlier can also
be, divide{ logicaliy into two', qategories which
employ difierent types of meCia and di$erent flltaion velocifies. The first includes inte:-mittently
and periodically cleaned systems which normlily
employ woven fabric:lqe&a aad opeYtg at fflter
velicities from 1.5 fom to 3.0 fpm, and the secor'd
includes continually cleantd de.rices which employ
felted media and opprata at fllteLv{osities from
3 fpm to 25 fpm. ltrll:iie classificaffon according to
typLr of cleanrirg lends itself to &scussion of
operating characteristics, the latter &vision is -probmoi" signi$cant as far as zuch praetical con=
"bly
as rystems 4gti1 and equilpment se'
siderati.ons
lection are concemed. Iilence, a logical ffrst step
in selection of filter equipmeat for ,contol of a
particular source will oftes involve: deciding be'n
o, continually cleaned, high ve-iocjf,v; devices
qti'lizing felted cloth Ledia agd tfe,]'ou velocity;
t-he

!-. i

A1R POLLUTiON

units Lhat are intermittently or perio<lica1l,v cleaned

and are equipped with woven labric media. fie
former are most suitable when '.he lccation re'
quires a compact unit or is one in -wiri& tempor
arv periods of ineffcielcy (characeljsc.c d woven
fabric units during ihe period of cake recair ) cannot be taierated. Uniil recently, conthually cleaned
ecuDment was limited io low temperaiure operatioa tv the lack of $ermallv resistant lelted mediT
but w:th ne inhoduciion and adaoiarion oi se''-

svniledcs capable ot service fucm 400-'{50"F,

processes thai formerly were incapabie of contol
'except .vil\
glass fiber fabics or oiher tvpes o{
ccotol equipment rnay be ccnsidered for conhol
bv these iechniques.

The Larger peiiodically or lntermittently cleaned

uniis, genirally being less expensive and- requiring
less maintenance, are falored where the higher
filtratjon velocities and conb.nuouslv high efficiencies are not needed.
,{Jter deciding befween these two tvpes of
equipment the next basic consideratjon wouiri be to
select the fabric to 'oe used. The most impcrtant
single factor here is usual.ly the operating temperature but in any given situairon a singie compone:tt
in &e efiuent stream may be controlling. For
exampJ.e, a sYstem, otherwise amenabie to contoi
usingi-elass fiber fabrics, which produces Eucrjdes,
rrrrrf olhr" some other rriedium since iapid fluoride
artack of the glass fibers will cause deteri.oration of
tlie fabric in a matter of weeks. Ii is at this poini
thai it is especially iraportant to check carefully
every iiem listed in ChaPter ,3.

5.3.6 Perlormance

Tesiing

-r

II.L\UA], i]

E
tainjng accurate measurements with
"o.ir"otioo"i
d;ixsuh.
For
these
reascns.
perveri
is
equlpi-rent
formance testing is lormally concerned more ',rrth g
fllter dras than w-ith eficiencY.
b
I-f eficiency is oi concern, it is always necsssary

**Zn Jli -,q[ fli] "&:::' H';HLil

E
i:"
,corm. Tnis ari"ses becautEtno"m*ncv oD. a ,Meraat
basis is very high, ovel
me{qods of mealurins

9.P91{

becausoQracdcai

:ffi*hT:YJ#h:{ffi##for
and in fafg'lrl1trt'!3ent1yfid
meaningless

ei-

calculaiiors orll"1 00#'

Collection eficiencv ca::rbest he delnineC^b:r
measuri.ng ihe percentase of p6etatjon (iCO -xpn
weiryhf passin
nassind
fflter,/,reisht
ght input
inout)) and subtractin
subtractinsbt
gb:
g fi1ter,'-,,vei
weight
it frim-1006.-This requires safrpiing ',Ie cieaned
sas steam- and either ns35u1it-ihe cetch _or_
sa*ffg the input. Eiiher<$ch or rnout mav ire!
taken as &e innui in uhe cfrlation of penetlation.
Thus a penehation iest yielding a result of 0.063i51t*o sii"ifcantrflguJes) represents a ccllecd"tfi
efficiency of Sgil%.
In using fi1tel orag as an i.ndex of perfonnance,
fi

ien

c.v-

for a filterhg me&urn the aP

at any given instant when an aerosol wilh constanF
dust'lo"aCine is being filtered may ire gap1s55sff
.,,
1---a*
as follo;p[.,
has been shown that

eD-.t/e
qa
- ./ \-t

rEft-ir,ffi
&!i

1/- ..\
't

P,i

where:

Ap = pressure drop &rough the

f,q
H
a
fiitering-medir* ('m. rJ.g )
:
(in.
w-.g.fpm)
co1&ag
of
Filter
S
ltr
bv
dete#ined
fllter
is
fabric
"fioi"ory
y : superficial'velocity (fpm)
leciron and fllter drag. In most air poiilution situa-' - -'a
p : Viscosiiy of t&e gas
U
tions the eficiency *itt b. evaluated visual1y.- If
there is any-visible $ue* it ge1eiaIl1 means-that In a constant temperature situation where viscosome part of the medium has failed. If the system ,lty-ao". not vary,
A
','is opeiating normally there will be little poqt in
tJ
t:r,.
*l2l
:
*-*"fi"g *"?r*u**ois of inlet and outlet lad]ngs
*
S
--'
"
" -"-v- .
to establish the .fici"ocy; f*i the rtificdtil
ioading
associated with g*tin!-"t i""tr,L outlet
.
(fq. ;-fSE
v--O
v -=-f-- 'r ==>
measurement may make eficiency meazuiements-

Foi

example,

in

the-

mulhcompart-

mented"baghouse, small amounts of solid

Yl,f:t
tluough thE medium immediately after the cleaning of-each
aJ.5oE
"cmpa,tnil;

* n"l*:o-n

ii*T",fi
*;rt"ffi"r;k; **0"#*^'iilHil'variable
ii addiuoa io the "q ratq of
"i-"i."Gg,solids. ti"""gU' the fabrfc, f{cien-cy
p"r*s"lt=
il::'*,",-il' "U:]*t"kJ"J-':::,1f ,lL

i:Lt:::Y&.""",x'sif "*l:i;':T**::",F

The adequacy of the performance of

meaningless.

where:

\' :
a

Total flovr 6iiough t\e

A:

ffi.I"TJ
Tsrinq

t*,1
wh,sn

--11d,1*:o"e
ii:.thus reduced to d
srazc
pressure
simultaneoutlv

+t

me&-

d+,yy,:^:E

prcble*
9t:P

:f.S$rl
i:T:1i""":ffi,

fol :iffi:"1,n** i"i*"tr',ffX"X ;fl:JF

+i:!
:,

FlLTRATION

where S is the standard fllter ckag, S' is tle measured <irag, p, is the viscosity at standard condiiionE
and. ,., is-the viscosity of ihe '{as at the temperature
it passes through ttre filter me&ur' !traen
"i*f""o
air is the fluid flowinq, viscosiry ratios shom 'on
fig*" la17 may be used. Tnis same ccrrectiono{
*oha be ne"..iary for any of the three rrpes
ecuipmeni when substantial temperature variations

}<rrowing rnlet
where effciency is to be measured'
n'oo

How simPIY TT"

;i';ri", ;; to"a*!''
a"t""n*.ed depends
ot"?"iof
capable
erties are

filter-interrnjtient-

on which of the three

lv cI eaned,

"Ilttt-of
or continuallv
p"riodi"il]:""i*'*a'

tested'
Lr ^pre'
ril;ate ihis difierence in prc'blemsWt*'
tq*p*t"t=T:
seuted bv 'Ie tt't"" wi*es""i
5-16 shouid
in'Fieure
ti;;;
curves
crcp
Dressure
filters the
tlt""ing
f," .r"tra.t&.- I" *;;""u,v

being
lleaned-is
-;;-

,r* a'rr"",.otereC. U i-n1et ternperarures are uot consame but

;;i p;;;"dures will be essentialiv ti:e determiae
io
necessary
be
will
of readings
"-r"ri"t valueS.
aln2cc

:and tl liil

il
il
il

c
o:
o]}

'r.7t

\./
=t/
rf
?,F-5ld'r
,itrrdrion

o :-l

a
E ol

'=6
6=

l;l>
,]
I a

9i
.!t
I

lld

a-

li"

;.t
t:

(o)
qtio'ln'rrc
4 ' llr rrrcotrl! rl'O' ttrd
pr: Air rr.Eo.rl! :l r.dPrralur'

o"'$rl

il
il
il
il
il
il

Temoersture ("s

-9

Figure 5-17. Air viscosity ratio as

I
I
I

,a
0-

Time

(c)

oiil

I*';:r ,.,}kii*lr,{,i*ffi *#{*i':t'l''r1xEi:

eouioment

operaie at essentiaily constant pres-

will
shoio in

if temperature is con- -the fan will

deliverai-bv
H;.;#;,-;;";i"*"
reacing;
aP
flow
the
,ltt
il-coil;;;,'*
-and
b{
determind
be
can
&ag
ealculate
;;""rt;;;
not
is
methods. Also, this equipment
;;;;,i;td
or low eficiency after cleaning
ffil*;;;tilat
will be
in the-exit
'-'11,",
easily
be
will
oilm"iercy
constant and percentig"
rJt"'a]o,

as

5-164

il il; ;;;'l""d;s
determinable.
-li

t-*p"tr*te is not constant' accuratebedrag

de-

.*t-"rd"1iJo""-o.111

,"qoit"

that tqi?perature

pressurre
i"tori""a simultaneously with flow anC
appugt:''
be
can.
correcticns
viscosity
-'th"
tlroo so &at
multiis
value
measure<i
Tt*..;;ndti^ ;i;'
the
to
accordiag
Gcosities;
il;Tfi-r",l"
"t
equation:

!I

il
L

: s'(a)
lLx

a function of gas

tem-

peratu re.

I
a

ru

,-

,_

jl

r^\.

I;q. 5-r.r/

a
The intermiitenilv cleaned baghouse presents'
difierential
djff"-r;;;.obt"* ii' ih't the pr"ess:re
durlimits
wide
ov6r
varies
medium
;;A;
5-16b)'
Figure
(see
;;";"-;;";se oi tht cycie
fan outffiir;;";flo* ,a,.i^tions by influencing
will
situation
1n-tlu3
:"il;;Gs
measurements
necessitate a serles of s6ultaneous
volume of fonv'
and
drop
p'""*e
fo'
;i;i;;i"",
th-e filter
;; ;"i-';"p"tfi&i-velocities thrnugh
aP
correiponding
for
il"ai"* Li U" calculated of points tb define the
.ralues at a srrfrcieni o'*l"t
$1I
curve. As pre''io"sfy -""ti""la' 9$cieucycvcl(
tl"'eoGse of the flltering
to
r" U ii-it to be" measured it '/i11 be n-ce-ssary

ili: rh;;

;il;d;'it"g

oritla-d*t concent'aiion' de'

e'*pr"'sion of overall effi'ciencv

""a
"l*"rt,;-rtLi
i;1."1";.i"*;th;rr"led;e''rn'tEffiruation;'the
;;;-;;;;tgf..1

*"u1d oe the

il;i'il;i..a:tg

average value

pre'
The most complex system for -analysis; is T&e
,"o,"J ;.v A" ;i;;"nipartaented. baghouse'
ci-rrve" in
;;i. on the pressure difierential-tim-e
ccr'follcwing
i';n*" i-ro, "t" represented by the
At
rz
comparurents;
with
u.gniuse
diE;"; ]*

6*;

"
on this

fi&"

a freshly cleaned'compartrtent

!i:

-.:r".::r:
,

r-:

:it ,::.:,'

l;;:{;,}.lr:i-i::i
.-".{J.-"r+

-*i:;1E-'

;-':,

,#;

AIR POLLUT]ON }IANU.\L II

has come on stream, and during the interval ,.-lu

filtrati.on proceeds with a given number of compartments (n). trVhen lirne Ju is reached another ccmpartment is taken out of serrrice fcr cleaning. The

pressure di,fferential ::nmediateiy l4cr.eas.es ftmr

AP, to l:D.. During ihis instant there is no change
in the cirag of the remaining units and as no
addjtionai dust is depositerl, the AP is simply
refl.ectiag the sudden increase in superEciaL veloit,v e,rperienced when the area available for flcvi'
is reduced bv lin of the totai. Filtation ther
proceds wiih n-1 comparhenis until the cleaned
filiers are back in service. Al tlis dme (r" ) the
pressure diferential decreases frorn APn to APr.
Again, 'ihere is no instantanecus change h the
drag of the units continually filtering; the AP is
again reflecting a superficial veiocilv change.
Because ot these changes in a.P during the cycle,
which resulis flom changes both 'n areas available
for flow and jn drag as dust is cleposited, the fan
output wiil var,v and again ii becomes ncessary
by some means to obtain simultaneous readings
for pressure drc'p, flow, and temperature through
the filtering medium in each compartment. Without these the inherent resistance or drag is not
ascertainable. Commerciai equipment is seldom
instrumented for these values and at many installatious it is not even possible to gain access to ihe
equipment so that the necessary pressure loss
measurement across the medium exclusive of inlet
aud outlet losses can be obtained. For this reasotr,
it is ofien dificult or impcssible to compare the
performance of the individual compartrnnts of a
multicompartnented baghouse. As previouslv
stated, overall aP becomes an unreliable parameter
for a scientific index of peCormance,. or as eng!
ueering data for applicatiou to any situation nst
identical to the measured one.
To illuskate the magnitude of this e$ect in dne baghouse, consider the pressure differeutial and
flow variatiou curyes for a four-cocoparhent house
collecting fume from an electric-arc process, as
shown in Figures 5-18 and i.19. Figure 418 sho.xrs
observed flow variations during the ffltering cycle.
Figure 419 shows tw-o curves: tie solid curve
represents average pressure differentials reeorded,.
in the ffeld; ihe dashed curve represents the pressure differentials that woqid have existed if fonr
were constant. It can be seea that there are '
material diferences between respeciive values. The
solid tends io indicate very littie change with
time, while the dashed curve shows the oppositeA technique for anaiysis of drag varjations wiih'
in a multicomparl,menied baghouse has been described for use with installations where'ihe drag
variations that take place within a filteriug cycle

represent a sub.stantial- porti-on of the to.* a*rg; S

that is, where the number of compartments is qii
in excess of aboui 5 and enkance and e..q.i Losses t#
are 1ow.,1 Under more ideal conditions "u"1 .. F

are available on pilot units or 'pro6;tpe

bag-

houses where operating parameters can b., meas-

.OCPARTUEXT COIARIXEiT

:o.coo

..rl,n" I

ii
]

"rsr2*,""

w=

:opoo

ro.ooo

d
Ay.r.l. r.i..rit iiti io!, EnFtsD.li
k.raF r.r.Glly rlth rt....frwhd.

s-rt..m, a{ h a3 tDn
or-d...6, l.d i. J.t lEa
.a>,
a

iim6 (minui.!l

n w ith
::H;"" fi ';; dTY".'1 li"t'o

cvc

re ri me

try;[u

" g;illc

lf_
I

/--cra.t.trirtor

t
-'.

i m

] Cooporrnr* on-+ron
q

ffi

Timr (minuis)

Figure 5-19. The e{fect

of flow variation on lhe

pressure

difrerenlial curve

ffi

ured, the effect of process variables such as filtra'

* on timg dust loading, and dust permeability on
baghouse performance can be predieted.'2 In most
operating units, however, accurate analyses of ihe
internal operating characteristics is impossible and
diagnosis o.f'' ffltration process problems requires
alr/areness of &e importance of the basic variables
discusscd aboyg, -and understanding of &elr rela-

tjon to

thIffiiular

system undei consideration.

5.4 HtGft.EFFlCJFN?Y P/NEI FftIfRs

5.4.1 lniroduction
lvlany, in fact most, filters ar-- gleirned
to be "highly'eficient" and many are. But eXEciency is relative, and in the flter ffeld it depeads

upon several perfbrmance characteristics. The highefficiency filters discussed here are also kacwn as
ulba, absolutg super-interception, and HEpA (high
e{ffciency particuiate air ). - These fflters, as i:he

tr

e
E
E

t
+

.q.

---:!.%^;

FILTRATION

i6ply, are highiy eficient with re_spect to

oartjele capture anri retention oaiv. Th*y are

terms

't

*.lr"r characterized as noncleanable anci dispos,rble panel units with relatively ,high resrstance to
air flow and moCerare dust hold:lg capaiiy: All

gt

1
,

a
,J
d

4
1
fl

'1
4

ia this categorare subject io the U. S. Amy

Chemicel Corps DCP Smoke (Diocfl Fhthalate)
peneuation and -{i Resistaace Test No. ,V{IL-STD182, llethod i02.9.1.
i{igh-eficienc'z paael fllters were deveioped <iurrng lVor1d trVar iI b;r the Chemicsl Cc,rps fcr the
liinhattan hojecr to oreveni escape or eetrr oi
airborne raiioaci're phvsical particulates. Until
i95i all cf these f,lte.s iere man-ufactured "t re!-wood- llarzland. and.the,design, orccessing, and
iesting were hienlv classified.
The original tilter nedium used w-as i<ientjfied
as CWS No. 6, the same as then emploved fcr
miliiary gas masks. The medium, now io-entified
as CC No. 6, is a paper mili product rrade from
approximatel'1 g5% esparto fibers an<j 15, (',veight)
Boiivian or South ,\frican blue asbestcs fibers.
During the earlv 1950's, the design and processes
were declassiied and three commercial manufaciurers began pro<iuciog and marketlng a line of
filters oniy slightly modified lrom the original de-

Thel a.re built to effcienily remove fine1y <iivicied

particulate from gas streems end althclel tn""
stop larger particuiare matter as well, lt" is not
economical to use thern ior ths purpose.
Filtratjon here is mosti.r a suri-ace acticn; hence,
_
dust storage capacitv is 1arqei,7 a matter of totai
media surface area.
Pressure drop across '&e fflter is Csc pr.hrarily
dependent on effecfive fiiter area, but-nedium
s}Ppdrts aiso infuence i-:ris charecierisdc b'r iatroducrns side wall ftrcdon under cerrarx ccncitians
of use.
E
5'4'4
Product Design

All manuiscturers prcduce a S1tel .aith

a rectangular face h a number of sizes using a
continucus sheet of thin f,lter me6a, accori.infoideC over corrugateC separaiors, and, aif encased
in a foame to form the panel uait. Cne manuiach:rer has found a wav ti eliminaie the seoarators

Uy foi<iing and cemeniing the fi1ter *"di.* to

make li self-supporting i"
mannei
to lhe
" Japaneseakin
paoer
techniq.,r", ,..d'?or priducUe
-d".or"door. lanterns and other expanded paler
The most popular size measures 24 x 24 x l71i
inches deep on-the outside ot the frame and it is
sigrr. .Since then several signifiqanl irnprovement-c normally rited with an aii fow _capacity of 1069
-high
have been made, and the product lines have been
dm, alihough some are rated as
as 1400
greatly erpanded. There has been much progress cfm. Tnere are 200 to 250 square feet of fiiter
shown in both design and aoplisxtion during the
medium (0.010 to 0.100 rnch thick) folded back
last decade.
and forth over the corrugated separators as shown

-r{'.g[;r}r13;,
5.4.2 Typical Applications
extend beycnd the fold to protect
ln additiou to their many appiicatio_ns the filter medium. The resulting fflter "pack" cr
by the U. S. Atomic Eaergy Commission, these fiIt"slug'' is then cut to 'width and sealed llto &e

ers are widel;z used in industry to capture verv fine

frarie.
particulate matter. nVhite rooms" utilize high-efiThere is a wide variet'r of mateials ft.om which
ciencv frlters for production as well as produci
these filters are m*or-rfrCt,r."d,
deveiopment areas. The sDace indusuy, food
r r - ..t--.
r,-,,
p.o""rri.rg plants, elech'cnic component manrfac:1ryt
wl(I)our
w1-Ln Tli'.Fiill;

.. 1

_rr_

f:':ff::
i:?::'iT::T'i111':f:1il1TlI11T
p,,o1*oql"t"^,ao,T1 rooms',DomD snefiers' Lne
rograpnlcrtrIrn.mdusrry' poa'naceuEcanl

manurac-

:i-t:::fr"::-*-:jtj.
or
mlnerai. or asbestos
mrcrotbers,
binders to provide ror st'eus'.h. water resistance.
formability.' etc. Tne thinn6st of the media is
about 0.01b inch .thicL and the heaviest abcut
o.too i.,"h. Plastic microfibers ofier another pos-

-:1Y

H1': Ti-J1'-"1'-:T"f
rlters.
tl]e instafiaEons aDDear
rernaDs some ot i::'ilol'",i^1i-'f"-:::l
because ot
jl:";j:
;,"t, b* ffi;,;il'i"gn-"t1.,"";;il;h;i!:+_
*"--av'r
l!*?-:,..bj'
9:*'^:norlar
',
.
laErllfty
.
'
Ilfe
+eSIStanC.:
ano
.
t
, ,.'- -,.
wnere Eace amounts ot paftlculate
con(am1naqts
-;>
Separatnr*--{om-rgated lc,aft pager,, -asbestos
are detrimeatal to heaith, quality of prcducf;,oi' ,
: :. ,,1 ,1 paper, aluminum foil, stainless steel, and
plastic
operation of equipment.
.

,,

*:":#;t,T*"i';?fri};';,:'L]}:rs"ffi:

5.4.3 Principles of operafion

- ,.',-' :'
ffliers
panel
Nthough high-eficiency
- ' . tlzpical cornrgaUgn size is,117'64 inch deep oy 5/16
. inch wide and the best forms are those with sharp
undoubtedly urilire-all michanisms of partiele capcrowrs to provide tle smallest surface contact
hrre and retention, &e most significant is diffusion.
with the fllter medium. 'As meationed previously,
Iaese are Iow velocily fiiters designed to afiord a
'
media velocity in the orcier of ffve feet per miorrte: : _ .sorr filters do not require separators-,

':!iY}l:r.ii.i:i-i

t::::.t=

58

AIR

POT

LUTION !{,L\UAL

Frrrrnes_.Plv."vcoi. hard bcard, steei, and aium-

I1

Variati.orLs-Variations rr shaae as w-eli ,.^.rt"

afieci performance. Fcr exampie, cviin&ical fiiters

ff

and capacities.

f,

inur:r are useC as ;liegal fi'ames. again depen&ae

upon '.he ser','ice :ecuiremenis. One special filter
empio-.zs an inte,a':i irame casi to shace lrcm
mineral ..vooI antJ coiloidal sfica.

of both the "straight-throush' snd. *ra&al flow"

tvtes are available in a nurnb.er of diferent sizes

-\ehedi{ss_.F.ubber or plastic adhesives are used

seal rhe filter 'tiug' in the frame oi man,v of
ihe producrs. Cthers effect a mechanlcal seei and
!
elimieaie tie eeed for adhesives.

i:x;x,""1:[i"
"elements
to avoid the necessiiz of

5.ui.*fi'"8*lHl x
discarding

io

reiative-l-r-

6lier beccmes dust laC'.en.

Gariats-Iai e g;a1 g askets ri e nornail,v rurcished

cn bcth faces ci r-i:e filter :iame. Rubbel necDrele, nin.eral w-oci, anci asbestos a;e the r:ost

Tgycci

Sizes and Sha,pes are gryen

,,

in Tab.ie 5-i,

ccrrmon materials used.

i.,

coxly iategral lrane e';e{fr:n:e,t}e '-

' .

,l

l:,'.i',,.
,, t'. ' : ,-t,*.

Figule.$20. Ultra-filter construction. Couriesy Camiricge: Filter Corporation, Flanders Filters lnc:. and Mine Safetl Apptiance!
Compan-Y'

p
ri

.w
FILTRATION
T,ur.e 5-7, Tvprcrr. Srr,*ss -rND S,r5 or Hrcs-E*or:csxcr

Cn iests with monodispersed aerosols,

of

sjmilar
compcsition, it was fo33d th-at ntt",
gg.g7g
,"t"a
" tlroi"ai"*"t",
e{ecuve egainst particles
0i
-of
w'cuji be 9,4.5013 #ecUve for
0.16 *-rir""

P-ltrr, Frrrers

Capacify
SCF\,I

Face

Dimepsions

Rateri
Depth
incies
at liom
Outside Incies
Frr-e of Exclusive 0,7 io L.C
Retainer of Caskets ;ncx W.G

Shape

Sxd

Rectangular
Filters

Diameter

Inches

Inches

I
I
_tJ

4
g,

f,
g
4
t

4
f,
f,

l1-1

5C0

i000

Filter

Flaage
Diamerer

11

fl

50

v_t/a

)Jtr,!

r:r"4
7-ilJ

9-3/1
1i:]i4

5-7,;g

ln-l,d
10-Li4
rc-1/4

diametet

i"l-ir,usbg.-a ba-cterial suspension ot

sbbl,sti (0.5 x r.o to 1J
inidal penetradon is in the order of 6.7-x-L0-, oercent and. ai.ier only 6O bours of use. th" p"o"o".ioo
qecrdases io -ess Lhan one oer 100
rniilion.
In addiiion io MIL-STD-28Z. .,e.., specific jnstal_
laHon :equirernenrs :re desc:ibe" o,'
1. Fe<ieral Standard 209. "Clean Rcom and lVorl<
Siarion Recuirernents, ConrrolleC Envircn_

yy**

Io

5-il8
3x8
21:<24 'o-7 i8o

Face

Cylindncal
Filters

J-1./

'DaIt]Cles.
F,:fiher, o.!

50

-i;;;;;t;-,*,

ments.'

r 1<

2. TJnited States Ak Fcrce Technical N{anuai.

"Stancjari Functjonai C;iterja ior Design
and

2IO

Ooerarion of Clean Rooms." Technicai- Orier

5.4.5 Perforrnance Characteristics

Effiencg (Particle catotura uuL retmtion). Ultra-filters are rared by the DOp (diocb7l
phthalate ) test. Each filter is tLste.d and results are
stamped on the side of the elerneni inciicatiag cercent
penefration and iniiial pressure drop at
-DOP
rated air flow
-capacity. The most common specifications call for a maximum penekation of 0.fjS%
-a
DOP (98.979 effciency) and maxjmum iniiial
pressure drop of 0.90 or 1.00 inch water gage at

00-25-203

3. Underwriter's L,aboratory Siandard No.

'Iligh Eftciency Air Filier Uniis.-

536.

Presx.re Drop. The au fls.a caDacity of mosi

of these filters is established at an inlial resistance
to au flow of 0.9 inch waier gage. However, the
rating range extends from a low= or.r 0.7 inch to a
high C 1.0 inch water gage. A change in fow
rate affects both the p.essr-,r- drop aqd tie particle
capture and reiention
-efficiency and foruil pr""_
tical purposes, the rejationships
are li::ear iunc_

raied flow capacifr.

Tne test method is the U. S. Army Chemical
oo'
Corps DOP Smoke (Dioctyl phthatate) penetration
J
coe
Ald Ajr Resistance Test No. NI[-STD-292. ]fethod
102.9.1. A mcnodispersed aerosoi of DOp paroo. l
lenaircfton
ticles O.3 micron iii diameter ; air is used to
-{. Dop
estabiish the filter's effciency. As &e air passes
throug! the fflter at rated capacity, the conclnta:
oor
lions of particles upstream and downstearn of the
iilter are determined by a forward iight-scatterjng-'=
c.oo
50
loo
t50
ceil ard percent penetration indjcaior.r This inl
7. il6i.{
Csoctt,
strument is calibrated to give a particle count ef_
ffciency in which the peniti-ation the nurlbe{ of
l
particles that get through the filter is compared
with the upstream concenkation to) calcujati the
eficiency. The resistance to air flow can be measRa!i!fdr(r
lD.h \t A
ured at the same time in accordance with well
05
lsrown and accepteC practices.
This test sirmriaies pr.ti"l" count and the rating
:'
" *";; Ar;b
in efect means that noi
'; ao
10,006
particles (of 0.3 micron diameter ere
"f
"*
permitted
?. Rot.d C{goctty
)
io penetrate the fllter when new. particle capture
Figure 5-21. Flow vs pnetration and resislance.
and retention effciency increase wjth use be&use
captured dust acts as-a filter aid to decrease the
tions up to IEM of
capacity, as shown in
of ti:e medium's interstices and to present
Figure 421. Beyond_rated
this,
bottr penekatiou and
re dust captdre suCace.
I

--{

..1

.:li::l
a:1!_:.,i*!,
!,'.::.I-l

:-::,-1:.
- :
,'i'

:- \-.,r*.
.1'
.-;- ::.
\
' ::+l-,ij
-i;-rl'::.
r
r1:
. ild:
:
- ':ii:*', 1t,1: -- '.t-- i" '"

::f

60

.{lR poLLUTroN

N{A-\1J.AL

Ft

ir

l
I

Durt H9t^d.tng Capacity. Not-much aLtention has

,been
pard to this operating characierisiic by the
user- even thougJr it greatly i::iluencss svstem cost.

for con*inued operation. This filter characterjstic A

car be checked on a hot water immersion iest.
rL^_.;^^t 2-;r*^^ n_ ^ r^_-_ __ j:

l*n" ft5t{;,S,T*:illi'tr,T1;*, ;1 *".'+ffi ";-"ffix;.?#.j::idf:i,"'x1".t

' ttc'..and solid)
w.ords. it ofiers rwice the op"rrtio;;j'tjf;. ::::":-tfi-""rtn:ATi'.ltTeous'
rs rffir**e* jcme erposuies L'lnnot be sadsiac,"ll-"0:ry1:i,'."ffiff:ii"il,::'ry\#i{.*: --'p*r FE' T*
E,
arc
feet
in otler

Jr-op
,rfi"1.il";iloi1"i,1::1";:%:'r*,f"':o"l"Ti
c--bic

1..

ure or uD to rwo y""rs ioi'mcst iistalrarions.

t"tf;ilfr=f 'G*tj**

'

per minute bet'ore th" p."rr,r."

and

Ccmponeni

part

#,

,llil:fr;l l::Ui-+t l*:'; ***.?

(rcJ15-

netal]*

aslongasfourvearsforsvstemsmthhighpresSure
capaLilities (six inches.#ater.g"g"
op;, To
20{
i5n .^^i^:="!96
lccO -r
rJ0ji- ff:: Llf
achie.re useful lile oi this order, the^rri
contamrnani ururs
load. ai ihe filter is resa-icted to ihe ord"r-;;1.o;
7co ,*F Gco<i Low
"'lXLr.o,
g:'ai1s per 1000 cubic feet.
\tinerat
:]:- :"": :::
Fiber 1eO0 2000,
There is a need for a standard test code to com_
-.
Plastjc 120-400 180-700 Good Higb
pare filiers for this characteristic because i"r.*g
LUrrllB
H::"
Good i:'|}',H
to High
w:th ermospheric air is tjme consumins_ and ilnE
o
partlculate contents too variable. Unid iust hoid200
250 poor Low
ffiooa
ing capacitv is included in speciications, first cost
Fire.Resrst_aar \
'?00
250 Fair lledjum
of equipment wiii prav
play a much
mo"h too important
important part
'
-^llrYood
Eard
Board 200\800 2s02-fl00
250-1000 Good Low

$;:,x'ffillril

F
V

,#t

ffi Jlji#
t8ffi
c*pabittties
ard Fire ResLttance. lJffihT", .
'3m 3::$ #fft]
.Ternperature
Cast,lfuneral'
Althoy-gh most appiications pertaining to control of

air polii:tion do not requlre hlgh temlerature fiiter

operation, a few do; and all fiIters shouid be fireresistant for safety. TgbJe 5-8 is a guide to
fi1ter components for this characteristic.

TflilT"lll
Fiber

are
constructed ro withstand a pressur" d."p"'r*:::
the ejement of ten inches water gage wirhout de-.

1600

;
:.", ;,:
2000
Hlgh
.cpgd

,;;;

.{.luminum 600

ff":j::*,*"'m""5;n:fl;:

;i:,'r{# #:r,r.

ouf:i'tff'

X**;ffiffi
fire

to condensed steam or hot water mists from

extinguisher qvstems.-\{any components-are uahrraj.ly resistant, and oihers can be keated to aford
moisture resistance. The best 1000 SCFI,I filters,in

,*:[ ;r*#
i; Hlth

,43,1%. -C;;J

13ffi

8:$

i:!-:::!'

**to .Low F
Plastic , 120-400 160-?00
a"#!r p"* *
-" ^c";i"
ti,h
g
rr^--' "' . - :':-t+
'\oD
"'
""
-=--'180-500 200-700

lXtli#,:i":#'n-* *,fiftZ 13ff'#T:'Ji,iT' E,

pl,olngical Deconta.rnhat o?L On certain biologjcal applicahons of high-efficiency fllters, it is nec*sary to steril:.ze the system after the'fllters have

been instailed., Tliis can be done *itl nl^i o.

this respect can be e-rposed- to up to 35- pounds &emicals. lVhen hot air or steam i, 1r"a, tn"
of hot liquid *"tu, before tiey need, to b,fl1-isd, --.':.''lemperature ii-it"d;;.;f
tle flter as.,recom-

'.i

;;..
cood High
80o Good }Iedir:m

None
st-ucture.
A1lcanbeusedwithinhighpressuresysternsby'Gakgtp'.-o^n
Rubber -'200 ---' * 250 Poor to Low
being placed in high pressure vessels so that the
preszure isjssentiaily balanced on both sides of the
phstic
120_400 160-T00 ,*:f" Low to
Asbestos
700
1000 Good Lo;
in high
hish presslue
Dressure applications
annlicafions because
henerr<" high
hich pressure
."c<crr"o
Low
ff-b:q9s
u"rr*I. lre most'ionomicatty produced;;;i $r'f,:,Xk,'".,
;333
i:;

Resistarwe.This caa be an important

feature in several instances. The most comion, involves hot and humid inlet air with fflters ir air' '
conciitioned or cooled s,vstem locations, in wE& -case moisture condenses on tle fllters as Liouid

;33 ,3:3 3#: ,ri:X* ffi-

formatjon of

"o;;t;,

Sep_arators

select fi*t,*,
r,ii*;".

Pressure Capab'tl*tes. Most of these filters

e
AJ
E

@
r.ti

{xll

'EI
FILTflATION

Er

il
il
il
il
il

t
il
T

I
I
r
I
T

61

mended by the manufacturer must be ccnsidered.

steam sterilization is useC, condensaf,on must be

If

avoided. Some rnsta-llations ilco4rorate autoclaves

ior sterilization.
Forrnaldeh,rde and. ethvlene oride are generaily
accepted chernical distrfectants- \Iany ia*ctors infuence the selection oi' tie c.iremical and, its
apDlicati on-ef e ctiveness, health Ltazar C associated
wiih ihe sysiem. erplcsive possibilitres, ccnveni--ence, compaiabiliiv wiih consiruchon materials.
specla.i fac i iiiies necessary, pressi:;-ization iequireci.
ani possib.le side e$ecrs.
Installaiicns in wluch viable pathogenic micrcorganisms aie ccllected by irigh-eficiency filters
r:ust be lelv'iced wiihoui contaminating tle at
svstern and personnel. Such f,Iiers .rr, 6. decontaminated '/iih heai cr chernicals either in piace
or removed irom the svstem. personnel peCtonn_
ine 'Jris- ra'c'rk rnust be protecied with proper clci}ing and eficieni respiratcr*y- devices. Heat is ut_
lized to destro;.r t-he micrcorganisms through high
iemcerature air, autoc]aves, or inc:inerai.r.on.
Each biological filter applicatiou must be ex_
a,mr::ed carefuilv and the decontamination progian:
cietermined when the system is desig:red.

5.4.6 Costs
Because of the w.ide variety" oT filter
ryp-es within this class, the equipment qosts vary
w:deiy,. Ongrnai equipment, less instaliafion. costs
irom S.{0 to $700 per-1000 SCF},I capacity, with
an industrv average cf $60.
.-Power and space costs are about the same. ior
a.ll.- Each f000 SCFIvI uait occupies four
cubic

feet and requires suficient fan and motor capaciW

to move
$orrgh. it to a nomiaal repiacemert
resistance"o"
of 3.0 inches water gage.
. Replacement costs vary wiih h-oliing capacitv of
the filters and system contaminant to"E, bit indus_=.qy average replacemeut is about every otier year
at a filier cost o{ gS0 per year, per 1000 SCFM
capacity. 1 abor cost of replacenient vanes with
rhe type of installation, ,rrd i. significanf-b""""r"
much care must be used to keep [om cbntaminat_

ing dowa-sh'eam ductwork and to effectiveiv.seal

air passages around tle flter elemenr.

trf rfus iyork
is not done very cai
t*he hqn efieencv.
of
the fitter medium r, .';.lSJ
.|eflltering anc insrallarion ccsis are r.l;f*sg11 ge
estimate on a ,ienerai or average
basis because,of
their.qreat iep-endence ,_.n Local
iabcr
-----*vvr
and. Svstem
*uu
conditions.

REFrl6Ygg5
j
i. lVonc. I. B., W. E:
enci H. F. lorr:vsrovz,
"Collec::cn cf .{erosois }ry,
;."_ o:ir". -tfu*,,-fe"ilicsi
ne_
port No.. 1_i, Engrne.er-ng U*!".-*.;.
versiiy or I.ijincu. Unite-d Starei _{*_; Si.il", u"ri.;".g, C"__
mission Repori COO-1012.
2. W. L. TcnsasoN, A Sr"l!
li.itrcixtt ,ulecizot*sms,
lIoncgiaph oi Generai II{L. IIn.- l,-- : ',oti-"
J.
Crux, C. Y., "Fitrration
a:;-li;r""] V"ai",,,
"1.\^11"r;iJ
Chemiccl
paieus 5'5, 59S-S23 i f SSi

i.
Suriiva.v, R. R., "F,,rfiher Siudy of-i.rr"
Fio.w
Through Porous lledia," launwi'ai- l;"ilr;';;ah of Ar,l*
(6), 503-C8 (June, r9iJ.).
S.. 'Fiuid Flows Tl:rouerr p:cked Cojuurns.,,
!yu1,

Lnem,zcel L:lsrtzer-.r1,9 ?ragress

aav, 1952).

(FeL,rr:_

B. Bnwx, J. A., jx., "New Fiber }Iisi Elininaicr",, Chewicel Engirwering 56 (23), 18S_8s (,\:;;;;
j6, 1959).
Frasr, !I. W., J. B. Cn-rx,r-v, i. "Vi. a.":-,:= c E
.llid-T;;;""
W.r.rwonr::. rnd R. p. wrsnsx.
r)ust Filkationi' ind.uqriat *rn E"g;;;;"s
Cir*tarrJ
(+;,6s6-703

_
7.

_ 4
8.
Su-vszuu\.\,

glomeration

9.
10.

(Apnt, I9E6r.

Lasr"e,..and C. E. Brruxcs, ,.F,.me Ag-

and .Filtratjon at High i.-p..rt r"r,,,

Paoer 59-SA-lg, Semi-Amuai
lieerlng, .tmericga Soeielv of llechanical. Eng:neers, St. Loliis,
June, 1g5g.
-illaaei
Retnot:al cf panicttlae
fron Casei Ua' iUt ifuon, Amerjcan Perroleum Inshfute, )ie* york, 1959.
IIr.vreonr, W. C. L.,

pton ond

process

Vertllxin, Zid

edition, The industrial press, Ne.az ycrk. i92.

11. Wersr;, G.
anci p. W. Sp..,-rrr, ,.iharacterization
of Industrial-W.,
Fabrjc Filters,,, presente<i at the Winter
. a{ngual }Ieeting, Amencau Soclefy of }Iechanical
Englneers, )lew york; December. 1gg0.

12. Rorrrsor_, I. W., H. E: EraailcicN, anci p-rr:r. W.

Sr.rr:r, "A New Method for A.ualysis of llultjcom_
. .. parbneqted Fabric Filtration."
p*esented rt the S8th
NaUonaI {u".!"g, Americaa L:stiiute of Chemicai
r_agtneers, I)allas, Texas, Febr.rary, 1S6.

1. SrqN, A. C., Air polh*ion, vol. II,

york,
Inc., New

1962, p. S10-

l*
' i.:5::tg"' !'i
,..

{d :.. >$j+

'':-:rrt5i:.*:.ii.-

'..

".;19$S;;.;::)., ,,r. '

.:;1-4g11

p.;;*;

: -ra1!{
i'--l-*+i:i*{ij.

--

:
.

Academic press

ffi;

ffi

6/

WET COLLECTORS
COilITENTS

5.1

Introduction

o.z

Theory of Performance

5.5

6.2.1 lmpingement
5.2.2 Brownian Motion Diffusion
6.2.3 Humidification
6.2.4 Condensation of l-lquid on Parilcles
6.2.5 Agglorneration
6.2.6 ElectrostaticAttraction

o.J

Contacting Power Concept

6.4

0ther Factors in Equipment Selectior

6.4.1 Carrier Gas Flow Rate and Properties
6.4.2 Collection Efficiency Requirement
6.4.3 Comparison of Collector Performance
6.4.4 Bisposal of Collected Materials

lVpes anri Characteristics or Wei Coiiectsrs

5.5"1 CharnberScrubhers
!.!.? Seif-inrjucedScrayScruhhLrs
lyc-ionic Scrubbers (i{ei Cyclones)
5.5.3
6.5.4 Wei imoingemint'Coilecicrs
6.5.5 Venturiscrubbers
5,5.6 Variahle Fressure Drep Orifice Sarubbers:

6.5.7 Mechanical Scrubbers

S.5.8 Jet Scrubbers

. +=
Cost Consjserations
B:i Application and Performance Data
6.7,1 Comrnents on Equiprceni pedrrrnO.B

6,1 /NIRODUCT/ON

F.

ance and Selection

6.7.2 Se{ected Wei Collector per{orrclance
Current Trends in Wet Gollector Appiie ation

Variable pressure Crop, inertial orifice scmbbers

a !Iechanical

fr
fr
fr
a
G
F
w

tr

scr,:bbers
-{ liquid, usually water, is used in wet coilecH.
scrubbers
Jet
tors to separate, or assist in ihe separation of, par#
Packed towers, 'while sometii:les useC ior ccllectticulates from aerosols. The particuiates as dust,
ing particulates, are usuaily aoolied for gas absoi.pmists, and fumes vary in size and are uzually intion
and are treated in Chapter 9.
soluble; fumes and mists may exhibit agglomeration
lr
Wet collectors can be hishiv eficient even icr
tendenies. The overail pard.cie size range suscepsubmicron particuiates if thi contacting lower or
tible to wet collection is somewhat extreme, 0.2 io
pressure drop is suffciently nieh. Generallv, .,vet
greater ihan 10 microns. Dusts are uzuaily at ieast
collectors are low to moderate in cost and cfier E#
1 micron, mists less than L0 microns, and fume .less :
ad'bquate coile=c-lon =eficiency for yarious size Er
-''-.
than 1 micron in size. ,
-,
r4nges, depending on power consumciion. Their
lVet collectors vary in design, utilizing one or several mechanisms for both con&tioning of-the par- _. -,-' use is indicaied where tbg increased moisa:re bur- !I
d6n in the gas stream is acceptable, pa:-iiculaig matticulate and disengaging it from the carrier gas.
ter
5 microns or less in size is to be separaied fiorn
Fundamentaily, the effectiveness of any wet colthe
gas sfream, or if.the gas musi be cooled. They 4
lector is dependent upon tle degree of interaction
gan,4lsq;e-we
the dual purpose of removing both
it can produce betweeu the dispersed liquid drop- ; artiaiiiiitt?Fd] rr"ru s iontam in ants f ro rn tiie qar lets and the particulates. The mechanis:as involved
rier gas str.eaq.an{ are suitable ior high temperainclude impingement, Brownian motion;' di$,usion.
humidiffcation of gas, condensation of iiquilon ' tuie service. TEe dlladvaniages or p.Jbi"*s
.:Ie *
ciati:d witJr:the'-use cif we-Fmllectors inciu<ie"rroparticies that serve as nuclei, and agglomeration of
following:
particles.
Wet collectors may be grouped,,into general de- . -, 1. Hrqdling and disposal of -wet sludge can be dif- fl
sign classiflcations such as:
ffcult, often requires settling basts, ani. may
A. Chpmber scrubbers (spray tow'ers, spray chamcause stream,i:ollution difFculdss. On the other
bers)'
hand, handling of the wet sludge does noi create F
B. Cyclonic scrubbers (wet cyciones)
the secondary dust problem thlat can arise w-iih b
C. Self-induced spray scmbbers
&1. collectorsD. lYet impingement scrubbers
2:" CoId weatlier freezing of bo& water and slu<jge h
E
E. Venturi scn:bbers
rnust be'prevented.

ffi

ty

62

rWET COLLECTORS
J.

4.

input is required lor eficient

Hieh
-_o-- power
r_
moval of fine Particies.

by the ratio X/D6 where X represents al1 of

re-

that wLil impinge ineiiaily on the dropiet of diameter Dt. The effciency of impaction is:

If ccntami:rant or gas is corrcsive, the presence

o1 *at., usually in-creases corrosion problems'

6.2 T|IECRY AF PERFC,Q,ilINCF

developed; some, such as Lhe ejecirostadc efeci and
humi.liffcation are more presumed iian understood'
and the air cieaning tasks io 'wirich 'ryet ccilectcrs

grouD

r'- v-

are applied rarel-.2 involve a si:npi.e; uniform, ronreactive pa:-iicuiate dispersei ln a simpie carrier
gas. The 'ret collectcrs 'iercselves are 'tl"picall'r
iot srngle mechaaisre units but usualiy funcdon on
the baJis r:i se'reral collecdon mechanisms. This
makes clear-cut classificaticn cf equipment imcossible anC imposes diftculdes ia selecting a collector
for a given task witiout krowledge of i:heir previous apclicaton. The best method of selection is on
the basis c{ experience in use on ihe same aerosol
in iire same or a closely similar process. However,
there are basic, theoreiical ccncepis thai are applicable to eeuipment sel.ecdan icr given separaCon

.!

*'h..],

LI,

: Terminal settling velocitv oi

Vo

aerosol pardcles, in cr:n per see

Belad.re

velocif of

particies

wiih respect to liquid droplets,

]n cIIi per
gi = Locai aeceleraiion of g:aviiv.
in c:n per sec per sec
D5 : Dianeter of &oplet of sci-,abbing liquid, in microns

tasks. These are discussed in simplified fashion

beiow anci are covered ia more detail in Chapter 2

The dimensionless gtoup is te:rned the "separation number" and is applicable when considering
eficrency of collection by rmpingement on a single

on particl.e dynamics.

droplet and .yhere Stokes'Iaw holds 1'or the motion

of the pariJcle. By substituting ihe termi:rai veloc-

ity

Impingement (impaction) iatercepi{on

results when a particle and a droplet collide, resuJting in particle capture. The droplet is retained
in iie systen and its relativeiy large size faciliiates

iEq.6-2)

-n, u,t
*1,

6.?.1 lmpingemeni

r -f-

iEq.6-1)

n. l
uo

Lang::ruir and Biodgetl have showl 'iai ihe "target gfficienc'ii' n,., is a Linction of the &:nensionless

volved in',v-et collection ha'ze irot been compietel'r

,1'

n:tP\

The iheories of lfie vancus mechanisi:rs ia-

I
I
r

the

pariicles in r.he carriel gas between the strearnliaes

erpression
T\ :/D

D\

y, - 5!"1j.-_1

(Eq.6_3)

in Equalion

6-2 an alternate expression

separation number, N., is obtained:

^, -_
-"

D"r(P ,-P)V
18., Do

for

the

"

where:.

Vo-

Dp

Diameter of aerosol particies in

microns

P. : Fluid densilv, in grams

m;liiiter - --.
P : Particle density, in grams

---.
-

.u :

per

cu gn

in poisefThese relationships apply whetler &e particie

moves past the &oplet or the droplet moves past
tie, partic.le. The separation aumber is directly
proportional io the relative velocity and iaversely
proportional to the &ameter of the droplets. it

FLUIO STREAi'LIHE
NARTIGLE PA-r'd

Figure 6-1. lnertial impaction upon a single dropiet.

collection through gravitational or inertial, separation. Figure 6-1 is a co--on1y used representation
of the impingement mechanism, showing. the. fluid

56sq."lins5 aad the particle.path. ,The so:called

"target eficiency" or collision potential is expressed,

per

Viscosity-of gas;

should be apparent t}at'there is an optimum dropsiZe for ma-ximum collection eficiency in any
given, system: of particle size &isfibutions' aad: rela-

let
1

tive'velocities:

*t

showa
,r..

in tr'igure 6-2 for

--

-r:t!:g{Fd&@EBsi1ii?f

ffi;'

rIR POLLL-TION }IANI,IAL II

64

particles in the I to 10 micron range, having a deasit" oi Z grams per cubic centimetel in a gravitaiional
spray tower. Figore 6-3 illustrares target eficiency

u'"rrrx dropiet sL" *hete cenirifugal for-ce equal

to I00 Cmes the gravitadonal fie1d has been ap-

ment being significant for partj.cles smailer than

0.i rnicron.
<' 6.".2
1

Brcwnian Moticn Diffusion

Browrian mction becomes sigaificant ra

-ire iifrusion mechanisrn. The particles in motion
in the neighborhood of '.he collecting <iroplets diifuse tc them anC are intercepied. Approximaie
difiusicnal eficiencies and ccmbineC difusional and
interception eficiencies have oeen calculateC- semien::irica11y for singie c'lLnders and spheres (see
Chap,ier 5 ), Scme in'zesdgators feel tirat iifusion
is the controlling acticn cr main mechanisrn in i-he
pert'orucance of venir:ri scrr:bbers.

plied, frereby increasing the- ielative.vel.ccil', V",

eificien|ropor=orr"teiv. In most aopiicailons irigh

6.2.3 Humidification
There is the possibility that the introduction of a liquid spray for humidjficafioe pur-

poses alters electrostalic forces and may enhance

hoccuiation, ihe efect being more pronounced ln

the presence cf hign concentrations'oile particulat6s. The mechanism is not clearlv unielstood.

io

DIAMETER OF WATEF DRCPL:T (MICACilS)

Figure 6-2. Target eificiency vs droPiet size in a gravita-

6.2.4 Condensation o{ Liquid on Particles

tional spray tower.

Conciensation can readily occur

>
o

0.a

o.lo

oos

f-

of-the collector water. Ilowever, if the gas is humid and is rapidly cooled to below its dew point a
fogg*g occurs ',vi& the dust particles preseat
,"*i"g as condensation nuclei. The size of the
dust particle is increased aad the probabfity of 1nprngement enhanced. Vapor difiusion (ot the
Stefan sweep djfiusisn' effeci) is suggested as anotier form of tle condensation mechanism. The
disusion of water vapor''toward the water tiroplets
sweeps dust particles to the water droplets.
Ano&er technique to p:oduce the same eflects,
withia a similar limitation of r:nderstanding is
steam iniecd@, Lapple and Kamack' have found
in laboratory scale experimests that &e injection
of steam coresp-ondJ-:lg to 2 to 3 times that required
for sahrration results in a marked increase in dust
collection eEcii:cy- :Ildff=agrin, condeasation
or ihe sweep e$ect is thought to be impcrtant.

.:)

in

wet collector handiing hot, humid carrier gas.

This does not occur, of course, when a ielatively &v carrier gas is cooled during its passage through the coliector by simple evaporation

o.ot

c
Figure 6-3. Target eficiency vs orobtet size

in 100

times

gravitational field.

cies are favore<i by large interiacial ,rurr, ,rd,

thereforq sma1l droplet size is advantageous.
lllhere the iiqud droplets fall below '30-50 mie&ciencies decrease rapidly,
crons, imping.m.ot
-smiller droplets are accelerated to carsiace the
risl: gas velocities ,od th" relative velocity decreases. The particle size below which' impin-ge'
ment cannot, occur is not lceown. In ail' probability, mechanisms other &aa impingement occur;
ia the submicron size range with Brownian movd-

6.2.5 Agglomeration
The 'collection of particulates cau be
agglomeration oi the particles (in-

facilitated by

', creasi$g their

'

efiectirre, si2e). The,tlree lacwn agglomeratioa tneehanisms are, Bro\ raian motion, tur-

s
g
E

e
1
E

bqJea!.qoaglrlafou,'and soaic aggj.omeratibu. As a

thi aerosol particles

result of..Browuian: motion

'!

IVET COLLECTORS
collide w'iih one another forming loose clusters or
chain-like stucrures. Turbulent coazulaiion results
when a velccitz siadiext is present":n an aerosoi'
because pariicies aloving at diferent velocities il
adjacent sheam-iines tend to collide. Sonic agglom-

g
E

r
!

erition can iesuii when high intensit/ sound waves

1I flcccuiarion results'
are imposed cn ii:e
^*ro.o*1.
to vibrafon o{ the parit is ait'ibutatrle riain-l;*
iicies in tie carrier gas causing ccihsion of &e
partcles. Scnic efects cair cause &spersion as
weil as aqgicr::eratlou.
The aglloneralion effeci is noi ccnsidered i:nporant ii"r".*t of separaaon 'a'i'tain the ccllectcr
since the :r:el:c-cn ii orr.""i.ies anC droplets
,r.Co**"t"s .c the extent &at ccllisron of parncies
,h.ms"lves I e;lcept at ver'; high concenc'ations )
is probabiy insig:riicant.

6.2.

There rray be an intelacticn betw'een

a charged paricle aad dropjet, c'r.bet'*-een 3
droplet and a dielecric pariicle on which
"rg"i
"t
iaduces a glv-en &arge' iiow'&oplet
&e
"h*g" ef;ect is nort 'thouglt to be imever, elecfuostaiic
portant in terrns of coilechon efrciency'

6.3 CONTACT/NG POWER CONCEPT

ia

E
I -- I
I
I
r
t
IF
I
I
I
r
I

6 llectros+a+ic Alirac*ion

recen't years, based on work bv Lapple and

*aq diffusion. Lappie and Kamack' in their exof several laboraior;z scale gasf"ri*""trt study ccncLuded
that "*h:3 com-pared
ilq,ria .o"rrcters
consumniion, all i1:e
power
#tn *" sane 3as
i-he- same <ie?:ee oi
ibstaniially
r*"u[.t glve
dust' regaroless of
dispersed
g:'rea
a
&
.lU""uo"
of whether
regardless
and
hvoived
*t"h*Xsm
th"
th" rrur.*" &cp is cbtained by high gas flow rates

or high water fliw- rates. I}e collection efrciencY

incrdises as ',ie pressure drop increases, the iacrease being especiaiiv rapiC for pressuie &cp "-ver

i0 inches water g ge." The contaclng powgr

conceoi as Ce'reiccei by S*ot,-"'. 's esseatiail-v
based'on this cbserzar:on and 'rhrle it :ti-11 lacks
a theoreti.cai base, lt appears to worl<, it esiablishes
a reasonabie relaticnship cf coniaclng pow'er io
effci.ency, ii establishes fiuid iurbulence as ihe- goveraing facror in &e scrubbing process-- aed it lenCs itself"to a nathemadcal preientation in terms cf
number of b'ansfer units (eficiency ) alci contaciing power (horsepower per ihousand cubic feet
minute 7
per
' Eficiencv
is an exponeniiai iunction of coniacdng power anC can be erpressed fy tl. number
0f tra;;fer units, ihe term' commoniv used in describing tle performance oI an adsorption process'
Tne n,imber-of transfer units, N,, is erpressed as
Eq. es)
.

Kamack' and by- Semraur an empiricai ;nethcd

N,: f u.'dg 2.3loe
eftciencv
wer
scrubber
on
data
for correladng
''"'"' a, 2.3r"g= l-E
| g
uo.
effithe
relates
it
Essentially,
-deve"lopedbeen
has
,
wnere:
cienev of oarCculate coliection io the elrergv exprocess' Tne
y, : Particulate concentration enf""ala in the gas-liquid contacting
"in &e gas'&at
staies
iontacting p'o*Jt concept
tering collector
Liquid ccntacting process power is dissipaied in
u, : Partiiulaie concentration leavflu'id hrrbu.lence (in gas anci iiqulci phases ) ancino collector
*b
ultimately, as heat: it is ihis power, expressed
E : CcTiection eftciencY' decimal
as Dower per unit of volurnetric gas flow rate' tliai'- haction
is ihe criLrion of scrubber eficieucy, and it has
Semrau has indicaied that &e reiadonship bebeea designated' 'contaciing power" "" Power ccnLiieen the number of kaasfer units and the'total
.sr-.med bi eLecir:cal and arechanical losses on
loss
contacting po\^rer, P,,=]rgs been found to be in the
motors, beariags,-fant,."t+ pumps, and fiction
equipform
due to gas floi tlrough dr,v porrions of the
powel
(Eq. e6)
ment are not included in the contacting
Nr : aPt
gas-liquid
the
io
solelv
total, which is applicable
where 'g is a <iimenlionless conFffiand is the
contactmg Process.
slope of the straight iine of the logaritimic- piot'
ulPcrThe concept tends to de-emphasize the
a i's eq-irai to &e*value o-f, the -interc-ept wilh the
tance of the^vaious mechanisms discussed above '
ordioaL where P, equals unity aad again is a
that supposedly a$ect wet ccllector perforrnance '
constant. (a and ; are functioos 9f particle-si2e
with the excepton of tle coudensadoapheaomenon
riistibution and other properties of &e particr:late' )
and the reiat# Stefaa's flow sweep efiect; for examFigures &4, 65, and 6-6 illustrate the contacting
venfuinU, ; attributes the perfocnance of the
relationship for two different types
poiver-efEciency
-of
scrubber to turbuLenci or the actual contact of
scrubbers on- tlree diferJnt lvpes of metal firmes'
These three scrubl,er applications represent rela-

!:-:

i**r'*fu5l;ffi:s::'i:ffff::H::

;
*
s7.'

,-,:-t1':
;..rii:r
i-l;-

]
I

66

AIR POLLUTION :\IANUAL i]

gi.,
7

ff*

ffi

915
9e

z
o
F

98

f,
G?'
t!

llTlli ir*;r"r""fllflance
c

aj
4

F
tr_

z
q

u-

oz

o
3
=

i!

rU
3

CCrr,lTACm{G pgWER

5
-

hp/(tOCO

7 a 9lo
o

-1s

tt mh)

_l

;
Figure E-5. Per{ormancr of a venturi scrubber on
lurgical fume.

_]*

l2
I

metal-

lrJ

EI

..

.t;

!H

IL

-j. lry

t
F
Ll

o
fr
O

f
=

s'k

0.9
0.8

J*

I
l!

j*

v./
^,

o.s

-]*
0.4

4 5 6 7I9p
COt{TlCThE

ffiER -

hpl(tOCO Er

ft

ndn)

I9E

Irs

l*

o
F
z.

G
F

m-J
z
60u

,t
o .eF

c
Eo
ID

!2
L

sob

'1.
t-

o.

ri

*i

E
!

rr-

E
ff

tr
tr

,,

tt
o
z

of a yenruri scrubber on ,n no"n

It

o, '.04

{o

O SLOT PLATE + IMPINGEMENT PLATE

A T1#o tMplt{cEuerur ir_.rres

o.5. OA. t,
CONT'AgfilG pOtl9ER-

z.
hp.u(IOOO

5 . +,5
a ft

mh).

30
S,

.: r:'i-:i:..jj.+

-,-

.: .:'-....,.",+
p.erfoimancg of a pcaliody
figuru E-e.
tray arrangements on ziac oxide:fu-;;:'
:_+

.;

,'.i

1: -__ir.r_i::

."rr![.,
--'----' iiit
':"

,r,iou,

t
e
F
tr
lfrl
.4'

,!O.i

WET COLLECTORS

'il

ii"g at high
,?p"f is ot' some
following
Th"
1tu"1t'"
cootacting oo*.,
power
significaniJ in considering :he ccniac*Jng

given task can best be based on knowledge of the

overall perfomnance of a similar collector applied

conceot:

FACTORS /N EQUIP/h|ENT
SEiECTiON
Important factors influeacirg a choice of collector, assr:ir:in_g thai comparabie pericr:nance
*oe
obtained fiorn sever-al difierer.t iesigns,
c^o
are cacitai anC otreratjng ccsts and oE cccasion space req'oirernenis. ii is also irnportani ro

tively dificult scrubbing }tk:

1. The contaciing power rule relaiing effciel-

cy to power .*p"rrald solelv for the gas-water intet"ca'on is base'l on an empiical ccreiatrcn cf
,".r,rbbet performance data for all g"-neral ivpes
of scrubbers. Ii appeais io be an accepiabie proceCure for expressing performance'
2. The mechanjsms iaherent in "vei esilectors'
such as djfiusion' cc'ndensatjcn, irapineaneni and
to scrne exteni agg.icmeration and electiosatic attracticn, are sig::iiiant Dut io nor iend tne-:selves
tD use in the ilual desle! of wet scrrrbbers' The
amount of t-hecretical -,'zork done on ihese mechanisms has been hmited and the data ihat can be
cieveloped to <iate wiih the use of such theorv are
not particuiarly:eiiable or useiul in actual design'
3. For droplets produced by sprav nozzles, and
at '&e same contaJting power, &oplet size of ihe
scrubbing liquid doeJ ,ot appeat io significantly
afiect eficiency of collecdon; howevsl- xtteinrnfl]l
of f;ne aroplets in itsel{ requires contacting powerl
Furtler, no ciear reiation has been estabiished
between the particulate concentrations normally
enc-ountered and scrubbiag eficiency.
1. Low ccntacting pow-er, pressure drop (o.
power equivalent ) of not more than 6 inches
water gage, appears to be capabie of giving above

coilection for particles 5 microns or more in size

-,--whi]e intermediaie or moderate contacting power
in the range 10 to 12 in. water gage gives eficien95%

I
r
I
r
I
I

cies of 90# or grsater on particles in the 1 to 2

micron size. Much higher contacting power is reqired for eficient collecdon of particles less than "
I micron in size.
5. It appears that the contacUng power-effciency' -relationship as erpressed mathematically and in
Figures &4, 6-5, and 6-6 can be exlrapclated to
indicate peCorrrance at higher pressure drops.
6. The condensation efiecL more specifically the
Stefan fow sweep phenornenon, seems to be an

imporiant deviation from the contacfing powe{

ruie.

,"

ti/

It appears that the th"ory of coilection in wet

scrubblis .is,,still in the developmental stage but
that the contacting Power rule may enabie a more .
appropriate consideration and applicatioo of wet
.o[""tlon equipment to more r]ificult industrial
tasks- The performance theory remains important
and undoubtediy the empirical relatio''shilx -dis'
cussed are signiicani, but ii still remains thatwhere'.
possible the"selection of a wet collectoi for- any- '"

to a simiiar task.

6.4 OTHER

consider:

6.4.'i Cari'ier Gas tibw Raie

and Properfies
The f,ow raie dictates equipmenr size.
Chemical cornposition rnust be considerei in terinsof materjals o{ ccnstruction. llne corrosion problern
is o{ien serjous. dictatilg the neeC for special and
somerimes yery er,Delsive maierials such as stainless steei, glass fiber reirforced tesins, stonewale,
rnd special plesiics.

5.4.2 Colleciion Eiliciency Requirement

Dust coilection eficiency is usuallv
expresseC on a weight basis but can be expressed
on a particle count basis also. It is possible, of
course, to prcduce a high coilection eficiency on
a weight basis when handling a particulate with
a wide range in size and sClI have an efiuent with
a relativeiy high particle count due to the upcollecieri fines remaining in rhe efluent. Since
the visibility of an efiuent plume is a function of
the light-refecthg suCace area of the particulate,
T-rlr-r &1. R;r*r,rrcNsp or Fr-ovr R^tt

to

,Lwourvt or

P-urrqur-Lrr Mlrsat.rr- Drsoraacrp Fnol"r ,r' Pnocxss

Emission to Outdoors

Flow Rate
( Cu. ft. per (Crains
per cu. ft.
min. )

500,000
250,000
100,000
5O;000

10,000

(
)

Lbs. per
1000lbs.
Gas

Lbs. per

ft.)

320
0.0?5 0.s8
0.28: 160
0'0?5 _-opG
u
0.075
0:075 0:26 -*.;t6*
6.4
0.A15 0.28,

(Lbs. per
!4 Hrs.

7680
3840
1D.JO

384

19,

and since surface area per unit weight increases

inverseiy as the square of'the palticle size, a high
eficiency on a weight basis may still produce aa
effuent that is offensive in terms of appearance
and possible interference with visibility, fti5 is
characteristic of an iron oxide fi:me efiuent; even
though low on an emission weight basis, it can
appear as a dense,.broy:: plurle and may hav,e a

E*-

:d-

68

AIR PoLLUTioN

,.

ll

serious adverse efiect on the neighborhood'

t,
;,1

[,
I

[,',

li

i.iri

lll
rii

.J

ill

l'ii
ilil

necessary to
nearbv communily' It is frequendy
in
]"*i"'o", particu.late contaminants concrete or

It has

teen found ihat concentration levels above 0'C5

oains ,", cubic ioot (standard con&tions ) are
dark in color'
fhrr""."tittcaliv
--'i"Ul.
6-1 i-ilustrates the relationship of fow raie
io amcunt of nateial discharged' itgT- " precess

liii,.rJt It *,*"at

Th:s illustates Lhe need Ior highq effciencjes

ihe statuicp
io, t^rg", carner gas flotrs *-hsa,basis'
emission
totai
a
on
regulatiins are

6.5 IYPT5 AND

Performance

AI

of dust collectcr peron what Siaimando

can best'l'"formance
;nr"ae :ffcienry""'-a"
basis' which is rn erpres,
"rft -l'io,,."
.3'u;;"-;ffi;ij116v as a funccon "f e^t:l."
comparison

,re

test iust
"lUri"n
istics n"oted in Tabie 6-2'5

Size

of grade,
microns
104-150

75-104
0-75
40-60
30.40
20-30

r5-20
10-15

7lxLO
c-ti2

zY-J
21i

or W'C'3 Trsl

Percentage bY

weight in
g!ade
3

i0
L)
10

10
8

Dusr

Percentage bY weight
saaller +.ian ioP size
o{ grade
100
g0
80
A<
DO

45
S8

30- "-

6
8

2A

o1

26
12

6.4.4 Disposal of Collecied Maierials

Where &e material collected is rc be
procedui'r is
reused o, ,""lri*td the haudling
be
mad" p.rt of the p'o""sJ 1'd should
;;Jt
integrated
An
eneineered to ma-ximize '*--oy"ry'
it freq"entiy'overiooked' how-

ilffir;;"""a*"
;;;,-*fi; the materials collected qonstitute waste
for disposal. See ChaPter 13'
^"bi^s-iairtor"t
col* *Tignln"ant-factor in,w-et
caonot
luJo. ,r";, ihe materials"collected fre-quently
be;; d;'J,;sed into - ';;;;;' ' 99"LY stream
the''possiproblem'or
poU"aio"
cause of the stream
;tlr,y "i

contami.nat-ing

the water resources o{

CHAR,ACTERJST/Cs

WET CCII'TCTCRS

.on ihe
Wet coileciors are usually classi'fied
basis oi the most imporiant pardcuiaie separaiicn
mechanism designed uxc tle dev-iee' This 'rpprcacr
to rieLi:reaiion is usefui but nct necessar:'1y- ciearmultiple types of efrect-s cccur.an'i basic
"",-ti"""
at""s ten'l ',o^ o"etlap' Never"heless' ihere
a"tfg"
=t
,r. oilif categories o{ we1 colleciors and tlese

l]-6-i illustrates several test cur/es ulGI"il;

berween colleccon efrciencv
;;- ,i" t.i"-:onthip-*i"toot
for some basic trrpes
in
size
i..t"i.
""a
data were obtained
lil";?."ii"";;
-"rndard Th; picited
having the characterCn''rprllc

nants; .'trhere extremelv- fine parhculates

k";;, a""""1^r-qg.;!bj ck enln g, a:d c eniri.f u ge tecn-or
niques nave been employed tor clar:jrcailon
thJ *-ut".. which is ei'&er ieused in the coliec:or
o, d;s"hr.gaj lo a w-aste s)-stem' Freezlrg of sludge
protecticl
and waie: caa occur :n cclC climeies rncl
i;:ai
svsiem
any
into
t, this :nust be designeC
"g"it
we*i:e:'
is vuherrble to

.-

6.4.3 ConTParison of Colleclcr

Trslr 6-2'

before overEow into a nearby

heatu'rent
;;;; can be a[o'"ed. Often chemical
ccniamibasic
or
acidic
neutralize
io
i, ,,""*rrry
are ccl-

*ith a collector having a 99'5%.eficiencv

;;;"d
*'"ight U'uit' The inlet loarling is 15
"ITi"*f
grains Per cubic ioct at 500cF'

1y1

rv6nr II

ciiicussed below'

6.5.1 Chamber Scrubbers

(SPraY Towers, SPraY Chambers)
A chamber scrubber ccnsists esseetiailv of a round or rectangular chamber inio which
wat6r is introduced through one or more strral
nozzles. There ^r" *uo/ variarions of design'
The eas stream ma.; ma-ke a simple direct pass
palh con,hr""e th" "h*btr or may fgllo'1 a,latter
case'
the
In
trolei by a series oi bafles'
contaci
morelor
thur" i, the opp-bituorFT
lepeated
ti'" scrubbing liquor ard
p*ar",-rirt"
'*tl -separacon'
pres"i-ia" some inerda]
-Water
"ro["bk
*;, range lrcm 20 to ICS pounds .per.sguare
I**
iater spraY may be directional (usuJch
"nd'tte
Jfr- a"r"rrUed as "it-^I, parallel, or tansenUal
is usualiy
il',rr""*^t-g"*:i Water' consumption
cubic
per-thousand
gallonsh
to.Z
; il .?"g" "i
low'
rvp-icqliy
is
drop
p,d'*t
tJ;-#'and:t$e
genis
pc:-gpray
chamber
,L"a r"i""h- of water.
It"Uy co".iaered to be a 1o* pr'es-sur9 device performing at acceptable eficiencies for large parriculate miterial, 10 microns or larger' Water spraYs'
spray's at
**l*.t described as high pressure fogbeen
useo'
hav-e
inch,
3O0 to 450 pounds per square
iarti".fl, higl collection eficiencies ;or
"."a""*n
size range' 'T'he horsei.rti"t.r L *r" r to 2 mlcron
(coatacthg polwer) iot .*-l
io*.. requirement
iigb ptessore spray ccllector's is: proportionatei;r

hi[h.

ffi-

#
w
w

fr
fr
fr

v
fr
E

E'
fr
fr
fr
fr
E
E
H
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WET COLLECTORS

roo

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6g

580
zlrl

eo

z.

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EOU
l!

9
o60
LL

td

u-

'41

64a
F

ZAA

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(,

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123456789

FARTICLE SiZE, MICRONS

PARTICLE SIZE, MICRCNS

SPRAY

WET IMP!NGEM=NT SCfiU88ER

TOT1ER

o/o
EFFiCIENC/ AT 5 MICEONS =97

EFFlclEllCf AT 5 MlcRoNS =94o/o

roo

s
;8o

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zg
o60

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tt

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EFFICIENCY AT 5 MtCROfiIS

D<

234567
- PARTICLE SIZE, MICRONS
VEMIURI SCRUBBEH
EFFEIENCY AT 5 MtCf;ONS:99.67o

93 7o

too

s
(, 80

zlrl'

o
tr 60
IL

lrl

IF

40

trl

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23457e

r0

PARTICLE SIZE, MICRONS

DISINTEGFATOR GAs S'ASHER
EFFIGIENC/ AT 5 MICEONS =987o

FiEuE 5:7. 6rade elficiency curues

wei scrutbeE'

'or

70

AIR POLLUTION \,IANU.\]- Ii

In iypieal operation, the contaminated air strearl

eniers the lower section of the unii where centiifugal motion is imparted and whele inliial wetting
is used to remove ihe large particles lrcm rhe gas

Gravitv spray towers are ciesignC so that water

is ina'oduced at the top and allowed to fall by
grav1ry. A typical example is a sircple chamber
with w'ater introduced at ihe top and gas intuoduced at the bottom, resulting in countercurrent
flow; &is is used essenually for gas cooiing. The
"w-er caD" cupola ccilector showe in Fis,;re 6-8 is
a graviiv system ln which *-ater flor.vs over .r cone,
,- wat:l tiPo-Y
/' coNNECTIcN
L/-

!
ac'lusiABL:

DECHARGE iEAO

DE:::i,-oR
I-:.ICR

AING

>L,TTE

(wATE::CCL:D)

tr

stream. The gas stieam then passes through direF

5cnal. vanes and one or more w-ashing siages c3us. {pE
ing impinEement and ineraa1 separation. The f;
sl:lelde<i cone bafle inclueei in the desisr oi
roanv units serves io dtect liquids to ihe cer[]-

iugsl ratr cf the gas stieai!. Imorcved collecion

eficiercv mav be obtained bv an hcrease i:r i.le E
nurnb-er of siages, multiva::e Jesigns, rows of ,raaes
mounied sversely againsi each other and scac-i
E
cicre ciosely tc proviele iareer impingeme:rr j.:r- f,=
laces, and variailoas in orientalon of -fre w'etel
suppiy nczz\e and water pressure. Cyclonic sclub- S

bers are normallv designed -*dth capacities ranring'E'

up to 50;CCO cubic feet per minute and wiih w-ater
requirements ransing lrorn 2 gailons to 10 galions ,

ffi t?Hi* ;'i"o':.'fi:::#'"i';f

of

hopefully with good dish-ibution, and the rising

siack gases are passed tluough ihe falling water.
Advantages of the gravity tower are the ability to
haadle high. inlet dust ioadings; operaticn at line
water pressure with. large oriffce nozzles instead of
fine jei systems, which tend to plug; aad relative
mechanical simplicitv.

6.5.2 Cyclonic Scrubbers (Wet Cyclones)

In a cyclcnic scrubber, so-m-efimes

called a wet cyclone, there is usually tangentiai
entr,v of the aerosol, and the particulate is commonly separated from the aerosol through the use
of cenfifugai force aad impingement mechanisms.
This type may be very simple, consisting o{
a cyclone with water sprays mounted at the
cyclone inlet, or it may consist of a series of washing stages and directional vanes and sprays, -It is
usuaLly provided with a moisture eliminator section
consisting of offset mounted u:*ag olateq'a sfoihetjc fiber pad, or .a t'ay of ceramic or marble
paclcing materials. A main characteristic is , the
tangential enb,v of the gas stream with ceoa-i!g,,
ga1 moti.on being imparrid to the cari'ier gas by
the inlet arrangemeni and by vanes that are built
hto &e unit. Figure 6-9 is iliustrative of a ;ingle
stage unit while Figures 6-10, -11; :12- -13; -14, and
-i5 illusbate other types.

ti*",

that of gravrty] anci eficiencies in excess &

n:ay be obtained,for particuiates in the
range of'5 microns or greater. The pressure drop
usually ranses from 116 to 3 inches of water and I
this, of .olllr", varies depending upon ihe int*Bai E
SOO

Fig. 6-8. Wet collectorfor b cupola.

i:'l#x;

-40%

configuration.

6.5.3 Self-induced Spray Siitrbbers

prifice

Scrubbers)

F
This lrpe of scrubber creates a parti.cie- IE
liquid contact as the result of the cairier gas veiocity itself .thereby makrng performauce dependent
upon flow rate. Both eficiency and pressure d.rop E
vary wiih carr-i6i gas'-flow rate, with normal pressure drops ranging from 2 to 6 inches of water
for the medium efrcien'-y tvpe.
E
Orifice scrubbers, one type of self-induced spray
scrubbers, are representative of a design in which
the scrubbing liquid is fragmented and partiiioned
at thq expensercf hnetjc energ'y of the gas stream.
Usuaily the gas stream is made to impinge upon a
surface of sctubbiiig liquids and is then passed
through va{ous conskic{ogs yhere its yelocit'7 rray
be increased and where gi6ller liquid-partculate
interaction may occur. The gas stueam finalIy discharges throueh a chamber section wf;ere thq ea- T
kained droplets are &sengaged. In ihe latter sec-

tion, inertial action is invariably the

mechaaism

of removing the mist and makes up the final section

of this type of collector. Figures 6-16 and 6-17
illustrate trrpes of . orifice scrubbers. Collecti,:n efficienciei approach 906 for partic:rlates 2 microns
or larger, with pressure drcps of 3 to 6 inches of

l
jt
.l

WET COLLECTORS

71

0
B
3

o{

3',
=_
or

\,o

\5

1-r

t-lrr

ii
i=
!a

Jd

>c

o-

")

fr

:6

co

oj
!r
;t,

Uo

d:

ou
ostr

.*3S
iL(rtr

=i
o
3

,l

o>
=6

=:

!()E

il

I
I
T

I
I

'=3
=co
Eq
o:6

"E

=i:
,='E
gii

a!o

o.

CL

sE<
o16
o.9c)
.99; E
L;<
FE

Sdi
6

oZ
o:

g
-g

=
=6
o! .
'=:>
: rr G
>E
o,:

3s
?
,b=a
oEo
Udo

ii i{',

qf2'!

o
o

3J

o
o

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o>
=o

o
o

=?

E3

o.
tr6>
eC
E.E B
eoE
o
TJ

sg

6=

UUf,;
:1

't
c=d
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72

{iR

-'..:.. - "

I]

:-.

Figure 6-16. Se{f-induced

American Air Filter Co.

FOLLUTJON \,{ANUAL

spray wei collector.

Courtesy

ORIFICE SCRUBBERS

water. The capacilr of commercially available

equiprnent usuallv ranges from 500 to J0.000
cubic feei per minute. There are several acivantages to this tvpe of equiprnent includiag tle fact
that

'Lhe construction does

not involve fine

clear_

or small orinces that may readily_ become

plugged. Also, water usage is lower thai-for mosi
other wet scrubbers, berng limited to evaporation
loss and makeup requireieats when &e iater ii
recirculated. In such a case the rnakeup requirement is li to 1 gallon per thousand cub]c feet of
gas or less.
ances

6,5.4 Wet lmpingement Collectors

A wet impingement scrubber .oriirt,
essendally of a verticaL tower equipped witli one
or more impingement bafie stages. T, one design,
perforated sheets or i:-npingemlnt bafles haviig
from 600 to 3,C\)0 Lroles pei squa-re fooi are useJ
(Figure 6-18). The imping"*rerrt bafles are so
arranged over tl:e perforated sheet thai each hole
is directly bafled ai sho*n in Fizure 6-1g and the
d-esign calls for placing the rmfingerrent bafies
abov_e the pe#orated plate at
dirtro"" corres-

ponding to about the posidon of "the oen{t cordracta

(maumum veiocity) of the gas iets for:ned bv

perforations. Another
-rrr,lfr"hr.r uses a
of glass marbies followed by a mist entra:.nn
bed containing porceiain saddles to cause par
ulaie-Iiquid interaction (see Figure e20). d b
- designs the gas streaB _qlters ihe lower section
the scrubber and rises through a water sprav z
where it is cooled and humiJifieC. The orer^]l
-fibiency
of a single-stage-implngement bafie scr
ber as given by Stairmandi is" shown tc be
92%,
.and 85% iespectivelv for 5, g, and 1 mic
partjcles of cjust wiih a density of 2.7 gralns
cubic c6ntim-eter, Test data on actual -indust
iustallations have indicated eficiencies about
same
the ofrfice h/pe, at pressure Jrop oi U t
- inchesaswater
gage. -- : -*.-

6.5.5 Veniuri Scrubbers

t he venturi scrubber consists cf a v

turi type of constrictiou tlrough *hi"h''th"

gas passes at jinear velociUes"rr
of from 12,0C0
per.minute. Th" ,"..,r-ibiog:iiqo"r, u
j:_",
1r;P_O
a.rry
water, is inboduceC normai to
iI" ^direci
of gas flow, ai or near tfr.
turi, at the rate of 3 to 10"o".t iJoo*'ol *" ,
t;n;;;-f,"I .io,r*

WET COLLECTORS

il

'l::,: : ji!..'j

a":ii:.

.--:r'ir:aa-il
:i:.
-

':_l

'.i

ly'/ater:
Elirn inator
'
I

r,'':cinger.-le.r

Bariie, Plar=.

;'Spray
";:Zcae

lt

:l:,

.Gas,

il inlef,

,I
r
I
I
.I

wet

collector

Courtesy

Figure 6-20. Packed lray lype ef lrnpingen,ent wet collector.

Courtesy Nalional Ilust Collector Co.

t
I
EIIL

OF

rfi

tF$tGEl.EXT 8efin-n

sl*E

uot

oi

SPRAY

FoRuTlca{ lN An

,tFticElEi{f

BIFFLE 5ItE

Figur 5-19. lmpingemenl gas scrubber.

?

J
WET IMPINGEMENT COTLECTORS

I
I
T

ii}.

:.1

;:l

:-'.i:,:

i4

A]N POLLUTION .\IA}ILTAL I]

cubic feet of the aerosol handled (Figure 6-21).

High gas velocities atomize the scrubbing liqurd
introCuced at the venturi tluoat anC the turbuIence eeated leads to lncreasi-ngly high collecCon
eficiencies for submicrcn particulates aq the, energy
i:rpu't is increased. Figures 6-22 a:l,d &23 illusi=ate
tv?icai ciesiqns of industriai venturj ccilectors. Figure 6-24 depicts the relaticnshin of coileciion eficiency io parric1e size and Dressure drop. As shcw:r,
the scrcbbing liquid is injected inio ille ihroat ser:don or fed upstrea:n of 'lhe venruri Lhroat tc prcvide
a film ot' liouid over the ',iroai section, prevenfine
tie adhesion of sticky marerjajs to the w-alls cf
the verruri. Several tiieories exaiauring ihe cclIectjon rnec-hanism have been proposed but ii is
thought ',iat the inertiai effect predcminaies at ihe

hieh velcciiies e:jsiilg in the thrcat. As already

indicated in the discussioa of contacting power,
the eficiencv of the venturi varies w:.th power input and can be exuemely high eveu {or very ine
pariicles (99# in the submicrcn pardcle range )
The venturi collector has been applied to many
difficult collecSon jobs, particularly in the iron anci
steel r:rdusrrT collectiag iroa oxide fume of submi.

In such applications it has demonstrated

unusually high collection efficiencies but at unusually lugh power input rates. Pressure tlrops
as high as 80 inches of water require fans of special
design which i:a furn impose severe maintenance
problems in terms of balance, erosion and corro-

per minute- and invariablv requlre some iype

sion.

Several venturi systems have been installed on

foundry cupolas. They have design static pressure
loads at the lan of fiom 60 to 80 inches of waier,
range from 35,000 to 113,00O cfm (cooled gas
load at fan) in capacity, and lmpose a pow-er
requirement of from 825 to 1750 horsepoter per
cupola, which includes the po\Mer nesdd for
handling waier. These high energy, wet gas cledn-'
ing systems consist essentiall;r of a top or beiow
charging takeoff, sometimes a bur-ner {or burning
of the carbon monoxide rich gases which also
contain 0i.1, a quencher which cools the cupola off. gas from about 2000oF down to 500oF, the ,renturi or other scmbbing element, a mist elimjaator
section usually tied in wiih a packed toweq a.-fan,
and ffaally the exhaust stack. Power costs range
$40,0C0 to $150,000 per year per cupotra,
depe.nding upon the numbiii of hours.tlese uaits
are used per day. Venturi scrubbing in which high
liquid surface areas are developed is charactenzed
(See Figures 6-11 and 6-21.) Tlie choi'ce of conby a higb pressure drop that increases both wiih
the gas velocity in the throai and with the liquid

from

io gas ratio. Ventr:i scrubbers can be desiped

for gas fows up to 120,000 standard cubic feet

't

varies ciecen&ng upon abrasicn, ccrrosiotl, and

iemperatuie cond-itions- Liquor requiiements raage E
irom ,3 to 8 galions or, more per iiousand cubic <;
feet of gas.

6.5.6 Variable Pressure Drcp Orifice

5ciubters

Verieble nressure dron. i::er:iaf.fice

scr.rbbers e=:bccv rilustable gas' :a-.saEe c.lea,-ances, anC bv virue at' this varjahie pressure rlroo

eiiusimeni irave dernokated ;-riHhiiir., :c perfcrm in a .azid.e ccllection efici.enC7-range. Cne

+I,'.::":i"f

T,

:,1#

tj;'

",

;1r

*;ffi

""#:
-the tr6ariother unit (Figure=6-26)
E
sure d.roo can be made io vary frcm 5 io ll0 inches {
{
at a scribbing water consumption ,ate 6to
"5
gallons per t'nousand cubic feet oer cdnu.te: hiqh F
f
collection effciencies are claimed for ii.
inches.

Ia

cron size.

cl E

demrstlnq device such as a cyclonic separation unit.

struction materiais and maintenance requiremenis

6.5.7Mechanical Scrubberu

j'

These scrubbers inciud.?,ir"o d"- *i.

sign a mecnanical means of brea.kjng up the Equid ffi
into small droplets and producing turbuieni contact'
bel,veen ihe aercsol and the scrubbing liquiCr In
one type knoS-n as a &sinteg:ator tl:.l aercsol u
fl
passed through a casing that houses a serjes of rotating and stationarv bars. The horsepower require-- - merrt is very high, ranging from 10 to g0 hp p* E
1000 cfm of gls'clean-e{ but the unit is capable 'E
of hrgh eficiency scrubbing e.zen with submicron
: .. pertjcuiates. It has be.en used on blast fumace
!
systems as well as on electric anci basic orygea E
process furnaces.d The <jisintegraior illudcrated in
Figure 6-27 efibits close clearances and a relati.,re-

' ly higtr-roaAixal speed (350 to,7ff. revoiutions fper minute) and is subject to particuiate bu:ldup
problems if the-injet dust loading is in excess oi
o""-hall grain pi:r cubic j-oq1of c-arrier gas. Con- tsequ"ntly, it is- usually ;i9-A.d in a ry-stem by
a wet

cycloue

or spray tower, which ccois &e

the particulate loadiag. Th" G
I

gase5 and reduces

graph ihows typical <iis:itegiato. p"Co.-?o...

Other mechanicai scrubbers in &e 1ow-er per.e1"formance range are also in use. Tte rotathg
*
ment may be high or low speed, anC of ,iiorr I
designs depeuding upou ttre characteristics of &e
particulate-being handled. The design illustrated in s
Figure &28 includes a fan, distribu]tor, and purnp E

!j

:ffi

lt

WET COLJ.ECTORS

il

/\
<-

^\ r Q-

t-Y

.il

C
Figure 6-21. Venluri scnrbber.

\r1'oter iniel

Woier inlel

Figure

Venturi throat design with upstEam trough

!-Z J.

feed of liquid.
I

39.9

;-.
;!
,

---h
ge.l-

s?F

fr s5iol
,.-F soF

r
I
r

El
d.or
I7ol-

so l-

"t 50L
.,.:
I

O,2:rrO3O4..- 6-.oa.t

ei

--riguraFigure 5-12. Venturi tfiroat design wilh

jet leed o, liquid.

l'

,r

t,.

3 4 5 S 8lO

*za. - niiail-oniFfi- lJtreen-caTE ffi-erficiency

particle size in venluri scrubbers.

il

YENTURI SCRUBBERS

and

\w
3',4'

ii:

i]R

76

ffi*'
?.OLLUT]TJIi V[.1..\UAL

1I

cro-afiE uls'i
LMINATOfi

15

NLgl.
I

.a

w^Eq

rL-

*aj

2 i-ooDe)

c6c

J.
I

+i

+ oJGitr3LE

I
rATEt

IRAIN

Figuie 5-28. Yariabie pressura ;:lertiai

Figure 6-25: Variabie pressure ineriiai wet collector'

col!ec:cr"

rvet

Courtesy Duccn Co.

VARIABLE PRESSURE IiliERT]"{L WET CC{.LECTORS

on one shaIt. Perfornance and power requirements

are relaied to rotational speed alC gas flow rate'

have been d

::HS',:",'"# ff^J'i,i?3,o.i:

Aeother unii is showr in Figure 6-29'

6.6 CCSI CO,V5/D5RIIJC,\i5

6.5.8 Jet Scrubbers (Eiecior Venturi

Designi

In

a typical jet scr':bber (Figure &30)

tle
a high velocity jei if water is introduced into
of
virtue
by
gas
flow
tttror, of a venfuri, creatilg
cordracta'
ien:a
ihe
at
efiect
,,r"tioo or aspiration
hmited to a iange of I to 3 jnc-hes water
';t
"t"r11y
;"aerate gas low.raies', TEis--typ: "f
g-rg"
i"ibb". l, .o**o"oiy used in chemical plantsor
for either separating a mist from a.-gas.stream
absorbing gir"oo, irateials' Usually the aeroscl
]e!
;;; il;t"through an entrainment separator'
combioadifierent
usibg
ddigned
are
r"*-Ulutt
tiort oI pressure "ol flo* rates and a wide variety
of oumoins equipment. Accc'rdingiy, their perfactori as showu
i;J;; iJaeiei""t upon these-35'
T"ney operate
.32,
-34,
and
-33,
in Figures 6*{
and demonrange
consumption
power
i;;"hJg[
From 50 to
rite,
,t'"t* Jirigf, water consu-^mption
The waier
feet'
i00 g"11t*" per thousand cublc
phvsibal
and
chemical
the
if
;; i; t;"ir'cu1ateJ
o{ the uytt"* permit' There is a lasge
"-oliifibri. ,irir*r!, witd capacities up lo 100'-mo
;;;;"g.
in
cubic feet per minute when-units are: mouutd
e.fEciencv
The,
e,ergy
;;;;pil Joa u"rrt..
"ad

lVer ccil.ect:on eouipmeni is iisually select

i
because cf 1cw- first cost at ieascna'le eaclcl]c,v'
-,vhen
high-terno{
is
tle
aelcsoi
itr-ug..t,"".ess
offer
Derature or inoisrule, bec"use warel ma;l
1

,L_

oi
i"","a *-t*tial, ani because 'be
i:he on'i,Y*
ccrrosive misis. It appeals io
:nol
i:e or exglcsrc;
3
cause
mav
-h*." ihe partlcuiatei as
;-il p.oip.l'. w-eite<l. 'ant-l *"gn:ti"T
9;^t-:
ii"H;be.e; noted ihat eficienc.v-cf cclleciion
ra
applicabiiitr

is depenCen.i upon particle size' water-to-gas

,"J p."..*e diop, -ltl Uigh'"Aciencies "tl11li
wi.th coriespcndiagi,v high coniacr pcweJ consumprion. !tr'here a wet c.oLiJctol ]: to !e sefe1tlj,,cr!
1u"..uitrt", ionsiderancu af initial il
"-"in*j;;"
vestireni (uni.t price a:rti instaiLafcn ccst); cower'
water, and Labcr costs; and iaajnteaance
Cenerallv, unit pr:ces decrease as desig:r ca
is increased as shc';m in Table 6-3'
Sorre collecior designs incluie lans and
j.s neeC for wa
others do not. Freque-nt1v. tere
tf"ag*handling eqriprcent such as- sefJing
r^-r-""JThe iiostal:aciJi'.ies. T'ne
dEwaiering *^lrltr..
p"ips, aad
^-, ,-.--,1"*=-.1i"ol.., -^,.*-.
ir.l"" i".t L^y be more thai twice &e ccst o{

. . -dfr
.'&;.to-,

WET COLLECTORS

: S:-AFAIOP

I.-

\ _-_,

g.

Mechanical lvet coiiec:8i' C!urtesT Centri'Spray

il
il
HP

PEF
I

ooo
CFI

6AS

r
I

r
I

4.a57ag

YA7Ef, AATE' 6AL PR' IOOO

PEFFORMANC

AT

WATER

CU.

6T3

'T.
0F 0lStI{TEGRATORS trot-atessuaE rYt'

45.OOO CFM GAS

- POTER. BARS. CLEAI{-UP

Figure 6-29. Mechanical wet coilector. CouriESY Schmieg

Figure 6-27, Mechanical disintegrator. Couriesy Kop-

industries, Ific.

pers Corporation.

M EC

HAil [e.-aL, C0 LLECTo RS

t
'..,'.li-

li"
t-:ii,::;,
r- :.1tr1:1

..:,t.: : !,

. 1;::-!'.
:-r: i ii;'.

.-.n-r .::;-:

I !::t:.-- r :r:t.:1._

i.iR POLI-I,TION IvtANUAL iI

i8

Wcter

?.r.J.

Figure 6-30. Jet collector. Courtesy Schuite-Koerting CorForalion'

. _::

t_--.-:e!*

T,rB# 6-5. Appnoman'rs Cost or Wsr C6ll-scroRs-1965a

l-l

( $i

i,000

Tlpe of Coilector
1.

Cvcloaic

Sineie Chamber, Constant Waier Level

Sin;ie Chamber, Ivlultiple

3.
4.

Cost ln Dollars Pr CI"V(

) At CFNf Capacities of

cFlI

Stage,

dverhead Line Pressure Water Feed

Sinsle Chaaber, Iniernal Noz/e-Spray
Self Induced Spray

W-et Impingement
Venturi
Variable ?ressi:re DroP Ineriial
!(echanical

20,000

5,000

,
0.35
ItrgE $l$$
1.00
I.50
3.00
-t--Q{$1-'*
0..80 --.-.d40 ' ,. - G&H
n oE'
v.io
1.00 0.50
t.20.
3.00 l.il
''- :+:..
1.00
0,5O.-,."*.0.3.O
"

i.40

r-

1r

0.20'

0.45

Ll, /D

40.000
0.20
0.95

o.2o
0.75
0.25
n o<
v.)o
0.50
0'S0

0.35

aBaic dcsiEas, uild :teel commcrion'

a in: somc cTdmic
10 - Mo to be price per additiooal stage viere stsgs <u .be adcied.
.\dd f*
anci wet irpingcnent cieigro.
app1qimadv u followr:
( 1)
satmals coutrucion ots lo-r the- -1000 to' 4O'000 CFM magE uits m
Soecial
'
isese oi b2 tD )Ylo .^.
R.ubbe: Uniac-Be
-li

+m ;u-lslfiETf3;gtr n==: n E?".*,W"

andr motor

(3) .{dd 30 to tflto to bro. pice fu fan, drive

;ypes'..2 and 3.

'

tr

'i.i

(rtaadard oustoction

uterials) Ior

colleclor

il
il
il
il

WET COLLECIORS

q6
o

il

@=
L,-O
o

o/-\

'v\o^

r
t

iU

oO
rO
\-

o z

ttt

!
J
N

= E-

!
N
c

:z -g

"-

I
I
I

!, ':
=.2
Ei
a
>a
Fd^
od

#^ =E
^i-r -=-

% A!tr3l!l:

-.O

!
I

6'
t6

I
=:
o

U3-LYll1

!C S]i3Nl -.tiVEC

55

=N
a!a
L

3-16V-INAV

{
3{ {
E. {
x,

Rc
"o
>:
O:
oo

% 13N:I3ll-1 - OOt

ot
^ a ue:; =
< ==

II
;o Y
\
4
>
v
q
- u
F

% r$Eil]rj=

6v

E.= o
a;=
uo L

i0p

.60N!

ir.=

% l3N33lrr3

:
E

br

>'=

oj
og
a!
o!:
OQ
!a

EE
o-

bo
i^;
=E

E
a

=.

FE

ii
q.o

-o
gE
t

o
d<oi
E=1Yrrr

Jll:+11,

ro g{3Nr -.:.!vxl lior-Iv^v

g,E
UF
=it
&d

lrl

tlt
to

(l

lg

;,\\

iFE

E-

lgir,e,.

()

Ti
O

I
t

;(
;,*

;-

flc

*-

Efr

c;

--o

ON

=e
{to
e o .'
o= oOE
-c
6:=
!Ao
o
O6
o d^
oE:
! o.=
>'E
6
uo<
g
=
x
-oe
',,.- o
qi
.= >
900
:
3-o
u= o
3
r= e

ie

Cc

L
:'

t:

6:

ooocqq
-n<ivil-

!!l
lrl

o:

a ao

.o
-!

I
I
r
I
I
t

\\

c9
%'Jt: Ellclll!

l&

G
=
U

-ooF:L-.-

E>

g.E"E

fr
::.4
I
600
:/ +o,*'Et

EF\\
-

otroE
OSO

=
o

=>t:
roE
o-

E.ES E
EE "E

E!= L :
E oE

an

lrl
UJ

=
o(5

z
tr
g
n

ul

'*"

ull_
I: *4

#,
ill
,jl

iril

,Il

ili

iiil
[,i
rl:

iiiiii

niri

i,.r
rrr'

i".i1i

iri;l
+.,1

:ll

i
.:,1

iit li

I,! ii

lif::i
ililr:l

ilrl
id ti
t4 :l

iri
t;i

of iie
cfm). and ooerating costs' On the basisco]lecicr
that
see:i:
wodd
ii
inJormatiou cresented

collector depending upon method of shioment

and water
ikr,ock"d do*-n or assembied), pow'er
lor
needed
equipnreni
r";;t and drainase needs,
special
lVhere
etcmaieiais.
lJ;"-rLL of collecte<i
'
;;;;*r]t or ccnstil-lc.,on are required' -such as
or
or
ciastic'
steel,
siainiess
si--el.
;r;;". hned
;;;; weather protecijon Icr outdoor installation
i, ,ree,i"d, the price of 'j:e s,vsten w-ill be hcreased

Itil

tr

-\IR ?OLLUTiON VIANUAL II

80

rl

[l

i; t':eiao'el' simp ie task"J:at krcw' ied ee

;i'ii;-ffi;g ,od tne phvsic'l characrensijcs oI

;;;;

,he g"6oot

coLlection eficieecy iequlremeni perriis araici:rg

seiection' ilowelver' ii is nci as sim&"

"qolp*"lit

co,coo

siznificantlY
-t?;;
based on a ccmpilaaon c'I iirstalia-*rt d-36,
illusuaies +ire wiie variaticn iil
dala,'
t or,
;;;.t ;;t the riferent sDes oi wet coilec:crs'. Ccricosts 'licluc[g
-t-at:ve ownino an-ci operaii:19
'=;;;.;;-,
p&er. and- waier I are reiatec io cclcolieci""io" effcienc,r- and are shown for wet
:n
Frgure
col]ectors
cf
typ"t
1;;. ;; wel as tth"t

!
L

VE:hANICAL SCRUBBERS

-7-

-/'

--.1

;lE-

)-

cl

-t

6-'3?, Total operaiing ccsts include capiiaj' charres

ccsis'
anC power, utilitv, water,. and maintenance
y*rs'
E:<pecied lile is usuail,v ta<en as 10

6.7

a;i.

;";*

contaminant' and rhe

^,^^^^L

iL

.,t..,r*,.

APPLICAT/ON /ND
PfRFOR'1,ANCE DATA
t,coo

,,coc

6.7.1 Cammenls on EquiPment

Per{ormance and Selectior-r

CAPAGITY

(GJ F.i PEB MII'I]

Figure 6-36. App.oximate installed cost of wet scrubbers'

PeCorsrance data based on tests ot actuai collector installations have not been extensively
except for &e unusually successful in""lUr*a
Lrffrtio"t notei in coilector marufacturers' bro-

too

on scaled. down equipmeut), a:1 pollution ".9fally "tJo

u'ol agencies, customers, and public heal$ agencies'
il*r""it -o"h to be said about the need' for staud'
Comparison of test results obtained by
"rdir.tiot.
iifi.r"rt iivestigitors or wittr difierent procedures
."r*ot be concl,Isive. At this time, and as has been
*ia i" Secfion 3'3, selection of an au cleaning
deyice is best done on the basis of ir-formation csnt"ccessfui applica[on of a paracular-col;;;i,
lector'on a similar operation in a similar process

involving the saane aerosol:

- A ;;; variety of charts has be'en publishedn''''''o
in wnich the authors have attempted to correlate
as power ccnzumption, lrzater corlsllmpsuch th;;g5
=r*lo"lity
in the collitor, prtlure (resist;1"", t-;
by
-"Jl] *p*atiJg forces, coll9ctio1 efricie-ncies
service
,artiA Jitt loi a weighi basis),.usual
and installed
ffi, ;*;;
-iotrrrffyiJ"t dott io"ading, initlalper
thousand
d"ol-l"s
as
*.i
,

"*p.".r"a-

4
a
e
4
4
d
#

search and development pui'poses, anc! as an en81:

neering service to customers and otJrers. Tdgting
been done by university researchers (usuhrt

e
e
a

E,
F

200

.i"r".. Manu{acturers have done much o{ the

periormance glrarantees, for reto
tfftins
.",
-- veriJv
j
---o

a,

4
Y

E
F

z
a

ad

3lo
-'
LEGENO

L MEDIUM-EMCENCY' CYCLS{ES
Z HIGH-AF'FIC:ENCT CYCLaIES
3. TUzuLAR CYCLONES
4. TRRIGATED C}tLOT'IES
5. LO'Y.PFESSURE OFCP

C:CLONES

&

i,

C!-LULAR

It. IMPINGEMENT BAFFLE

lz INEFIIAL GIF]CE

SACUEBBS

.l& VENTURI SCRUEBERS

FI gCTROSTATIC PRECIPITATCRS
IRRIGATEO A-ECTRASfATiC
PFECIPITA?ORS]

8. FTAME.TYPE FABFIC FILTERS

q REVERSE.'Ifi FABRIC FILTEFS
IO. SPRAY IOWEiS

F
F

..- 14.

inEc{aNtcal- sccuEBERS

--

FiguE 6-37. Approximale cost 0f dust coltection bv variousEE!

cdlleelorsI

f;Fr,.'r

'**,

il
il
il

r
I

'r
.I
.I

t
I
I
I
I
l
I
t

1il'ET COLLECTORS

H::"* '#ff",'*1il."#::'0"?*::
aii'cr*i',*g e{uipment ,pp'ri.d ," IJ.li#.#
Blt

|;;l' *",

ff-*J

ql

be sadsracioot_s" nne compcnenr

may

Xfi:"il"i"jL'S":,::,H::":rc,:J;}J,,*;:

^.
tamir:ants or industrial operations.
Aa exampie

is
the asphalt pav:rg mix indust-v-' The ccmmon
batch *iueg plants generate large amounts oi d'usi

Sueh d;fic.uftr", irr.,]"-ni.r,

w-ril ihe

*;J fro*"rr."*rered
ier;iizer ammoniat_
"hr".;;
ing, anri *i,a
+
=i"rof'o. ar", suii.:.-:c acid arist.:g
ammon-ium

mainil' [rcm the rotary driers ttrroueh whc:: ,&e

ald a.iso frcm their
:niermitteri loerations :uch as :ri.rir:-s, sc:ieninl
rnd naierial transfer. ra ::is tr:e plani i.g"lr,
Shafer, rnd Danielsc,nr. ha.ze ieocrisd snlir"_
ior.r collecccn eficiencies (1C porrrd, Der hc,rr cr
iess ia ihe ef,uent) Ior bafled iowei ".^-'.r-i--rnd nu;r.rpie cenrrirusai ,;prav
basic argregaies are processed,

Wet Collecicr
r.6^7.2Seiecieci
n_,
PerTormance

-i'

)t'tL:ui.c -1cui Ptaat. La,r. Ier,: ie-

,r;T:::_.::: ffi:il,:"j;:r.,:..,,&::::i,,;";;,: :,XS;;

.:1I11.:T"*'i,';H,1,ir#-T,Jfjl+;j[: [i{: taii gas or ,,u,.j;;;,c pia::is r, "i.,o,,i,,*
-iog".l.,
sc:ubciig sciur:cn , -r".i
scr:bbers n"u"' o.ou-".i io ,ce more _f;;i;,-,I;

:af,e towers: thal the ':est udiization oi ,rzai=. ;.

acrievec uD to a rario oi r-cout 6 gruo*
0". iCCri

*",# ;::j:,;"Lii ::

.11;"Tj*

*:::

*r-

io plugging ol p"r.r!.r-;'1";;;;iffiing. others .i-," tolurrt" Heh i"Lr i";;'t"*'";;,

ceptib_le

.*iriblt

pro-pcrtionate iacrease

ili'';fi;":::":,:Tf

.,e'...i10";':sr*":1:

in i5e scrubixr and anh'uck"rr, ,**orri, i.

ccniinucusly

*t::,f_";X_:;

Some rypes o[ wet co]iectors are partiluJarlv

-"cr-:obi::g iow-=l :ni , t'oioc",

tor*reccver:n-g tjle su;rur iicxicc irom th"'r'*-

cuiate

of minus 2Co mesh materia.ls charged a-ifr"'i.Jr,

iirat rhe burnine of hea.,., f"rj Zif, ;",h*;i;
natural gas resul"is in higher stack;;;;;;r, '.J

;i::,f:,.n1"L.;T:,"fl.

.r,--"fr,".brr"Sre
wltn a i:c'vocc-

added tc ,he scu,bbing solutjon'as

ior llat whici is con'zeriei i"o ammoniua:
T?;t"p
,Xig'11,,'rX-,f:

;".ot,,*;;T"TfiHJ._tr

:*" "

scrubber' productlon inc:eases as great

as

be realized on many units. The"system

so ihat a minimum of ammonium s,ri
ll.desisned
fate
is formed and a maximum of suifur aio*ia"
t*o,""t',Irom t-he gas stream. Soiution is con]|
tlfllouslv bled lrom the scrubber to the stripper.
Suiluric acid is arjded to the stripper to cooiert

1V'.*^,

in the r#,:;r;;

required,-in water consumption, a.rd ofte-n;;il

power requirement. Cost ul.rays enters into equiament selection: the iniiial
of-.-""il";#-;i
-"""+ru
one-ihirri i"
$ough importani, ma;z be"ori
the total installation
*hi"h i""f"a"r-rt*""rir.l
"ort, and fan,
requirements, the motor
*fu-;';fuil;ing, and other iterns. In addjtion, tt*rE';;ih;
ccntinuing costs atdbutabie to *r*,""r""",';-;;;
anc power consumption, and waste treatnent and

cisposai'
Besides tle

i-he arnn:cniu;:: su-lfte-bisuiEte

to ammonium sui{ate

to assist in ihe evoluticn of su.lfur oioxjde, which

reuled for mahng sulfuric acid. The solutron
rrom thestipperis pumped to an adjacentfertilizer
piant as a 40f5 solutjon cl ammor+ium sulfite.
t"s

B. Incineratdon. smauder,. in

ciiscussing wet coi-

t."to.r for:ncinerail;;;;r thaf proper

applicatecllnical or scientific aspects of

tion of 'rhe water spray, water curtain, or wet imequipmeni seleciicn, a number of pracfcai .liiping"*"ot types of collectors w.ill reduce to an
ficulties can arjse with va*o-us
A1
l".3p,.ur" minimum any pardculate matter from
;pil;;!""rj
illusi,af,ve example concerns.trr:
an
of
iicterrtor. He desicriies tlree speciffc wet
{;ppltcation
orifice scrubbers to autcmatic. bufing
operatio.s.
col]ector installations or-irr"t"rrtors, incJud.ing:
one
The rint,. qreasv contaminant buirds ;o ; fl;;,j";
i;;ffi-,;';;;;;;';+*;rtorv
where the hieh
blanket'on-the'surface or tl.-*ri"r-I"r"*'oi, ,i
io'cinerato.-temperatu-res eliminatEffEFodor proL
the coliector, preventing 'ire incoming dirtv air
il-;;; trr" ,i*r["r^
removed the fy
lrom contaclias the waier. use-io-""ri"l'ilirof *"t{irrg agents ash. In two examples"s#""]"
discussed, smau6er :noted
has met w-jth i-ariabt" ,rr"""r,
air- th;i !1g *^ru. entering the washers were first
Scultv'
cooled, by outside
3r,ritt"a';ffih
Frequently b'oubles are eucountered when low
ro""urr. H" il;;, "o
"'j"r$';
p"i"ir'**
rhag s11 important
_
pressure &op scnbbers,are
to.operarions phase ,f
fnnlied
evoivirg a laige particulate (oi dropiet)
iu"ru". is the ;;;b"",*"' materjals used. spe"*po1ent and a very fine fume or srisi co:rponent.
lm"rly,,.ttrt
{io.rrty. 100 installa_
though the collectioa eficiencv on
",=p"r:"*"-ii aesuabte
linings are
^";;"';L;dsil . .,.i-6]ih"rG tl;';#l*t

.;;i;"il;:dfi::r;;'#'#;J:i#:il

.lII{ i,OLiUTiON M.\.\UAL II

ceramie materia-ls and acid resistant mortars r'esior ihe larger instaiiations), and thai sreat
cs.ie ;nust be taken in the design and selecudn c.f
ilduce.i drait equipmenr, in gas velocities, and
in naintenance of iemperatures above the dew
peciaiJ.v

po:'nr.

C. Cpen llearih Furruy:e (O"Agm Laru:ing,,.

Bisi:o!, Campbell. Hunter, and I ightnerii indicate
successiul cieaning of open hear+lh exhaust gases
wr:h ,: ileh energ,r venfuri ssi-ib,ber. Ii is ieteres:in3 io act: that ciespite the ieiariveiv goc,3 cericrnance ci tlle venluri scrubber irr the cleanine
cf cpen hesrth gases, there is sirll need for eccl
ncn-rical anC eficient net\oCs oI cleaning such
gases -where the cleaning equipment is to have
an cDeraljng jii'e of ionger ihan a few ;rears. 1i:e
test prcgram indicaleri ihat ile inveslmeat ani
operailng costs of the venfurj scrub,ber syste:-n
wcuLd compete favorabiy wiih those of a precipitaicr-.vaste heai boiler sysiem ior cleaning t-he
gai trc", cpen hearth iu.naces Lhai ha.ie an antlciaaied operating iife of no mcre than a le.v
yea$. Aoparentiy these same investigators aie
convinced that the required size and ccst of eleckostatic precipitation equipment, despiie recentlv
improved per{ormance and reliabfity, is excessive
for cleaning open hearth exhaust gases, and that
a ne'ff, ).ess e.rpensive means of gas cleaning is sfill
avidly sought. They further determined that t]:e
capital cost of tl:e venturi scrubber system for
sle.aning open hearth gas (despite the need for
corrosion resistant materials of construciion ) would
be somewhat less than that for a precipitatcr ancl
considerably less where a waste heat boiler would
be required for temperature conditioning o{ gas for
a precipitaior. It was further apparent, tha! savings
in capital investment would be rapidly ofiset 6y
the higher operatrng cost of a venh:ri _scrubber
system.

D. llaru$acture of

Hgdrofuroric Acid.. Skjs16

discusses the application of spray tow-er chaslbers
tlai allowed concurrent and couniercurrent flow
of gas to water spray in the coilection of hydrcfluorcus and hydrofluosficic acids given off in the
manufacture of hydrofuoric acid. Geaerally hydrofluoric acid is produced by a reaction of the minera]
fuorspar (CaF, ) with sulfuric acid, and a serious
air pollution problem deveiops as a result of the
errission of fluoride discharges. The spray tow-er
chambers were constucted of polyethyiene as was
the coataiaer used to maintain the water seal" Efiiency in ihe gg}4% eficiency range was obtained.

E. Boit$

Operu.tion. UpdegrafflT describes a research project to ihvestigate the efectjveness of'

the sprays installed in the stack of coai firC boil- ffi,

nid to obtain information basic to r.he desig:r WL
"rr
affangernent
and operation of such ccilectors. He
conciuied that sprav collection eficiencv is gov- *
erned more by water flcw rate &an b,v noizle hd
make cr |pe including hi*zh pressu.re. iog spriv
nczzles, and offered as a iuie of thumb an cpdmum wa:ei rate of 0.40 gallons per sqtrare foir
of stack aiee. ile fur.,*her incicaierl ..hat a Cu"i

ccilection p-fr.cienclz of 60 i.c iC?6 o,1 weight cculi

ce e.roected .vir:r the use of ,;i:.e cctrec: wai-i.-io-*raie aad tlat stac-k sprays shcuiq be install-.C-:ad
;pera:ei .is ar ii:teg;a1 pari :i s ;ccr clcwe: :,..:iem, so ihar iie..r wijl ncrmall.i be used. cnl,,. j,:riag soci blowieg-1i.ns. t%i:nq asenis adcei .o

thespravwatelcidnotgir.e:isiti',er..suits,6t

the work in ftis direciion .r"i iilrli+ed.'Ee ccn- *

clucied thar of rhe three {pes of sprav nczzi * P
(the holJow cone, the full-cr sclid;p6nqj@aiomizrng) used. the full or sclid. cone tr-pe has f,
been the mo.st f:vcrabl;i iecei';ed aetj,,is i]:e_g!?
:
:Edri ,*ciy ic c:::se sracK Ga:'aqg.. -1p !r,g. ;fie: -F
up, the spray nczzle i sinele rrir?lE insialladon d
was mouniC cn a siack a:os 4 feet above the toc W
of the breech and arranged so thai ii couli easi.li
be replaced
-L

F. Steel fuIanufac-ttse. Bloomfieid. dur"rrtuilF E

disintegrator jnstaliatjon on electric filrnaces and,**.

fiTT;:,jH:";::, *:,lftJ:;
H,l:ik"?
boxes" (-water spray cooling chambers),*preliirinary_ washers,

ccntaining ryriys and partilcn

i:le, r.#
fr

and finally through the disintegrators. Tests have

indicated an initjal ioading of-2.8 to 1g.3 grarns

per cubic foot at 60oF and an outjet loaciiie of

t::'

*E

,i:'l;:#
I,T"-t=gn,*i*:,
"i,i.:t-ume
nace
niering the scrubber indicated an inlet
[:3ilE ;f ,lff .:'6H

;:il"i:: inmfi;: #i'

Disintegrator collection eficieneies and outlet grain

loa&ngs for the electric firrnaces and orygen process firrnacesrespectively were found to'G SB.fZC

and 0.02 graius per cubic fooN and gg.g65 an<j

grai:rs-per cubic foot. The rated capacity
of the systern was 135,00&-SGF.\( with a maximum
qystern horsepower of 1800 or 13 hp per 1CO0
0.00.42

cfm.

6.8 CURRfNT IRfNDS

}1/gI
COLLECTAR APPLICATION
'N

Wet collectors of various types. constructed

*ilq- steel, stainless steel, poiyl'ter'
.".L bo,.od
"i ffber, polyvinyl rh""i,'"n'd -other-mat".iris
giass

1VET CSLLECTORS

are being use<i for the colleclicn of acid mists. Thev

!l1{t operation5-.vi& r total capauty of 200,000

SCF\,I"gare r-eporte<i iby m,anufa"n*ui, tests) to
be limii:ng i}e efl.uenr io 0.01 srains per standar<i
cubic.icot (d.y).The inler load-jre raieed from 3

are also being used for absor:ing soluble gases.

as is discusseC in the sectcn ,:n absorpdcn. Theu
periormance cn acid mist aercsois is dependent upon parlcie size and chernicai ccmposition of tre
mist. As 'vii:h solid particulares, ihe smaller t]:e
pariicle size the more dificuit js the collection task
and the grecter the pow-er --:cuiremeni.

to B grains per SCFD.

Foundi-,; cupoias imoose an e:rael.lely dificujr
air cleanhq task mainlv. because of equ:pment
costs, the light-scalterine characreisiics- of &e
efiueni (-xzhiin is high iJ j:cn c,xii-- conient) and

In

some lnsiances chemicei agents are added to

'rater :oiiecring medium ls aeutralizjng agents.
wet.inq agerts. cr sulface re:1c:ants are ,:sed. The
last ;ra,.r serve io either s:.nk cr {oai a 'aiaste la,v-er
an,i to enai:le eas:er maintenance on cc,liector surfaces. 'vh:ch ctherwise beccme coaied and impose
a Ci,'icul: cieanup job.
,{--roscis .,vith larger sized. parlcles can be collecled w-iih t-v-rical rvet coilectors ex-hibiii::g pressure Crccs :i 2 to 4 inches. espi:alt piant dusi.
buf;ns iusts. a:rc grindine wheel eEuents, lvhich
generaliy igll in ihe greaier rlan 2 nicrons classificaiion, are nandled successfuil,v, .r:ith relati.ve
ease. if tie cr.nnecting hoods and. ductwork are
properiv ciesigned, i{ precieaners are used where
necessal/, and if the eqiiipmeni is prcperiy main-

ihe drl ccnteni of &e einueni. Tle -aret cap coiiector (flocoed ccce ) frequend-,r arciied to re
tcp of cu:;oja stac-ks efrienil,v remov-es ile particujaies thai are ia:ger ihan l-0 :niclons bur srj.jl
prcd.uces a dark efiuent cf high ccncenhaijor j;t
par'.iculaies in &e low size range ani- .a-here ci1v
sc:ap is userj, hier in oii conient. _{.iso, ue wet
cap coiiector is subjected io se'r-ere selvice ccnii-

r-he

i^i-y

q,.'--

','o.

-^11-^.^..

r--

"---ili,,^

iions characterjzed

+^ i-l-;

grain ica&ng making the use of a dry settiing

chamber. a dry bafle chamber, cr a conveational
dry cyclone assembly as a precleaner advisable.
trtrhere collectors are equipped with spray
nazzles, they should be riesigned ior easy rernoval or mounted on the exterior sheil. All nozzles
piug and the cleanup procedure can impose a

il
il
il
il
il

I
!

severe hardship on operaiing and maintenance personriel. Open pipe enCs are a beiter choice ihan
nazzle cr spray iitings, where a choice is available,
since cornrnon pipe nipples rarel:z, if ever, become

plugged.

Coilectcrs are being purchased more frequentf'

on sorne tvpe of guarantee basis. It is important-.
that ihe collector manufacturer be capable of
baaking his guarantee and ihat some agreement
be reached on postinstallation test procedures.
Lirnestone kiins require air cleaning equipmeni,
usually w-et, and tle manufacturers of venturi, jmpingement plate, and acijustabie orifice ccilectors
all claim unusually high effciencies for the con-

bol of kiln efluent. A substaniial percentage of

the parti.cuiate is 1 rnicron or smaller and equipment capable of higher pressure drop appears to
be necessary
Sintering plants in steel mills have been successfully cont'olled with &e use of electrostatic
precipitator coilectors on the sinter bed exhaust
and wet collectors on the miscellaneous maierial
handling operations. Two flooded disc (adjustable
o:ifice ) scrubbers recenti,v applied to ihe material

b.,v

fiuctuating

ald

cften very

high ternperai'i:ras (up to 1700'F), abrasive paiijcuiates, ai:d sometjrnes corrosive gases. Tais
lead.s to ccrrcs:cn and inetai B-ariiage. fte iatier.
if ii occurs in ihe cone seciicn, af,ects 'water disiributicn and collection eficienc.r. Foor water dish.butjon is a characteristic of such equipment.

Wet coilectors for cupolas, performing on middle

range oarticies, such as impingement baffie scrubbers and wetted banks of small cyclones are expensi.re but can db a reasonablv good air cleanrng
job. The efiuent rsmains orange in cclor and tlere
is little effect on orl mist. Howe.zer, the collection
effciency on the carticulates larger than 2 microns
is high and on a grain loading ernission basis, most
air pollution ortiinances can be satisfied. The
orange colcr irnparted by iron oxide will rernain
unless the emission loading is reduced to 0.05 grains
per cubic foot or less: Usually, afierburning equiprnent is needed if oil is,a,problem. The scr-bbers
w'ith high energy requirements (venturi and mechanical tlpes ) are thought to be capabie of sai-

isfying the mosi skingent air cleaning requir+.

ments (0.05 grains per cubic foot or iess).
A considerable arnount of test Cata and performance informad.on is avaitrable &om collector manufacturers. It behooves the prospeciive buyer to
review such literature-carefuliy in<i to folibw up
such a rerriew with *-personal'sh*d*=el an acfual

installation comparable in as many wavs ss possible to ihe ajr cieaning job being considered.
CoileCtir'designs have evoived essenti.aliy from
trial and error not from design fundamentals produced through careirrlly developed empirical relationships. This in itself malces successfirJ appiicadon extemel,v dificult orr new operations or
on operatlons requiring more efective ccnbol than
has hitherto been experienced or required.

rIR POLLUTION IvIANUAL

il
Ii.('

REFEB.ENCES

L,l.rclrum, L, aod K. B. Br-oocx:r" U' S' Army -\n

Ftices f""holcal Repori No. 5418, L;' S' Depi' oi Ccmmerce, CTS PB 2?565, February 19, 1946'

.)_

;t;;;r,

C.

s.,

aod

II. J' Kr'urc<,

'?erformarce of

w-"t C".t Scrubbers," Chonicol Zng'ioeer;'tq

5j (3),

Ptogress

110-21 ()(a:ch, 1955)'

CrtiQue on
J;;r" K. T., 'Dust Sc:ubber.Design-^
of ',}e &t," Iatrnal of ;he '\ir-?ai*fiu>n
,A"lJie-r'*rciaion'i3
i L1), 58?..j9S''December'

ilo*"r7
l9OJ

J.

i.lL*"o,

o"o., gir"t

:'The Efic:e:rc;r cf Du1 C9ilpt"""'

jteel Casti::es
-rc tie Cotr"re::ce of 3r:t:sil

C. i..

ii"i.*.i" lsscc:aticn, Ycrk, England' Oc:ober i3-i'l'

:i-.-t, St u"t. ca Dusi Cbllectors," lai eiiitnn'- The
o.

Ariij.h St""i Castir:gs Associaiion, East Banlc Road'

She.ffieid l. Eagianci, \tarch' i-cGC' .-,,
e. O., "An Apprasai 9f -\k- P-ollutjcn
;;;*r=.r,
Eo"ttol Installations," Amet"ican Inaustrinl llggig'n'e
ilr,-rt t',-t Quarterts 17 (4), 424-4 (December,
19s6 ) .

Eiffirs, L. S., "Energy aird Eficiency Character:stics

U;."t"t'Ventud-Scrubber," presenied at the 57tn

iir Pollutjoo Comrol Associatlon lleeting,

"i,l-"
Annual

Ilcuston, Texas, -Tune, 1964.

Nlottet frutn Ggteotts Wa'sie:s'

8.
- ienoaol o1 Paitcutae
WA Colleictors, Amerjean Petroleum llstjhrte, New
York, 1961.
nr."r, 1. Ivt., "Cuides in Dust Collecto: Selection'
HrdG orui Ve*tilating 51 (10), 772 (October'
i95-{

-10.

''ConsideraEons lor
O'll-r-xa, R. F , aad C' B" Fr?nrN'

Ld F''*"t"' Ch'eni'cal Enginzerug

R. L1., N-. ri. s'""tt*-t ald l A' D'lscr'so*'
i1. lrociri,
'^
;C"*.lf^"f-e.pl"tt*
Concrete Plants ir,fp'edes
N{edffi{of ihe
C;"";-;' pi..u"tua at &e iZnd Annual Angeles;
Cali[''
a.;tou*g

Dust

05 (9), 15912 (MaY 5, 1953)'

Air Pollution Corlot -lssoc:aiion' Los

June 2I-2ti, i959.

''EvaiuaI 11. trqrs, .rr, U., R. DrrNis' and I ' St''vsn'rr'rx' Scmt'irer
Ererch lVet
Eieiucental
an
ci
iion
i-;rizersii/'
;stiiro."',"
jic
S

chool-ci F:

Heali:h, HarvarC

tso.ioo, IIass., llarch 29, i957'

Dio*de
i3. L,r-:v:-rn, C.' '',\ir Poilution Coniioi by r Sulfur
Scrubbi:rg Syste:l," Paper No' 55-A?C-1-o, The '{meri.e""-5;";*if
Mechani"eL Eagineers, i9 Wl' i9L\ Si''
New Ycrk, N. Y. 100i8. 1955'
14.
- SM-*u-.osa, E. E., ":il et Colleciors for hcinerators"'
^

;;;;J,.i

at the \nnuai 'll Pcllution Contol ls-

scciaticn }leeting, )ia;r 22-26, 1955'

15. Brsaop, C. A., W. W. C,*tpsrrr-, D' L'-'Hrnrax' and
\I. !V. Lrcnr:m, ''succsssiul Cleemng cf Open-Hearli
Ves;ai Scrucber.''
E.-.Laust Cas with a Hjge-iaergy
-'4

:ke lit Pilutimt Control

iitor;otnn 11 (2),83-8? (Februarv, i961)'
16. Srrrs, J., "Control of Fluorine and HF Discharges;"
repr:nted trom ]annuti

;**ilurion

c*tt ol

Associatian Nau;s

5 ,',:j,*'

17. Uporca.rrr, L, A., "Stack Spray Dust CollectotAi'

Pollution Control Association '\nnual Meeiing, Paper
No. 56-3, Bufialo, N. Y.,44av 20-24,

1956'

t
!

7/

EI_ECTRI CAL P R EC I PITATORS

CONTEHTS

'7.4.3

7.1 lntroductlon
7J Operai;ng Thecry
Pariic je Dharging
7,2.1
'1.2.2

Collection
7.2.3 ,Rerncvai of Collected Dust
1 .3 Low Vcltage Precipitators
7 ,4 H igh Voiiage Precipitators
i.4.1 folechanical Components
Particle

7.4.2

.4.1

7.4.8

Costs

Performanc* Testing

Lhe oractical i:,.rpiications tc i:e

in designing and oceratjng aa eiectrc-

bv a discussion- of

precioitators

ccnsi<ier.:d

siarjc orecipitaior.

for collectjcn of pai'Jculaies from gases began ia

LgCE when Ccrtraii rie';eioped a cracricai power 7.2 OPSRAI/A/G TtlEOK't
suppiy. By mid-19631 over 350 million cubic feet
7.?.1 Particle Charging
pei'minute cf industrial gases were being cleaned
with precipjtators, nearl'y 100 millicn of this havFor cieaning of industrial gas, the
ing been instailed between 1957 and 1963. The hieh voitage" direct curyent corona methoC o{ paiuse, classified by industry, ,xas 6ffi in eiectric power ticle charging is universajly useC. In this p.oi"rt
generation (flv ash), L0% each in the steel and
a high voltage, discharge elecircde, placed a prcpcement indust'ies, and. the remaining 20% split
er &stance From a groundeC electrode, ionizes the
among other industrjes such as paper, nonferous gas bet'azeen ihe eiectrodes; a current passes
n:eials, and chernicals. The fundamenials of ejec- ilxough the ionizeci air. Tiiis ionizaiion occurs cni.v
trostatic precipitation are u:rderstood, but in prac- in a finiie iernperature ralge, dependent on lhe
tice theoretical efficiercy is never attajned. Thus physical prooerties cf the gas. Below the iower
Cespiie vears of e-xperience,'Jre preciicCcn oI pre'
iimlt there is no current_-flo'v,.anitjre upper iimii
cipitator performance is largeiy ernpirical. The is deffned by tle dielectrii bieakdown of ihe gas,
iaitors pri.zenring attajnrneni oi theoiet,cal efici- w!1en .p*ri.iog iakes piace.
ency will be discussed lrcm the point of iriew ttrat - ' The itto,f-io., genirafion *.rrt b" suffcient io
potential probiems can best be ejiminated in the
saturaie the field that ihe dust particles pass
design stage if the purchaser and vendor will work
through. The ions aiiach themselves to the dust
together with an
of
the
inforrnation
pariigies
and tlese io$zed particies are then sub-understanding
each needs ja orCel to do his part of the job.
ject to the electrcil:forces of collection. liviih
The theory of electostatic pricipitadon has been irrffci.rrt pow-er generation, ihe corona- diicharge
covered in considerable detail elsewheree,3,' and _geaerales inough-ions"Ib-qctcmplish this cfiarging
these treaimeDts are recommended to the student -ilmost instantan'eousr\z:- w-ten uieEaffiIv c.tarleJ
cf the theolv . InC,ustn:at Ebctrori:atic Preiryitatinn dilgiqgc- wire (negitive corona i-ystemi is=;}d
by H. J. White' is..peccmmended as a'nrime sorlrce there iia-Eb:bsurable amcunt of ozone formation; a
of information,. both 'on theory and application. positively charged discharge wire wstem, forms
Elere, the practical application of the thecry wiil
very little ozone. For drs reason, positive corona

t
I
T

n"r{.Tfl::

Inn,*"*"ricatr precipitatioa -9 g
pardcle
''rTui:"1'Ul?,1-*'!;"";,:*"1:o"#ecr
particle-chargrng, (2) particle collecdon, and (3)
chargrng. The 'electuic space-charge, efieit" occurs when the charging, fiel<i is, so s-aturated with
rerno';a'l of the coilected cjust from the preipitator.
They willbe ccnsidered theorgtigally, au_d f",["y"4,,:.;-1,t$:
d"-st nar191es, that ihe. e]ectric fiejd at

il
il
::

Pariicu{aie

Design Pararneters
Seiection Parameters

7.4"5
7,'4.6 Eificiency

'

The inriusirial use of electrcstalc

-:

,a-1

Gas

Elecirical ComPonents

7,1 i N7RODUC| /ON

ffi

process Variahies

A'
B.

85

*-

:ri"- "

-UR POLLUTIOI'I VIANUAL

86

can be inferied fi"om :his

oractical rmpljcarions
.elationshro. Toe exponendal iern 'iepresents &e
fuaction oi the mateiial &at passes the preipitator. Iacreasing &e eficiency requlrement of a orecipitatcr kom 90% to}ffi means ihai the u,: (a.V)
ieim :nust approrir:oaiely doub"ie' This is anaLqcT s
to havine iwo 9ffi efrcient precipitators in ser;es.

ile C-ischarge eiecrrcde is reduced. Back corona,

a ohencmenon asscciated with ilen resistivity

:roduce aa cpposite icn ciischarge on

drr'ts,
t'he ion genera"=o
the coliecrine plate ancl neui:alize
re-entrainPalccle
eiecirode'
i.ischarge
tion ai '.he
can intersiiuaticns'
uniavorabie
ceriarl:
in
ment,
!s1s w'ith par:cle cherg:.ne.
7

.?.? Particle Collec*ion

.r'ien
Aa eiecuicallv' charged oaricle,

II

b.

:+'

u
1

fr

-w-ill exoerlence a icrce

:laced j.n an eiectrjcej f;eld,

tl ihe charge on i1e particle

fielC- The sreed at which
&e
of
and the'iniasiiv
ihe particLe wiii navel toward the coilecting 919coode ls deierr:;rinei bv this eiectiical force and the
crrg fo.." devej.;pec'as ii moves th:crrgh ihe g1s
streim. This migrai:cn veiocitl is predictabie 'viih
a given set of o'perating condilons. A .sirapiified
eqiai:cn, vaLd ior conductive si;hericrl paltcles
in ,*he size range where Stokes' ia.v is valid (approximateiv one to 100 rnicrcns), is:

t.^t i,

Dropor::onai

2np

"Y. ,

',',

l4
lI
LI

95

E
l-

u
)

e8.

99.

)o

&

where

u : Particle migration veiocitY

E" = chargiag freld strength, esu
E, : Coilecting fieid strength, esu
a : Particle radius, microns
,u : Gas viscosilv, pcise
of ihese components shovrs ihat
is directiy propor5onal to
velocity
the migration
and collecting fieids
iir" ta'Jrgtf, of the charging
-inversely
propor'rional "'
,od th. iartjie size, aid
to gas viscosity. The gas viscosity is- insensitive
to pressure, but increases with increasing gas tempand ,esulis in decrease<i migl'atiori"velocity'
"r"k"
and collecting fieid st'engths are
charging
The
-of -gas
density, rather than of presflre
functions
and
temperature indePendentiY-Migration
velocity, tu'; is a'basic factor in de-'
t"rmiiing the efieieucy oi a precipitator; the fundamental equation beibg:'

An

tn
U

zL]
lrl
o-

(Eq'i-2)
collection effciency is pcssible only with

100%
1"r"11"1'

*"tal plates,. witb alteraate plates charged

IoU""t"a oil iorers tle collecting plates, keeps
an infinltely large w(AN) tetrr.. The efficiency
tir-.oU""iion' ,"rrtf""u area to tle gas volume'
Witi, ,A.tiorships. of this fi:e, it is inherent &at
10ffi eollectiot ifr"i"o.y is'iossibie only with an
infiaitely large w(AlV) tui*. lhe..efrciencv'
- semilogarithnilE
varies' w-iih the
";.";i-;;
A aumber ot
7-1.
function,'as shown ni Figure
1

ts

99.8

examinadoa

-:J-arw(-\,zV)
rtr

fi

99.5

F{
#

99. 9"
0

ExPONENT
Figure 7-1.

coll-qg=ljon-e![ciencv

w{,{v)

oi an elecirostaiic lrecioi'

-l$

tator.

Pr'ecipitator costs ibcrehse rapidly above about

cotecton effcieney'' for

95.%

this reason. Changes -n

Ip

in the erponentialan e:cist'the'gas-volume-of

increasiug
and
terrn,
efiect.
a
drastic
have
can
ing-pieCpitrtor^^-b
9Yi
-ti.rl*" that a precipitator is operaHng-,twouid
15%
by
eficiencl. Increasiig the gas volume
s.s+ io 3.42. t:a"g.g E
&" .*po.r"oi
-Figrqe 7-i)' Tnis"hrrg"
Io
96:+s:fffi
ekeiencv
the
small decrease in percent efficiency, however,
system gas volume'are refected

toi

*xtttr-

h"" *'"'"1?*

i"n*%,I*#a u*

atmosphere.

'

7.2.3 Rernoval of Collecied Dust

F
Once the dusf pariJcles have been
:traasported to the collec+Jng'electode they mustgq
be removed fiom tiie gas. iirea* while the pre-H

$t

il'

il Y.

!r
T

il

r
I
il
il'

I
il
I
r
I

EI ECTRICAL ?RICIPITA'I'ORS

eipiiaior is operating, with a minirnum oi re-ennlnment. This is tle most serious problen fac*C rhe desisner of precipiiators lor the coileciion
of drv dusti: Liquid filn:s in wet preiiiiiators
rirarn'0f; cf rheir o'rn acccrd and usua'il,v present
no re-+ntaiument problerr. l{anv of &e oesigl
lactors ihat wiil be CiscusseC beicta- are riirectiy
I relaied to the cre'ienCon c{ r+'enirainrnent'
s.,,7

i*
::

,isei n the roofinq :rd.usfuv.

Cii :lci .turnes gener"ated ln appiring asphaltic

:cvering ro steel piuine.

siaoke f:'qm high speed ioili',g of
aluminui"c and brass sheets.Wben usei lcr reu:oval :.i atrncscheic dusl the
iorv .icitage orecipiiaror ras \adonai Bureau
"
ci ;jtEndaros discolorar:.on eficienc.r
of g0% ai a
.333
'relcciw
iace
:'eet cer rrillure. Fc-r cclleciion
cf
ci :rccess conia.minarts. -u:e :reciniiatcr lrce velocriw :s ic.rvered io bei:aeer i00 anC lCO ip:1,
deneniing cn the csnL=ntiailcn of maielial to 'ce
ccllec:ei. lli:e usuaj eGcie::c.i lange ct ihe icw
vcltage precipiiaior -;nen aptlied to crccess cp.
eraiions wril be 95 io 99; percent by wereht a::d
visibi1it;r of the di.scharge vzill generall-v neet
FJ::gieman No. i.
Tr date ',he icw voltage precipitaior has b.een
successix-I- cnl'; .a'hen ',iele are high propcrcons
of oii fu:re in the ccnia;ninated ,eas steam. Ine
cclLecred. oil covers "&e ccllecting plaies, keeps
pariicjes irorl bei::g re-eni:ahed, and close spacir.o of n,-:llccinr ni31g, is necessar,z to ach.eve electrosraijc f,eki streng*r at iow voiiage. Therefore.
heav,v contaminant loadings of dry or sticky maierial, when collecied, short out thb closely spaced

oils ani

yqi;rqe crecipitaiors- :craeljrnes ca]]ed

t'ro-ilage p.t.rpli"-ts. a,".e crignail';

ie'zelcped

atmcscherjJ air ciea::,ng. ilo'r;e'.;el. there are

a nurnber ci sleciaiizeC aieas w-hele ihe'; are irsed
;o e.ljminate air poiluticn prcblen:s.

icr

The iheorz

ci cclleciicn in llsh 'icitage pre,iitrg" pr"ecipita-

cipiiatcrs is sii;:ilar to ihat in io'v

tcis; ho'wever. ihe nechanical desiEns of the wo

l/pes are quiie d:$erent. The 1cw 'ciiage precipiiaicr generail.v c--'nsists of a separale icnizing
t."tj"r.. lcsitive corcna syste:l- acd a separate ccLplate section. The, icnizinE :nit ccnsists of
lecCng-*-Les
eqlal1,'* spiced be'iw-een parailel
fine
-elecilod.es. A iwejve ic Sir:een thcugrounded
sand voli direct curieni is applied io ihe 'vtes setting up a strong ionizing f,eld in ihe space between
the wires and tie eiectiodes. Dust and fume pardcles passing through the ionizEg field intercept
streams ot ions traveiing from the wires to the
eiecirodes and acquire a suri-ace charge before
entering t}le collectjng sectiou.
The colleciing seciion consists of closely spaced

oiates.

7,4 HIGH VOI-TAGE

PRECiPITAIORS
By far the mosi irnporiant electrostaiic preipitafion scheme, in terms of dollars or volume of
gas treated, is singie-stage ( Cott'el1 [vpe ) prefield in the space betw-een the plates. The charged
cipitaticn, using a negative corona &scharge and
t',:.: "i'ffirr,T:_ ',,,.,.-'d-ry' csllection:"plates. ' The discrlssion that lollows
fl"":,".TY,3:
.,: ' will be'directed toward-ti+is,1ype-of unit, but the
i:,'i.,il"i*'
polantv.-fSee Figrre T-2 )
, &eory is the same {or aI the above scheriies.
'2'

';:'!*H"i:lP['?Jll*;Ttfl:E*;n*::*l

-ir=-.

rcusi
!

PARncL:s

V= veLcCtiY
R= RESUL1ANT TRAVEL-

-zz:<,' ,'l
",\,

i:--,iF--

ir1

Z-,

irl

"-<

IONIZING WIRE

I
I
I

Scroke and oils irom rneat smokehouses.

I{ear.v oils and fumes from asphalt saturators

7,3 LOW VOLTAGi PREC,?|TIIORs

'f

97

t,

7.4,1 Mechanicai Componenis

Prenioitatorsl
r rLul
are *"a" ir.l iro basic
d9siry-W!:: pi:i," and tirb_E1 Th_e tule.54e uses
..pipe-iifre cbllectin-g '3tr-Etrodes with ' tlirel discharge

e
ICNIZ]NG SECTiCN

because of ttre relaiive, easei of

PLATE SECT]ON
(

Figure 7-2. Schematic representation

cipitator.

of a low voitage

pre-

Low voltage precipitators have been successf,ully

used to collect:

Oil and fume generated by high speed

chining

operatons.

waslil*t the iaterior

surface. of the-pipeq aad is geoerally used for

smaller gas fows ihan ifie ptate type o{ precipitator.

ccui:crtrc seclol)

ma.,,

fi:e precrpitator is show* ia Figure 7-4.

The collecting electodes r are some variety o{ fat
plate with discharge elec*ode wires suspended belween the plaies.
The collecting plates must act not onlv as eiec=
trodes but also al a tempora4* storagel area for
The piate

88

,\]R POi-LUT]ON !I-\^\L-.\L

coil.ecteC dust. The lrcbi.em of removilg this iusi

layer w-iih a u:inirnuiir cf re-entrainment has lec
to a number of me'*hods oi reduci-rg ,Ie gas ve-

11

locilv at the plate surface b,v bafling. Nlanufach-rrers offer many schemes for accornplishing ifus
end, while maintai:ring high srength, light weight
plates. Some plate desisns are shcw:n in Figure 7-J.
The coliected- dust seldom iails off the piates o{
iis own aCcord, so som ::cethc<i oi rappinE or
shalc.ne the plates musi be used.
<<<<<<<<<(

<<<<<<(<<(
CAS F'-aw.*
vE pL]\ia

c^ t- !^ :^ !--

HHH

!----<(._<.H
GAS FLOW_
r(colFtED vf E lL.rIa

.il

litll

! ll
3ll
jLlrr

c^ c.- j- t- L
6A5

FLCtTY

CHUTE TYPE PLATE

DlscUrBe S..I

Figure 7-3. A tube type of precipilator. Courtesy Koppers

Co., lnc., Metal Products oivision.

Iil|

r)/

[\ /

3li
(,
!

\/
.

tl

\li /

rlt,

li

(,
ll

TUL]P PL1TE

Figure 7-5. Precipitalor plale proriies.

There are a few princioles that apply to bo&

plaie and rapper desig'i:. First, the dust should
build up on the plate in a iayer of farrly uniorr:r
depih. This is accomplished b,u- having zcnes of
low velocity (bafled plates) wiih no hrrbulence
where the dust is scoured off or r+eni:aiaed.
ltrlnen gas passes. across*a piain plate with a dust
layer one half inch or so thick, there is a ccnsiderable lorce ihat can }iterally blcw the dust of.
Even with shielded plates, a typical gas velociry
of five leet per secon<i could eisiiy ie-entaia a
chun-]<-of _Oqff-'7, Iight dust cake thai had just been
rapped off the*-plate. f'ne reduced possibilitT for
1e-sntuninandat is an advantage of the shielded
piate. Pipe.-pr-eeipitators cann=ot be convenieatiy
shielded, a{this is ope rason tnat &ey see oniy
minor serl.icF in dry duil c?Gccon. Setonri, rappers

vibrators should be mechanically reliable.

-or
Thrd,
&9 rappiqg intensilr and frequenqz (for

FiE,rrc 74.. Plate type.

gineering Corp.

i'
i
,

l:l
,tlt' ,,ll:
l:iit.
,';i,,.

of precipilator: Courlesy.-BudlF.'Eit.

.-..., .1 . ..i

plates and,-in some cases, discharge 'azires) ihouj<i

be chosen flor tle sp-ecific
_application. h many iastances a dust buildup about one inch deep can
be removed in largg chunks by flrm, quick ralping
at ertended intewals, but in oth",
,o i*"i
".L, better recontinuor:s,.ribration of &e plates g"ives
sults. The best indication of p.oprl procedure in

ELECTRICAI, PRF'CIPIT-ITOHS

thernselves, Hoppers a.re particularly sensiti.ue. lo

in a similar sys't
available tle
nci
I]1,,*
;t
this
informaiicn
is
uuL
LCur
be
ilseif
can
dust
,r.G".ti"t of the
'rsed to predici
schedule'
i pirt" rapoing
anv particuiar case is experience

^Oir"hrte.

I
t

L
.,il

,il

il

concensation probiems because there is no flov:

of gas to ma:niam temperature and ihe dust insuLaies '.he metai rom the hot gas siream.
if tb.e preipitaicr is locaied uDsiteam of t-.i:e
[an" ihe qiectrically: dnarged Cust malz deposii cn

*ir"s at" usually

iwisted, shaped'. or
w-ire. This has been found suitable

b;bJ #=l
iension
bott "t**rca11y and mechanicall'r' The
precipiiator'
ihe
palt
of
weiehts are an important
elit-cces (more 'han 5% cut ci
i;;;;;r!*ec

the fan wheel. This is not a cornmorl occurrence,

but when riris type oi dust is enccuniered .ir neans
cenoriic shutdow-n oi lhe Drocess to cleen aa unLai"a""i fan wheei. 1l 'ius situadcn ihe ic.w-er
meche:xcsi eficienc;r cf : iar cacable of haliii::g
dirry gas can ;rove :c i:e qtcre Essncrnj6ll jli
ieliaoie t-har a clean 3as iaa wiih high rrechanicai

ff;"Iff]#"i#1,3:'Lf';"-.,TlT.'::i'l:
wire is unccmrilon in a weliof"ciir"hrr;g" eiecrrcie
creciciretcr'
lesjsned
-

B;'ah the Ciscrarge r /rres and t}'re coilection oiates

are stucfu:all'z anC electicalJ'.v mountei in sections
lor a aumber of reaso'ns' Shr'rcturai sectionaliza-

efrclenc.v-.

sejicr: e iarge space a'raiiai:ie icr

ie the ductw-ork io anC lic=r
tansiiion
smooth
Since there is

preciliiators, they ar= ilequently filteO -inro ;i::all

ip"""t usiag numerous lipe benis and eibcws. This
ieads to n.oi..i"*t ci gas distiibution that can be

H;,*H,'i::r;"L5i*".'l:gT,z""i",l-*;
dust
sections'
catch losses 5cm preceding

'\iso'

crjticgl io precipitatcr perfor:nance. The iheoreticel

ecr:arjcn i'or eficiency presented abo'ze i:::piiciij'i

if"'"fli i:"i";i;:.*fT'fi"f1f,,,*fl'oliili.H
eficiencY'
-,il":u:?':iT.""t:':#ffi:i''",,3:a"f'f,1"#
und tJ*p'""ai'ore condiiions' Such matepressure

Lm-oolv

iiTili.",:"fr{

necessitate an insuiated

shelf in

areas

;iiou",: !i"'^'*"';;n!"#'T]
:-[*'nI#
required to prJvent condensadon' Chilled

spois

il- :-#*:j:;i3,ml*ff:'ff;:',?',1:jl1':',r:
designi"g.t*
of

ptogt"ssive- corrosion,
;;?;t^i"i"g "^ugit shell can be very imcortant' If
L"t a"u"iop, io the hopper, entrained dust could
"bypass the cillecting plates and lower the operat:beginning

ilF

be,

n:-:Ts*,',i,:J:r3"",''ii:,uH:":urd
the typical
fl"t"

Jr" wo b"tie hopper schemes:

or drag-botgotir
to preveoi
bafred
must be
tom rrraigement.
voltage
high
&e
the dirty gases Irom bypassing
up
builds
dust
the
If
hopper'
sectjons via ihe
cone-shaoed hopper and-the scraper

il
E

il
I
I
E
I.i

:i";."t#::'

,:*.

ff,?h1*;,ll:=,"1!'1*i,fJ:;f,x

in the hopper or malfunctiou ol the dust ha!'drlng

i:ouioment can cause &is situati'on
=ifi" a*t colleetinq ho1:pers must be large enougir.
"re*ti'ed from the coilecting'
co hold the d,st
olates. tlen release this dust on demanC to some

iort of conveving system

for

Cisposai:,

{oppllt

and dust handliae systems are a specrarzlo Prou-

lem, but they mist'be dealt with silce they are

*r"i, part of the frecipitator as the electrod-es'

".

"

that the 1as veic'iiv* be unifor::r acrcss

the eniire precipiiaicr. If ihe veloci! is higher
ihan the disign veicc-trr in any siven Sow :rannei, the eficiincv inere w-ill be :eCuc:c. Ii ie'
qutes sound engineering and careful <iesign to get
uniform gas distribuion across a precipitator, and
this is essential to gocd peformance. Considerabie time and efiort have been expended bv preciciiator manufacturers for model studies iotended
to allo* design of precipitators witi gocd flow
distribufion. Flow splltting ductwork elbow's and
perforared gas distribution plaies have been used
successiuliiin many instaiiarions. Foiential problems of nbnuniforrn gas distribution can ryu{IY
be predicted by examination o{ the ductwork laymacu{acturer shcuid be
out. Ine precipitator =thai
te can plan for the
made aware- of ihis so
necessary flow distribudon.
The pressure drop of a prec$itator is seldom
more than one inch 6f water, with 0'L to 0.5 inches
of water as tvpical values. Flow disributors can
add to the pieist." drop, but n-ormally only one
inch of watir or so need be added' The electrostatic precipitator is unique among- air cleaning
de.rices beciuse it ap-ohes erlerg:v only to' ihe particulate matter and not'to the 'flosrygas stream'
This 1ow pressure drop has been an important factor in the pow'er iadustry's choice of precipitators
for flyash collection.
CJneaaCs

subseque:ltlY- hcleases

'.:l ^:;"*',""f:':+i#i:

39

.4.2 Electrical ComPonents

Since the elechostatic precipitator can

collect dusts and fumes'only as well qs it uiilizes

electricai power, especially useful corona pgw'J,

,,

_ --_

-.--.+--r
j
1,

,'

90

AiR POLLU'IION IVIA.\U'AL II

elecrrica'l componenis are of ttre utmost' importance. In the design oi a new precipitator or
ivaluail.on of the periorrnance oi an existing one'
both mechanical anC electical considerations arm
toward maximum useiui ccrona power'
The power supply of ind.usirrai eiectrostatic precipiiatcis is almost alrva;us rechied alterna'ting ,curr""t. fi'.lo"gh steaiv voltage, d-c lower could be

its

are inferior to rire

,rr"a. itt tpik
"o"."cteristics
;"* sparkover, a '
rectsed wave{oi'ms ;;;=;;
slighi increase in voiiage lesults in a dispropcnjonate increase in corcna cu-reni' The wavefcrm' eir""t of a pulsating power supplv -resuits in a higher
average corona power than would the same a'/erage

from a steariy voltage, d-c -rcwer suppiy'

,:orirn'"
"choice
of a pulsaiing power sucplv, at the
The
time of this wriiin!, is betwein fuIl-wave and half*"r" ,""tiication.- Putrse energizatjcn, a methoci
ci sr-rpplvirrg discreie high v'oltage pulses of a
chcsen'duralon ai a chos'en frequency, may !ryi
*id"rp..*d use afte: the developmeni of suitabie
control mechanisms. Pulse energizing tests ha';e
.frt*.n ihat useiul ccrona Power was increased bv
about one-thfud ix existing equipment,'? with a
subsequent increase in eficiencY'
Neiiher tuli-wave nor haif-wave recti-fication
couid be called 'test" for all cases' For a number
of reasons, half-wave rectification is usualiv preferred. If two sectjons are to be powered from
one electricai set half-wave rectification is better'
since a fuIl-wave set can usually supply only one
section eionomicaiiy. Fuli-wave rectification allows
a higher corona polver density but iess spalk
nr"rrihirr* time than half-wave iectificatron of the
**" ft{tr"t"y. These characteristics should be
matched witt '*e characteristics of ihe dust; for
examole if tle dust is expected to cause excessive
,p"rkiog, the spark-qu*"hit,g effect of half-wave
-.ectificxion *o,-,ld dominate the choice'
ligh"tt useful eorona power, - as' mentioned
*bouE, is associated with a certaia degree of'sparkThis is- true oniy up to -an
ing in a precipitator.
^sDari
raie, and if this rate is exceeded
oo'tioro#;;;;"";ower wiil decrease' This phenome-ncn
;U;*; ; *."tiroa for setting a precipitator for best
of *r"tioo either manuail.v, or autornaticallY'''Manu*'ily, kilovoltmeter in the recliier output ciicuit
"
peak voltage at the-opti*'F power
wiil indicate
iutomaiic coniloi, -th" tpgk rate is
For
settiog.
;;"lty used as the controlled variable i" 4u
The automatic controls must not only
"ir""it.
co"t'ol the spark rate, but eficiently quench normal sparla anci restrict pow'er surges w'hen exces;; ;p;h"t o. h-o" arcing o"c''it' A saturable
current supply 1i4.e
.lr"
-,fr".!^.totL tU. aliernatiig"accompiish
thrs task
p""l.rred element to
iS

in an automaccally controlled circuit' The residual

imped.ance oI a saturabie core reactor resdcts

J#

G
'#iu" l:i't'L;* :; G
iecliicr-

f"*3';:"ffnJr11
m; :H":T':::J:
power supply is consi.celed
ucrnal operation, a

'.f*,'i"'l"?'":*H:'
sparks :.n iess

iian

"

one c'rcie- Half-wave

:;Hi;,l i"ii:#,::;i :Hi*1 G

:Ii';'iffi,:
The icnger
recd-fcation.
from i,;ii-wave
tw-een

lulses makes tle half-'rave waveform

=or:

.t':"ff;;i'*"-il"tio',"ffi 'XiT
'
$::,T,Ii";1x-

quires ...tre use of a numbel of separate Dcwer sil:plies, ea..h.servicing a liactioa of the preci-;,-_f

cipi'iatcr adds

io iotal cost, ji is a

necessrl.; it

*x:* in#"l1J"6lo,#:3.11;".[:"ffiJgiven precipitaior w:li

seclierns

"i;'

aiways l::crEase

{t*

H,if r,""tI 3:::^1i*:l:T:?,*l,tHl"lT;

G''

rence. Increasing sectionalizatir-tn conl

powel-robbing efi1ct to a smaller fracijon oi the
average pow-er 1-Ei.ieiure frpr."rprr"*r, *a
rJsults. Likew'ise, mecha;ricai or "I
fugir"r eficiency )"r!""t
elJcdcai malfunctioni

*:i11 cause reduced Der{oun-

;;";; *t-, " f.r"li,on of the q.oil-ttm*#:

variations between- inlet and outlet of
a

siened precipitatorHll be iar greaier than varil-

lX;13::,ffi",'H#; i:U1.-**';.1;',"^T,:1
that power raiios
alization.

It

has been reported'

fi

',

:i#
i:1i;1, Pf *b.ffi,,T,:# ;"JIr H;:; E
going to tbe downstltaiil sections'

E
#'"#t,"1*::ffi:1'lTffiT"'**fiE
sficon diode) rectiiers' llechanical
1.*o* and

rectjfication, once g!"rret^t use in,fti?p#Xi:

has been replaced by these more relilb
ficient power ,rpplies. There are-on1y smail di{of th;;:
Lt""""-t in the*peiver conversibn e$ciencY
-.ie
sets, especially when cog-rpare<i to
;;"i;""r-it"lus.it--it:}r-ffi beremembereci:hat
corona

:mt,::t
^

.0ff,*'*:',efur

"n,,:tJJ#ll#
for the rating of precipitator power
-\ standard
,rpptl", has been p.opor"I by-the Amgrical ]l^

stitute of Eiectrical Engineers.s The raiing.or :":

power supply unit is dependent oI .th" physrcar
the precipitator and the characier"o"figur.tion'of
., I5,HY;; J'* J":

sf:3"*;fit%i#'Tr

E
E

3
-fi

G
rflt

ffit'
I

#s

f,

f,
'I

fl
4

fl
l

4
4
i

'a

,4

4
4
I

#
#
I

fl

- .....= . ;i

-F,!F.

E.-#.

%,

ELECTRICAI PRECIPIT.TTORS

in the gas mav necessitate ertra safety

measrnes or special matenals. Tee zas pressure is
ponents

coilecring plates. Sparkover voltage is in the range

rs
oi 10-15 klo'iolts per inch. The corona current
.but
will
gas
characteristics
dust
and
lirniteC bv the
-o{
10 to 100 miiliamperes
usualllz be in the trtg"
per iOOO square feet oi coilecting electrocie sutface'
ihu t*t^i'."rcna power usei is-deterinined by the
size cf the precipitator, Hisl eficiences require
irig-i ccrona po*"t; since rilJ ccrona peak 'rcitage
ani current densit.v are iimited by s,vsiern chalacier:s;ics. the cniy wav ic inc:ease the loi:i ?ow'eI
d.el'rered ic thg s'/ste=r is io increase ne size of
ihe -lrecipitaior. This conclusicn is deiuced t'-om
the ruaca:nenlai efrcienc-v equaiion (Ecuai:cn i-:)
rn

, r
I A

fr-o

t.\./

knpcrlant to the struchrai iesisa. wnile the combine<i temperature-pressure efle"cr on- gas dersitl
is basic io the corona discharse chalacterutics\,{cst ccmbustron gass ccnrain scme suEi:r cxides. The presence of srnail ouantii:es oi, these
gases raises the dew point narkeoj.z. t30oF behg
a lr:ical :rcid der.r pcini ior srsck zises hom po.a-er
llanls. I: is usua]l,; more eccncir:.ic:i to :-cainta:::
iemreraiures abo.re the acid ce', iorni bv insr-rlaIcr:. etc., i-har io use slecrci rclc-i:i:sl:.rr naterials
oi' cclsir-icCcn.
T:re :as rcmpcsi.ilcn. :rl lpprc,-,lr:iaie percenra g.es,
Tne
will oe useil,-ll io i::e precipiiatcr mai:uiacirrrer.
per:centege ci w-ater vatcrrzil '5e useri w-:'.h -&e
dust lesistiviiv infci:natlcn. Scrne gases are ursuiiibie as tiansporiers oi ron curelts, anC a c:-iic-k
glance ai .'he zas cornposiiicn 'viil iell a creclpitator desigler 'whether 4;1v 3iven ccmbina'dcn is
1il<e1v :o car:se ircuble. -1 q:s .rral'.zsis shcr:Id :nclude crygen. njtogel. cerbon iicxlde. waier -zapcr, aad suliur riioxjie ccntent, pius alv hvcrccarbons, halogens. or cther unusuai gases that may
be preseni in sigruicant ar::ounts.

i=?n

The use of high vcitage systems demaeds -iai

safetv' .trecauiion,* be raken io lreveni ccntact wiih
high vciiege e.le:nenis. Scecial safefi i:iines a-re
ai ii:res desirable, ai:d eiectlcal lcckcuts cn the
access Coors io the hish vcilage gear and i-he bcdv
of the precipitaicr are irequeniiy inciudei ro pro:ec: cersoniel.
7

.4.3 Process Variables

Ta.o
-hr,5js3l
charateristics cf ihe enI rru y11"
rrironment 1n which the'precipiiatcr is tc operate
musi be clearlv understood if an insiailation is to
be a success ('see Chapter 3). If variabie factors
will be present, the manu{acturer of the precipiiator musi be awaie of ihem to provide a good installation. Even with a ccnstant set of conditions,
lhere are a number of physical characieristics of

the dust and gas that affeci precipiiator

B. Pariiculote. Oae cl- the first prc'perties of the

dust that musi be krowa is the-particle size ciistribution. This ls criticai because migration velocitv
ciecreases directlv as rhe particie size decreases in
the range of Siokes'ia'r (one io 100 microns), Below cne mrcrcn the Cunningham correction must
be apllied. the net efiect being that actual migra-

design

and performance.

A. Cs.s. SigniEcant eas properlies are volume,

iemperaf,rre, pressuie, ind cornposiiion' Gf equal
ia:pirtance with these factors is theu variabiliqv.
(".g., * power plant)trYhether a process
-(""g., is stable
a batch type metallurgical fur---or variable
nace ) will influence ihe overall desig:r oi the
precipitatcr. The gas volume is vital, for each
precipitator is desigled on ihe basis of one gas
volume, and exceediag ihis design volume is one
of the most frequent causes of poor precipitaior
performance. It is un{ortunate that production
iates are increased on many processes where it is
not practicatr to increase the capacity of the existing precipitator; &e result is that the reputarion
of a perf,"eatiy good piece of equiprnent su$ers becrose it is overtaxed. A safety factor appiied to
&e design gas volurne would be a real eeonorly
in a situation like this:
The iernperaL:re of tle gas is imporiaat in the
choice of structural materials. At temperatures just
above',ie dew point, insuladon is o{teu a aecessity'
Any toic, erplosive, or unusually corrosive com-

-o1

r.i^uvlr

,,-,'^^i+.i6c
v u-w!arfuJ

;n
^-:

tl,i"
q--"

'o-,ro

- *--5-

or.

.liohfl.,.

hioher

the abcve equation. T-vpicai

precipitator conditions give caicuiaieC mi$atjon
velociijes of 0.2, 0.4, and 1.6 leq per second for
0.t5. 1.0, and 5 micron-particles in iO"E air. The
migraCon veiociiy eniers the effciency equaiion
(E!uaticn-7-2) directly, and a'c-alculation shows
than that ca.lcuiated

b,r-

thai a precipitator with a ihoretjcal effciency oi

on 5 iison pardcies wiil be about 80ff ef-

99.9%

ficient on one micron particies. In pracdce, such

factors as agglbmeratione raise the effciency for
the smaller particles, but the example sho-lvs the
importance of good p-articie size infbrmatiou, A
process'dust will be characteiizT an "overill" migration velocif. Prccess variaticns that alier
the particle size clistribuCon wjll change the overall migration velocity and, thereicre, ihe precipitator per{orrnar:ce.
The bulk densilT of dust is a foequently misunderstood properry-. Waen a ciust is coilected on a
precipitator plate, it caa be verv loosely packed
(low buik densiiy ) . This is an impcrtant consideradon because buik densitv is one of the factors,af-

AIR FOLLUTION \,IANUAL

92

11

r*:.

if

the dust forms a ligrrt,

fecCng re-enirainment.
flufv ca-ke that is nct very cohesive, it might be
easii'; pjcked up by the :noving gas s'iream. In
qeneral- fumes form less iense layers than dusis.
lae buik density of the maierial in the hopp-er 11c
the dusi handling jjvsiem ma,v be considerably
lusher ihan ihat cf the ireshly forme<i dusi cake
oJrhe ccilecting claie, out ihai bulk ciensil'i is :he
one ,,^zaich is imporrali .o the designer oi t:re dusi
aancilns sy-stem. E;merience is n:ore vai.uabie lha'- '
ccc.iecture ur 'j:is ares. and. the experience c.i ;i;nllar instaila{ons is recr-.r:irenied as the best ies;gn

"quide.
llvmle the pari:cie size is cf fuaCai:nenial impcriance in kansporr:ng ihe Cust to ihe ccilect-

ing eleciioie, once ihe dust :s depcsiie<i, iis lesisu.ritl beccmes cdtcai. Resistivii"r in chn-ce:riimetel (chm-cr:) uniis. is a l-neasure of '.he eiectrica1 ccniuctivifz o{ fie Cust. As the resistivilz
ilc:eases, the insulatjnq prcoeriv of the iust ilcreeses. Above a vaiue of abcui 2 x 10'o clm-cr::
a dust is referred io as la'ii::g high resisiivlfz, a:rd

j,;5i5 w-ith thjs resisriviiy and higher are dificuit

ic. collect in precipitaic'rs. The resisiiviiy cf the
dusi is important beceuse the electrons generaied
ai the &scharge wire musi flow through the collecred dust layer to reach ihe groun-ded coilecting
electode; if the cust layer insulates the plate Irom
these elecrrons it causes a voiiage drop across ihe
dust layer itself. !l1en this happens, a portiou of
the tota-l voltage poiential between ihe discharEe
wire and coiiecting plate is used. up in lhe dus-i
iaver, and the useful corcna power is reduceC. If
the voltage drop across the dust layer exceeds its
dieleciric strength, back corona will oceur. This
phenomenon causes a spark; which'tlowsl' a hole
in the dust layer, re-entraining sonie --dust and
causing a momentarv ioss of corona ,{i_gr*g".
Elect-lcally, back corona causes an i:ocrease in
ccrona current, a decrease in sparkover voltage and
useful corona power, and excessive sparki:gThe mechanism of electron conductjon through
a dust layer is difierent at low aad high temperatures. At high temperatules, the volume conduction mechanism is predorrrinanl This is conduction
dtectly through the particle. and as tempeplge
is hcreased most iirdustrial dusts of ir:terest become

more conductive. At lower

temperatures, sur{ace

conduction-condubtion tirfi:ugh an absorbed surface moisture layer-predominates. In most cases

this efect is griatesC below 200"F, but is noted
in some dusts at 300-4m"F. In generai, industrial
dusis have a "teepee"' shaped tempera'ture-resistivity curve, with the resistivity peak at about.36tr"!'
Iligh resistiwity can be dealf with by taking ad,*ai*g. of eithe{ of two *6qh3nisms. Increasing

3
g

q-,:antiiies ci eiectrclvies such as sulfuric aciri cr

arnrnonia crn sharpl;r ieCuce :tsisiivi.tr. I sh-Hnq

exa:nple cf tllis Efecr las been i5e reduc:o. ,;i

siack terrperaiures in power ciants ov*=-l lie veais.
-\s gas talnrei;rture ri ihe -i.r*iri:arois has been
reiuced below ,1013'F. ihe acic ie.;z pcirt has beer

G
G

reached and SO,, has ccniensed. The resulting

suUuiic acid mist aCsorbs on rhe su:iace or ihe
particies and lo'wers ihe lesisiild.iv, elirrirat:nq
some of tl:e suUur oxide ail -rcilutjon lrcm co"ver
piants as '*ejl as increasing rhe eficiency oi the
precipiiaiors. in cther i:ases, relativelv small
amounts ci cc.ndiiioning arenrs cen be intloducei
ucstiear-o cf r:e precipitatcr ,luiie economicell'2,
Resisi:virr can be measured cn a labcratcry
sarnple of dust, bui rncisnrre ccndiiions. adscrberl
gases, and (emperat',rres are al1 questjonable ',vjih
that merhcd. Field resistjv:iv tests, ratier easiiy
aranged. Ior on erisiilg processes, are reco'rnmended when there is Coubt abcut the resisdvliv
oi the ciusi to be coilecieC- Resistivifv measur:ug
equipment is quite speciaiized, and the manufactureri of electostatic preclpitators are itle usuaj
source of ilese tests. Standards for both tesi
methcd. and test equipment desiqn have been prcposed.to

The dust concent'ation does not have a direct

&,

the temperahrre, alihough tecemcdlv feasible, is

seldom done. llore frequentiv- ccniiionilg agents
will be adde<i io lhe gas stream at the iow-er end
of the temperahue range tc enhance ihe surface
conduciion mechanism. Laborator-r and ieid tesis
have boi:h sho'.vl ihat moist qases ire recessary fcr
sur{ace conducricn and thai :he adciition of smell

3
E

fr,
fr
ffi
e*d

@r

efect on precipitaior performance over .a ,1":g. O

range of val.ues, but it does have practical if- E

plications. The=inlet-dust concentation anci the

-'ficieacy determine the dust concenkati.on at ''ie
precrpitator outlet. Precipitaicrs are usually.p'r1E
chased on a guarantee of either percentage oi ccl- lecjion eficieacy or m&timum ot:det dust concerlbation. The outlet dust concentation is imporiani ;l
when...he ale*aed gas is to be reused s1 when the E
visuai appearance of a stack plume is important.
A high inlet'dust loading can cause &e charging ;r
ffeld at the precipitator inlet to be safurated with ts
charged par:ricles rather-tEai=Ions. The corona cur-

rent will be queached, with usefu] corona powe-r

-Il
drastically reduced. This electric space-charge
"i_
cl
fect is proportional to the aurnber concentrafiou
particies rather thas the rrass concenbation, so
kowledge of both dusc loadiag. and. parti-cle tY. E
'uecessary
distibution is
io predict this, efiect tor a new' installation. Sectionaliza,tion is the best
remedy for problems, with elecrjc scac+'charge 6
effeci. Since ',he pardcie concentation is reiuceri Fri
,6

.i

i
i

,,H
ELECTRIC,{L PRECIPIT.\TORS
pass thrcugh the precipiiator' ihe powas the zases -b"

locliiTC to &e :niet

er ]oss .r.r
&e precipitator.

sechons ot

7.4.4 Design Parameters

The design of a orecipita':r-:s cepe'lieni on ur{ormalion supplied to tie manuJaci":rer by
th" "r"r. Dust and llas ch'rtc=ensccs ouilined
have a marked #ect cn iae operat::g chaiabcve

acter:sics of a precipitatcr. ai:c lhe desigl can

oni., be :s qocd as fie i;for=t=ca ''rr: ''ie syster:r
p"rr*.."r..- The necessar characterjsCcs i::clude
the fr_.llc,;;l:rs:
1.

Gas 'iciume anC

t+mlerrru::

2. Cas crrarcsidon,
De.,,lr cr-.int o{ gas
Dust concenirai.on
5. D.:s: parficle size d.isr":i
6. D,:st -huik densitv

';::o'

n).

Dusl resistivirt
L Prccess iescripiion
o Duct layout
10.

EiectricaL pow'er availabie.

7.4.5 Selection Pararnelers

Tne choice of an electrostatic precipitaior shouid be based on iis ability tc perform
iti speciflc function. if ma-ximum reliability ard
high ef;ciencv are desired, secdonalizq[on and
initr,:me:riaiion should be heavily ',^ieighted. The
mechaeical desigr of the coilecdng elec'todes,
rapprs, hoppers,-and o&er nechanical p-arts should
be suited to iire particular ,iust io be collecied. All

other facicrs being equai, collecijon eficiency

is

to corona power.
proportional
T-he coliecting electrode area is reiated to eficiency in terms o{ the area-to-gas-voiume ratjo. As
this iado is ir:creased, the eficieacy is

il

I
il

I
':

-.-

].::

,r3
4r:,
t';i.
I

increaseC,.

Equairon 7 -2'1 . The colleciing elect'ode' discharge

wire spacuig is not a fundamentai factor, for aithough t-he peak voltage will be reduced as tbis
distance is reduced the amperage must increase tc
maintaia the same power outpr:t. Tne gas velocity
is impcrtani from the standpoint of r+'entraiment.
T"ni corona power densi.qr, erpressed in watts per
u:eii area of collecting surfacg is commonly limlted
b,r the resrstivitu of the dust. The area of &e collecting electlode, and therefore the total size oi tle
precip-itator, is cietermin"d by this factor, Another
factoi that must be estimaied is the operaiiag'
migration veiocity. This is trrpically one-half to onethirC the theoretical migration velocitv.
Tle seleciioo paramitets fall rnio two classes:
&ose that the plecipiiator manufacfurer sets by
choice and those that are determined by &e systert
(

i:l

93

!
character:.stics.
The former include the duct
spacing, gas velociiv, total collectjon surface, total
corona pcwer suppliC, number of secions, me-

chanical and. eiectncel components, instrumentation,

and gas dist"i,brrdon ararrgemenrs. The lafter inciude migralion ';elocltv aaC corona poiffer densiiv,
-{ :er{ormance quaiantee is good insulance for borh
iie vendor and curchaser, for it purs ail bidders on
the sa:re basis and crovides poio: oi reierence for
i-e<- rs

orr+.i:nnc

"

'=,

UU

*+;.;1n",

Ma.:itai:ing ile desier eficienc,v- in

da.-ir: .ja';-cur rlperaircn is more ilificuit w-lih pre'
cipiiaicr: '-aa,-. '*-it: inarv cther .i.rpes cf eqr:ipmeni.
.i11 cf t.h. :a:ai:leiers. affec:nq eficiencli-gas
voiume anci ie-siqr, dust ccnceniraaon and Daritcie
size iisuibucicc. resisd'riiy, gas distribuiion, pc\Mer
seith.gs-rnusr be ir cr mcre favc'ral)je &an clesigl
ccndidcns io ,"*ieid ,Jesig:r ef;cienc;i. Ii is not unc.mrnoil io i.ni crecititators in alparently "ncrmaI" operaticn ai fl're io ten percentage pornts
below design efrciency.
A precipiiaicr eficiencv of 75 to S0 per ceni- deper:Ciag on applicaticn, is relaijvelv easily attaiaedAbcve these levels, and especiaily above aboui 98%,
secticnalization and auioulatic pou/er confuols are
aecessii;.es.

7.4.7 Cosis
The purchase costs of precipitators
can trary widely. In January, 1960 an erected cost
of about one dollar per efm was reported" for

vclumes over 40C,CCC cfur. This value, 'which dces

not include Cucfrork, dust handling equipment, or

insulation, can be ccnsidered a miljsrum. Total

erection costs are quite depeadent on effciency,
chmbing rapidly above 98%.
Operating cosi is the sum qf }h-p powe-r cost required for precipitation and that required to move
the gas through the precipitator. The latter costs
are usuaily lesi than for other fl-pes of dust collection equipment because of the low pressure drop.
Precipitation pcwer, the major powgr cost vaiable,
is again dependent cn the desired efiiency' Ccrona
tange up to 500-vatts per thousand cfm,?
po-:*.
"ro the -eneigy-conversion -effiency of tle
io which

power supply rnust be added. lVlpintenance requir_emenis foi 1 precipitator instaliatioa wili genela$y
require the services of an engineer or traiaed operatoiin ad<iluon to Se usual personnel for mechanical
maintenance.

7.4.8 Perlorrflance Testing

Perfcrqat'ce speciflcations fcr electrostatic precipitators commonly call for eiiher a guar-

'"

+''"h.rlr**g::--

ffi
ET

ffi".''
AIR POLLUTION .\i{ANUAL

94

guaran'ieed maxi-

or a
anteed minimum efficiency
dusi' The ciust conoutlet
mum concentration of
centrationltileprecipiiator,cutlet:sih^emostimcsse' sc the perDortant measurement in eitherpto"*d*t 'vrli be-prlmarilv con#;;"J;t*f
-*Ul
tli'- *""'o'eglent' WAen selecting
."r".a
ii is lecsssa:'r tc'keep
il.;;"t f; samplirg pcrts arsr'rs',1"11
u no
JSrp
;H; #',r ; *n':"r t1? fn" arc :i 'lre crcbe to be '
outsice ihe iucS;t'or*]
io make s-ure.it will ::oi
be
;;;;id
"tlc''i^teo
,* of rhe iaiedcr high 'zoltage com-

j::''"

ri?=;;;;;t,

n"ii];:*"*ent

anc

of dust concenuatic'n upstream

be acccrnplished
dow-nstrearn ar the p;eciplt't"t
tr2' but

t"'

;;';;;';i-"he q'ethod' outliaed ur C-haqtir

(oependr:rg
t "L;:f ;]i;;''riooao* "hirnbles
generai
received
r"*peiair:re invoived ) hasthe
Ceiermines
usuallv
""",f."
f"" t^"tot that
,"""?r"".'the rveight'oi
tesi'is
a
ffiHH"i."tth "iu*"
o'l"t"r ihimbie' A statisticallv
ilil;ii;","i,v 'l'" J''"t'
t^oog into accouni the
qi
tritrri"r"i;rnt*"'Li"
*-ttle rtilbtt' must be colvariation irr tare
vith +$e gas volurne
bJ;. ih;se data, Tonbin"c
of werght
calculation
;:";;r-;;;ritv, "tlo* the
the precipitaof
out
and
into
:;;.i;;"1;Ji'flo*
data are
densit,v and the piioi traverse
;;;:"fi;;^s
"irr,portance
concentraiion
ihe Cust
of uq,rri
*U.r] *"tu

.""""t

with

some
emission rate is of interest' as in
Siaie air pollution iegisladon'
REFERENCES

1.
'

Prec:pitation and
Her,r-, H. J', "Tlends rE Elec'rcsiatic
Pro'
c|tamicd
C* cr"'"G
^Engitleenns
rvo'rl'
gress 59 (9), 67-79 (Septeruber'
"'

i"Tftri

11

t. W1g1E,'i. j.. luiustr:ni

qiJi.o"-w"ti"1' ?'rbiisi:t-ng

Electrortatt
Companv'

,i"ll"fill1lff

rlass.-,-cti3'

"Eiecrrosiatic Preii. i', and G' W P:xNrv'

3.
" Wn:rx,
ingi':eer'r-g
Proceeciags
Fundameriais,"-;;;il
Uriveriry' Universil: Park'

i'-i:s,'P".tt.rtvacia Siate
?a.

4.
'

Relnoaoi

oi ?rtzctLrta !('t;tzr -irmn

Caseo-us W-astes'

?:ac:otidiott, -\rnerican, Peiicleum hsti1,i61Y:rk.

luie, -\-e'p
"Chcostli-YoYt- rlec*':ost15[P:ec:Fi?.
E.
S:-rsrxv.
5.

iirionotrc

#
F

ttior," ?iu:et i04 ''. 6'-5-{ Jaouer/' ':ou

Requiielrel:s icr Elecirostaiic
"
i- Ss:oen, E. S., "?c--er

Tii":iT*t
-' mflaquiienenrs
f i.lrii-T::"1*iiu-n{*
o{
trical

iig;.neering

Elec:roststic P:ecipiiatc

j, li-13 (MaY'

1961)'

F
F

*i$;'*q; qH::l+ 3i:="i:if$:,r;* 1#

' *rii"i1a"Jti-i
Gas Precipitators"' Ccrierenc'
.lt r'I'E'x' Winter Meetiag' Jaauary'

io:isi'tr.*"red
1956.

g. Sr' Cr"'ra' li' til,. "Electrostatic ?reciPiiatio:r, :*F

"' iooi"""n"'".'.1*.."o-i'
I*drustt'ai
"d,io)r"ir:t (L), S-92Arneri'ca*
(I{arcb' 1950)'
Elec:ro-stetic
io.
-"' ifC,r
:'(.*-rn.,r:ions

c.,il;i;i;;

?recipitatiou =.ri-C"Hfr:t?
:i Elec::c

for besign
" Requirei

li.il*i"^i-rlectostat:c.. Coilecrcrs lc;

iil"il'I"#";ir*"a,:.*x:;"i
Ig')}
vember,

l,

j?#- n,!;

'.

e
d
g1
I

BlBLIOCRAPEY

n'
l'-H'-H91"";i:-d C for
1. Ss,rr-r' C. C., W' S' BowE' 'oi
Corona
?csit-rve
S:a:.llrrc<' ''Ch"'""ttii'"i
lemneralras ,T1
EiectricaL ?:ecipitat# 'i" ri3sit'
Burtau o:

ir".-.'*"t

U. S'-Depari'nent of ihe Interror'

Itirr"t n"Po* R'i' 639?' 19il'

d
e
I

@
a
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i?g

ffi

!
! 8/

ADSOtrPTION OF GASES

il
[

CONTENTS

8"2.8
8.2.9

introriuction

8.1

8.2

ilJ

c o niro iling the Effec-tiveness of

Fhysical Adsorption in- D.ynamtc i{T-e*t

i:l"t{iti
8.*.1

i.:.:

8.2.3

8.r.4
a.i.S
8.2.6

8.2.'1

S.3,Arisorbents
8.4' Dynamic Systerns-De-sig1 Parameters
s:.1.1 Rsiirculating Systenns
8.4.2 0ne-pass Nonregenerative Systems

Surfacd Area of the Adsorbent

ioecificity-Affinity of the Adsorbent

rar ihe Acisorbate

DensitY of the Adscrbaie
Yapor i'ressure of the Adsorbata
Syitem Ternperat'*re and Pressure
Dweii-tirne
Bad Packing

8.4.3 One-pass Regeneraiive Sysfems

8.5 Cosis
8.5 0perating Probiems
8.7 Adsorption Performance Tesiing
8.8 Typical APPlications

il

8.i

il

ai:nospheric pollutior: ccnuol as praciiced

adscrliicn is - em-ploy'eC
toa"1 the princlplet
-prevent oi
and,ofie:lsive

low-er ihan that recessarv io ca'ise ccniensatiorr

w'ithoui &e aid cf &e adsorbentPh,'-sicai adsorpton is characterized bu ccmpleie
and ieiativeii, eas--z reversibfify. The aisorbate is

/NTRCDUCT/ON'

h-

removei by higl tenperaLues ani,'cr iow pres'

gensures. Furthennore. iie heai of adscrpticn is

of
heat
the
of
eraliv 1.5 to 3.0 iimes the magniiude
liquefaction

highiy odororis
p.i"r"tify ic
inio copulated arees'
esceping
vaDors
orsanic
=om
-voical
of vapors genremoval
the
is
e*rmple
r.
;rrrlri-Lt printing plants in large-ciiies' Occasionai1y, howe.rer, adsorpticn is used to remove Eace
Jorrcenot,*ns of highly toxic gaseous rnateriais'
such as radioactive iodine vapors'
In ihose insiances whele irace concentrations are
,*""j""a--g."d bed a<isorbers are used, whereas for

8.2 FACIORS CONIRCII//VG THE

EFFECTIVFNESS OF PHYSICAL
ADSORPT/ON
cv(7E,U q'

Iloi

physical

L.1\-

more efiective wiil

be the adscrbent. Activation'of adsorbents is in
Lirq, a cleaning operation (partial oxidation' de)
LvJ."un", scrrb6in!.o*p-*ugiig-,- ot a combination
"ciean'
with
capillaries
small
of
maze
to creaie a
,ia"-*"fft *ithin the,stuctur-e'- -Si7e and S'p-q-qf
t"-";prtl;ies also pl"y, il,.pqpo{a4+art in both
capturi eficiency and holding capaclty'

linited to the phenomelon

gasecus matier on solids
of
adsorption
"f ;;;t;;;i
in,
d,rrnamic svstems be"a.i" this is the principal
which adsorpiion is applied in air pol.
;a#;;
ir,io"--"""o'nf. (Other'chapters:in th9 text will

i H"t'"*'

DYNA,'TIC

Since physical adsorption is basicallv a

surdace-pheno*.ajs, the more sur{ace ar-ea per unit

This discussion will be

absorptio.,.

/N

8.2.1 Sur{ace Arlla o.|Ihe Adsorbent

cost.

"h"-i"al
will be $efined
sorption

a Jr

heavier concentrations' regeneraiive adscrbers are

nerded. Picduct ,""or"ry" it many tlmes afrorded
bv the regeneradve typd (solveni recovery in the
div-cleani]ne fieid, for e-xampie),'vhich may pay tor
*l p"ff"tir", control or at least ofiset part of iie

.""",

Adsorbate Mixtures
Rernoval of Heat of Adsorpiion

volume

a<i-

here as capiure.and reienrrri""uies'fr'om the gas phase by the surfaces

"i *Ud
surfaies to include those
;i-th;
"dtotbent,
bounding the capi.llaries, cracks, and cre'rices' as
well as tle exierior of the granular strucfure' The,
der

ihrt .r,

8.2.2

compelling att'actions are cinsidered to be van

fo.Ies, but capillary condensation- must also

, po.ribl. mechanism of p-hysical adb" lrr"irrd"d
",
iaiter will be limited to'the conden'
Th.
r";;ii;;:
tiny capiL
,"tl'oo of ihe gaseous adsorbate ia,
"he
a pressure.at
laries of the solid adsorbent. occurring

*riir

95

be obtained,

tle

ii

AIR POLLUTION lvlA*\UAL

96

a gas Passr
furiler reduce side lvall leakage' Wben
p-ac
gra::ular
the
and
il;;.;-;;lg:J side w-a1l
adsorbe:
much
as
hall
ihe adscrbates contact oolv
*:',h;;; ;;.seci th::ough orrer-sections of the'bei

involve<i ehemicalsas rnolecule to be arlsorbed) to-

thecnes, any-of Yhi"l are bevond

;;;;h;;ical
;eri' Ii wilI sufice nere to poin-i
this
.h" ;;" of
adso-rbenis ha're.a given afsoiio'
,il i;;;-tn;cffic
anci.tlat many
il* f* specif;c zases and vapors: established
by
beea
;i';'h; tk^tio"*ips have
it.is
example'
fieid'
the
.'For
;l-i;;; experiencein
;;;;k k";ir" iiai activated carbcns speciically
water
;;#, hydrocrrlcn vspors in prsierence io
in
w-ater
;;;.. *itit" ,"1", qel spec'{ca}ly :csc'r:s

ih" ,id.i"rli

-i

o.ii".=rr." to rYdrccelboos'

8.2.3 DensitY oi the Adscrbaie

Generallv, the more lense a. gaseous
and
adsorbate, ihe rnore easily it wiil be adsorbe<i'
aCthe
cv
held
quancT
the
',.nll
be
S;";;;;"t
the
in
true
ncr-be
iould
course,
of
nis.
s"rrrE"i.
diameters
;;r; of an adscrbent wiih caliliaw

;;^ff";

EeC coiflsuradon and ski'ii in packing are as ir

portant, ii n-ot more so. fs !i:c'per s"lecron oi r
iarbent Ln dvriamic sy'stens' Here ile ccnce=
',Ae equilibtiar-n value oi &e acscrlt
coniaminggidre beo will hc-lo ceii
;nuch
fui ao'oz
an excess Dercentage penetlaiion wl1l occur'

otJto nuch

8.?.8 Adsorba*e Mixtures

Hoiding caPacitv ofan aCscrbeit t

is trcsslv affecteC m ma[v :-nstences where ::ert

ia a d'rnamic sysiem' n
iiculariv w-hen there are relatively hea'zy- ccncenr
ilo", oi adsorbates in regenelative svstem's' Thr

;nc-re ihan one aCsorbale

ihan &e gas urolecules tc be adsorbed'

will :epince cth

beerl- adsorbed' che::rical

s6{t'apors
because some gases
"alread'y
,hut

8.2.4 Vapor Pressure o{ the Adsorbate

*r,

have

rct'on a:none ihe aisorbates is pcssib.ie' a;lc tt

adsorbent nolding capacitv is generalJ;r increa
with adsorbate rri-xtures

Generally; compounds with-low vapor

a1{ in greater
gases'
noncondensable
reiatively
ihan

Dressures are adsorbed more reaCiLv

["""tiU*t

areas mirst be elTectively 3]gakec

ircm the gas i'ow systern'

--

8.?.9 Rernovai oi Heat o{ Adscrpiion

Adsomricn is an exothermic Pror

8.2.5 Systern Temperature and Pressure

Adsorption varies inversely wiii temperafure and directlv with pressure' A high system

and the heat involied ls in the magnitude of Li

tim". th" heat of liquefaction' if this heai is

create a condition of weak adad,orptiorr" whereas a high sJ/steuc- pressure aids

effiretentjon
bouh
of
;il;;;'from the stanipoint
ciency and holding caPacitY'

I-"*,r;;;*. will

lowed to build up and elevate the ternperaturt

the adsorption bed, the retentjon. efrciency
tJai"g capacity of &e system *q.!. decrea
the
Care riust t" uiua io avoid this conditicn in
relaiively
systems io remove
Je, of
-of gas''! ha-s e c ontaminants';
^drorbent
c ir c en tr a tio n J

8.2.6 Dwell'time
Even thoush the rate of phy5igal adsorption 1rp"ua or ;T;pi';."o**"iv LJ whei'
T a. dy;;r;"d io other totpd'" phenomena,
adscrbate
an
ior
reqolreci
timJ
the
wt."m
or"J"
is quiie
*ti";"t" to pass ihrough the adso*ent bed Beyon{
ciency'
eff
.riti"rf *ie'r'respect tolretention
the optimum ,"io"ity; as the gas flow is increased
,hr";-"h ; riven bd,-the perJentage of adsorbate
the"-ad;;il JJrur.".. TL"r" i iittle efiect oncapacity'
holding
roiU""t equilibrium value or toial
however.

8.3

ADSORBENTS'._
Although a great variety of clays' chars'
I
oxides, sficites id activated carbons have
ir
application
and
efiort
ou"a
"*.olb:ir.ts'most field has been oonffne
,* p;r1"u"i-rt"t"*"t
*oii-tJ*"af,ons-.llore recently yoe of th-e
,ir"ti" nvatousGlicates (modilLd zeoiites)
been consider.ed alsc' =:
.A.ctivated carbon is of lour geaeral i]?es

ing to

l.

8.2.7 Bed Packing

,;ii

:i,
iSl
rt

;:

..j

:il
tl .

:rii

'l.:I

Thin beds should be avoided because

ihev make ;pd*; dtstri,bution of granular ad'
side
*ti"""'J.m-irfa t" a'tt.i"- Also; to minimize
should'be
#rU-f**rg"-*r" ilt"*"I side wail area
of
;-;;11r.*p.stiUr* *itl *p""t to 'r,it.volume
to
used
be
sho,id
*"ans
IJilJ. n*k;"gro, otrr"t

origin:

acr

,.

Coal base

2. Petoleum base
3, trVood base
4, Nutshellbase
,{11 have

varying degrees of afinitv {oI tp

vapors and gasts,

these chang"

Yiih'
a'hig{
tivated coconut sheil cerbon may u*irllrit thu h

shfrts

"i.d "r.*
For
in concentration.

example,

ADSORPTION OF GASES

rifrniry for carbcn teirachloride il ccncentrations

above 1000 ppm ia air, ',vhereas en exr;uded pebole,.m-base carbon E-ray De more :S.crent .vhen ile
ccncentratjon levei is in ihe order oi a ie';u parts per

v/

8.4.1 Recirculating Systems

The recircujating system is really not
applica,ble to arraospheric arr-pohudon worl<, and, is
d.iseussed here ,:n-ly io a,zoiC misuse of available
ccmrnereial eouipment. lisorpdon beCs of this

million.

'

Hence, to seiecr i-he'best acfi.iarei carbou fcr '&e

applicadon, cne nust knolv t}'e saecdc -qas, vacor,
or combipadon oi ccntarniaants and '&e ccncenuation Leve]s. vVrii "iris inforrralcn. :::e equr.cme-nt

L1r labcraiorr iesang

efect1ve ajscr:e-lr. beai:ng in
mind olher characterisdcs suci as Laiiness. grar-

i:lanulact:rels o;; :xcerience

ca:r c-hccse

te lcsi

,rl:- iize. ,i-i

:a.se

.:i :eacdvaicn :ec-:::r:d bv

d:e

sysiem.

To g:3i{s the engji:eer-desigrer Lar user, }row-ever,

.: noi a-rjcmatic. rules :n<j vai.ues can

sorne general,

be esiablished:

(" ) Acri.;aied carbons wii& :he qieaiest surf ace

area anC the iorvest bulk densiiw ia a given mesh
size generally aford tle i:ighest i,r-laiaic eficiency
and dre largesi hoiiing capacilr. These are ihe carbons tiai are i-ncsi highi;z activaiei or their pore
s.kuctore inost totally ciea::ed.
(b) The ease by .aihich a gas or vapc.r is adsorbed increases as ihe boiling poinr ot' the gas or
vapor increases and also l.riitr an increase in criiical
temperaiure.
(") \,Viih respect to organic vapors:
(1) -\s the number of csbcn atcms per
rnolecule iacieases, usuaiiv the organic

vapor is more readilT adsorbed. C,

and C, compounds do not normally
lead themselves to adsorction remcvai

il-

(2)

techniques.

The more unsaturated compouads are

the safurated ones with the sarne trurn:
ber of carbon atoms. Butene is more

rea&ly adsorbed than butane

( d ) The syathetic hydrous sficaies wi-ll in many
cases provide beiter capture effciency than the
charcoals, but they generally do not ha.re the holding capacity. Hence, they are often used as the ffaal
adsorptive bed ia a two-adsorbent s,vstem to remove the last traces of the coutau:inant.
(") There are other, more specialized, solid
granutrar adsorbents. Fcr example, silica gel :'s
especialiy well suited for the adsorpiion of gaseous
ammoaia-. -...

il
il

r
r

8,4

DYN

AIIIC 5Y5T E}AS,-DES,GN

PARA}{ETfRS
This subject is best brokea dow:r into three
classes: (1) recirculating systems'for odor removal,
(2) one-pass nonregenerative s,ystems, and (3) one-

pass regenerative systems.

Figure 8-1. Recirculating system. Bypass adsorber

tesJ Barnebey-Cheney Co., Colurnbus, oqig.

cell.

Cour-

tfpe are extremely thin or loosely comp-acied, or

both, to keep resistance to air fow at a minimum.
Some are desiped aL !'rrpass adsorbers wirere no
atiempt is made to pass aE of the .gas steam
tiuough the bed. Craq.qlel@s seldom exceed E
inch in thicli:ness and-$rey are uzu3qt1.eggcked" with
relatively large granules in the 4 to 16 mesh size
range. Dwell-time in the bed rarely exceeds 0.05
seconds and i.s usually less" Resistance to air fow
is normalrr held to a maximum of 0.2 inches water
gage'

Goe.pass retention eficiency is quite iow, ia the

of 5% to 5M (depending on design aad
appiication ). These units operate quite zuccessfully

orCer

in build;',g or room aA conditioning for purification

of recirculated air, but are uasuitable for maaF oae-

nl

r&

E',
Ei'
F

'.

i--'

37;:

!::f';.1*,

-a'$-;''

ffi,"""
Alf ?o,-lurloN

s8
Dass

sysiems

+.o

;,i;b[ i

preveer out-ccor air p,:ihrion.

corn-

l,IANu-\L

11

."T octhrough ioes not

;lei1'*l';r'o"5-$ru:&
il";
vapor' the ccotaminant

,+rT;,:i.* 1",:"f:.:'::'-"u1";,!'i ":i't:""'"!lti,:;{5r-;:'-ff::i#i;';'";;;;;-

:"ffif[iH r??iil'i"-J '":'-o:ii;',";:.

-;;
l;,"#11;rt:,r:"-r,.j1.f..ifi-.:

;:'ri;:;

;?" lr.:,;*e :i tre svstem is

ll1T,',iJ"i.h::I'il,$"1iJ;;;r";' or co.'

]rX1"*,.,[""i"

'nL'

="i..,*-ac::"i""' ].rfi.,*,,. .^^.._^,irn:^

"'
;Uft"r1-,';.1;:i,I';o';;;l
tiui,l
:'ressure dro? :crir'iiv
&l)'
s-vs:em
-O';
il;i'(Figure

;i l'c't

egenec'ative'
5.4.2 One-pass Ncn-r

Systerns
>Ysrems

tc 2'0 :;:ches I'erer

i::is :n u.,e range

E3-Qe'

F
F

one'p""-T:..:::1,:::=::il:*,q
t:ve adscrter s-tsrei)s
,ho*i. o.,lxii;i:""='"fl;;;;;;;;;:'-':"
8'4'3

-,*_$!r,ji*;ti*'r*"i3,
:::-r;;"a"i*rr,ttl"J',J;,.;i:-4i,F$l
one-pass

;ii+:i:f*i;:;;t.r,;TJ;Htl":ii::*

fr
-|

lreaffi

ffi
,ffim

reEffiG=

ffi

:n ihe adsorbenr-as;"r.*""rriionot

anC oi
ship, the eficiencv.
faciors such as ''el.ocitv'-dw.1t"TI;J.1""',

rhe hoidins

t*":'XlTl""l,::

Ji:i.H;i';;igh,l
-'ff# ;; ;;*"""gt"n'
?-1 ll," :l:

dependino
inches 'water -gagei-

i"

"dii' F

caPacitY

,::

"&:':: il: *
steam
-i5i:*ffi:1fie
:::::

norrna'try auuu*,PuJ"-- of r";"

is ;*:HT,r,
lne
l:",""i"1"".*Jil
ileactivaiion
i,

u*
*#.w.""-,DresSurest88IIIruar...."".--."dsortate.TheSte3m
.co" d**"'t;;+'\::
'",r" .usuailv'.condensed toe'sr*si
:i*'i.111f11.-:,iF*1*::t"Jtrtl''tfllti
iH'"ar"'u"t.
.f.1l,xi",J,lxff"';fi:"1.;li;"h,,:;lEi"
.fill,Xi"rJ,ll[Fr"'lifi:"1.;liv''rppri'ni.'
::*[,,t;:.
::Hr,,,;:.
r11".f;;;,

til

i:

better side-waIl
out the bed and receive

F
t
E

:,,:tH'T#
ru;a?.':iT"1':};}!'Iii*i""jf
or't
-*an,
Iht""dtitu"ni'is-a
'trgatment
means

xlffi*-*tffi*

;'";;;;;,*I,lr-""",Til1,1:Jf
tr#,1:J,&,::{:rJ:?I'i:fr .*;:*f;
taminant in a single P
1"".";
lii,?.u*;r"r"*:,li *"f{
ser: E
ls
::f"::ln,* :: +i:t*:i.;;'Jh;'*]
capacitv of the bed
iirl"r.o.tt 9f f1o1 ' ,,.,t 0.0T5 to u.D seconds. ficiency and/or hotding
^*
vide for dwell-timesf,,1"i
I" '"r.!_1o'rt1"""^": ;ffi J"il;d.

g:#g:::;;;

-""f-T-l-tfg'',t;mis not economical to use

E
8's
user'
rype cr adsorberJj'T-""X'J'Ii:1.:*:'"::: "
in cost to the ussthis
tti,-tvp"
:::l:," -,,w
,"y widerv
y*]f
"t,o,o,o"P,1,#11.};;*":3:,T:;
iu*o"oj:
ccncen'*atcn.s*"il"ffdJ
p."'po'r":j::
tamrnant
a;,ir.'"iii1: rangrng ft'om 15 "t:t:
i; noo doilars ti'"*'u*""' I
in one-pass o]'i;;o;;t
*"=:;;;I1,
'Ih
"."t
",,1};'[:H"r?
[iiri""l"g"raing cacacitv
qrpes'
2ffi^ol.'lj;;."o;
n
generaily 5%
the more common
sorber s;rstems is

'*:lit-i,,'itat

is,

-f^o

ii

ihe case o[ an

easuy

'-$i

.l

.\DSORPTION

CF

GASES

oo

Figure 3-3. 0ne-pass regenerative systern. cour:ssy tsarnehey-Cheney Co.r Coiumbus, 3hio.

$1.50 per pound with an

,.r"irg" of about 75 cents a pounC fcr those used in
aii polluiio-n ccnboi. The svnihetjc hvdrosilicates
are in the $1.25 to $1.75 per pound range.
If one assumes a 15% w-eight of adscrbaie io aCsorbent retention ef;ciency ( gooC desig:l average
ioi boih nonreqenerarive and regenerarive d,vnanic
syster:s ) anci a 75 ceni a pound, adsorbent average

r3nge lrom 35 cenis

'

to

ccst. the result is frve doljars per oouni of vapor

pickeri up in adscroent costs alone for ihe iiritial i"stallation. Cost of bed holders and i'rames for nonregeneratlve systems is approximaielv 5li times ihis

value, making tcial or:jeinal equiprnent ccst ap-

proximately $32.50 oer pound cf contaminant. To

this must be acioea the ccst of erecCon.
Operating ccsts ot ihe nonregeneraiive s,vsiem
wlll incluCe ieplacernent cr factoq; reacdvadon of
the ad.sorbent, maintenance cost on the bed hciders
and frames, ccst of air movement, space occupieci'
transportation tc and from the Iactor,v' and labor
ccsi to remol/-e and replace eiements.

Replacernent

or factory reacdvatjon of the ai-

sorbentT ill, on the average, cost close io the original adsorbeni value or five dollars per pounC of ad-'
scrbate capturi. Factoq.z mainienance charges on
&e bed hclders and frames w-il1 be of the same
masniiude, w'hich means ihai the normal bank withoui mainlenance would receive complete holder ani
frarne repiacement every 3)i -vears. Hence, operat-

ing

costs

will be in the orier of ten doilais

per

lound of contaminani reiained 'plus other

n:enuoneri before.

ccsts

-\ssumins a typicai bed pressure drop of 1.5

lnches warer gage, 0.75 brake horsdpower is required lcr e.zery 10C0 standard cubic feet per minute of capacir.r instailed.
Inciu,Jing space to i-epiace elemenis, ai least 5.5
cubic feet occ'rpancy must be provided for e'reqr
ICOO SCF}{ caoacir.r.
Transpcriatjon o{ eiements io a4d &om the facicry anci labor charges foi changing elerrents are
relatively minor ccsts which vary widely due to
iocal condiiions.
Begenerative systems, being more rn&"idua}, are
et/en more dlf;cuit to average wiih respect io cost.
!{owever, orieinal ,equipmetrt cost, exclusive of reactivation equipment, reeoverv ecuipment, and additjcnal air pumping equipment should be aboui
the same as ior the nonregenet tive system-$32.50
per pound of ccntami::ant per-cyiie-'TtF.*il1 cover
the cost of the operating vessel, standby vessel,
c;rcling system, and orig:nai adsorbent charge.
Additional equipment most often required is:
1, Si'eam generadng equipment
2. Cooiiag water purnps
3. Dry air heaters
4. Faus or air pumps
Rcugh cost esdmates esa be calcu-lated from the
foilowing tabie of capacilv requjrements, wfuch include values to recover condenseC vapors:

'ffi'

#
AIR POLLUTION },I.\NU.{L

10g

out ildustr.v to

lbsilb ol vapor

5
Steam Generating Capacitv--3 to
retained

vapor
Coofl"j lV*ter Capacitv-7 to 10 gals7'1b of
retaineC

of vapor
Drv l{eat Capacif-4.1 to 0'15 kw hr/'[b
retained

ait.
Ni;;;g Caoacrryi'0 BI1P/10C'C SC'FII
operadng
estir::ate
to
Th; othZr vaiue'needed
This
.ru*"tt'i;"q"enqr of aCsorbent recharging'
ci ..j:e air' ie-

An
'

-da;n \/r.ips w'iael'r with clegniiness

bed' and eas-' 'riih 'ahich i:ne

.,,:j ,i J"
"at".".nt
,-11.-ft -atorbeC- bui in weii cesiqled^ciants a:
usage oi cne pounci tc ever;'z 2CC0 pounas

"JiCrl"",
ol vapor removed

rs considered :y?icai'

3.6 OPERlfilVG

PROtsL'E'&{S

Contaminaticn of ihe adsorl:ent is i::e major

If ihe air stiearn ccntains
e...bI;;-i" all systems'
matter' rhis rnust
parliculate
i ,rgrLfi"rot ainouxt of
else :re active
or
Eliers
acpropriate
fro-r="*o"*a bv
:cated and
become
will
a&orbent
the
;;;;". of
e-'<ample'
For
*rli- c-Ja* ," Iunctlon properi,v'
be conmust
resincus or polymerized substances
bed'
adsorbent
main
the
i""r"J"l"f"i* rrr",, reach
pemii
preadsorbers
or
by ,"rrbbttt
bed'
"rli"l= irinctioning of the main adsorber \o
;;;;,

-Peifofrance of an adsorpirci: systeur is staied

capacity, and pressure drop'
in
'-- terms of eficiency,
Effcieacy (expressed in percentage of upsi:eam
i's u *"^''i" of the quantitl"of
.r;;;;;;",)
f:"om an air stream iL a
gas
removed
vaDor or
,i"'el" p;tt'thtough the adsorbent bed' The capacibe
-^nJ ariount of vapor or gas-that can
*-i, tfi. total
before
be<i
chemical
the
t"iri""d bv
;isotil
,-ro."ifi"d penehation is reachei' e'roressed in
of adsorbent weight' The resistance to
o"r.-""t"e"
"is
gage at
Io go* usually given in inches water
minute)'per
(st"odati cubic leet
;Jfl;
^-ft.
tt"*eodoos number of vapors removed from
tt aJsorption makei it dicult to list

"i;;; o.o""drr", ?or deterrnining i'ata to obtain

""-"""1ta
;ff;;"ld and capacities' Iastrumeats utiliziag-indiscolorfrared, chromatography, heat, ionizadon'
*3'l;
werl-as
as
siain,
;;;;;'r;4i""**ioi
":lip.

pro"ed'-,res are

ail used

gas concentrations in

selectiop o{ the- method depe-nis

;;;;;*ile
;;;;'il" "ootaminaots involved and t}e accurac'/
cesired.
The ccricsiveness of the air :o be handled tlgdq
Uu-"rutt rt"d in selection ci -properlmaiedais fi
.""#""t=o" ior the frar::es, bed hoiders' vessels'
and iccessorv: equiPmeni'
In iegeeelative systerns- manv solvents h,v&oi;ize
-th;
ac
i"
i.*..r="" of liq.uiC rvaier cr li*"o useC

f\e adsorbent'
aleraii r-emperah:res io --elicti-rate
'r
ic'r ihis 'rnC
caialvsi
1s
ih" .d.r"r."ii *rv act

leacCons to form corrosi';e

talvanic accon bet'reea carbon ar:c

oth", C*t*posiiicn

;;tl;";'

eiecro:netal holders alust also be expected when

i,rtes are oreseni or are ior:ned'
-Lav,t
adsc'rbing bed te:nperaiures must t::::
to
uined provide economical retentiilv:iy ql::U'n
ri.arrmum ) , nrinir:ize
;eCuce ielease of contamiaants'

is a saie

fire hazard'

and

or ty;
-\Csorbeni aitridon that'causes plugg:ng
bed
prcper
b1r
oassiirq cr both cen be avoided
'c,v adoptinu Leascnable flo,w veicciiies'
e;;;f";d
It is best not to **."J' hnear velccifv oi 50 ieet
mroute in a granuiar sorbeni bed'

fer

trv

IEST/NG

"U"*i"il

establish-

Adsorpiion systems are widely used in

to remove gases and vapors Lhat ca:r proCuce
indus-

8,7 ADSORPIION PTRFOR//ANCE

Urfr"a

11

through-

fue hazards' exobnoxious

"dott'
fioslve ieacti.cns, unhealthv ."o"qibol:l-haza:dcus
prodconcertrations, unsaf e operations-' undesirable procinadequaie
and
ucts, corrosi.ve atnospheres'

[;;-itti^"tt]

essing.

gasSolvent recovery, Sdor -control, removal of

wariare'
g-as
against
eous contaminant, protectron
.e^cfrons 44-e all ierms that luggesi
,od

"n"*i"al
commerclal applicacons'. Food
;;r:;;;"i
""a
laboratories, pebochemical man;;;t5tp,tals,
,rf^"r:r"rt, .t"*i""i o,ot, ptioting plants' falluse
*i- tt *ltt'.t, =aqd atornic energ;r instaliatioqs
cr
polluticn
air
ptet'eat
to
,Jt"*u"" i*t"*t
poliution of tJreir premises and processes

"ti*irirt"
bv iniake air.

Since adiolberits' are vfsetjle enough to solve

apthese problems, the list of possible air pollution
scope
the
and
bey-ffid
fli"atlot s is extremely long
of this. section.

tr
F
F
F
F

q
4
d
I

I4
d
d

d
aa

e
d

u
-

AiR PoLLUToN \'I'\NUAL

Lo2

ii

,oa| in the waste strei

stream.
ihe gaseous contaminant

,r. F

-rreounts-whose

F
;*k it k*m;f:r*'i:u{:d;"Hit F

ir: a manura
significance'
*o"omic
iniribesrg:r P*'am"te's U"""::!t-t":,:?1"
;fr, "?;
v*^*u
can
operacocs
;crptioi unit

s.*,9=p
;Hr.#;:tix':;:.1J.'
ni dust cr iuiie' E'ri:ent
;::':^il:;".
il3ffi j#;*:::'f":J:#:*:,:"#

equipment commoniy
r:o.ver and the plate tower
onera5il3, for rel-rse<i in chemical *^"ol'"L*g
Normallv' air

il"Jil?:Hlilf*
f:tli:,f-=*,',ty
--t""*"*t'ily lcw concenurdcn oI coniami-

high sciute t"o""ou''ttni'cotrcerned' with

are
coilution cotrg.ol uo"it"io"' of
too""'*trons
iower
Ti::,t]:lt-*"t"
pt,'pL:^T'
=ro",
ccor,

ad.vely

Ijli;t

T=j'"i
o.I?.1 ;:,;T,
sive-r.he reighbcrhood
;t;;rr
or L,r,t"
:";;;;";-1.:,-:"1#ii-i."':.;'it'iuseor:ts,

!fi"r"o",

;Eterest

;i',ruq:,:f #ii'il'

H
i"tt-.*

'** .;i:
"

:, J,X.
rlefT ci equlpmeuL :
operau.r:it
basic
,-lr'i.-rr'ii.,e
'i-:"":lr-niicrntllc-rvever, as cne oup*,:'-l^:':
rnd
beccrne less srgn'r'

["", --f-t" pararleters

',iJ'"urri.if design "'p'o*"'

iever.is

g.2

lo an e:cpert-

;.i'.;ri""J,.:_-Ti:",,::i*,f,rlTf"l"#-fr;?:;;

sometimes uplu--":"h,e contaminant accompanies

because the Paruc
|

//'Goa

i;

ga
nai<e assurances cocce:nine

perlorrcance'

meniei Proceriure'
of scrobbin-e equipment
There is a la:ge grourin{
ly any sirple desisn
il:at cannot be "h"u'J'iJ*a
:l'*"non
descriodon, l"t '"ti"t- "perates ,o1 -1 mcst
cf the
oi crinciples' This't""g"i''includes

Lieuor feed-----..-f

is requirei' in such cxses '&e

CLASS]FtCAI/O'V

CF rQUlP"!1ENT

rnd is

io

ut"''
to provide tu'g" s"tl'""=:acie

packing

Crushea rock'

Ifr
I

9.2-'1 Packed Tower

f-i
-\ cacked tower rs tb?''u"cvlirC'rlcal
:,L'gu:e :i:
i-s ccrn;ncniv but not- necessar:i7
ar *e top

i'"o'"'tt' 'ntcduced
::d::'ti:l-'q;iJo'"*i"
t*''-t-"h^1*y:t-t,oi

Ras-

n!ilel

e
e

[_=l

*..-_.1\
0istribul6

Roscnig .mg

A ,>'

a\ I\Y

AJffi
t%xNZ

l--

@t\\s\
// Yf-

Spoe iir. lcd Pociing

TeiFrette

Pqcking

Liqrq

drm--

iloport

Plole

lntcia

tsari soddle

fieur" 9-2.
tower'
Fi$tra l,-1. TYFical Packed

:'.

.':-

'

e
I

Basic tYpes of

lackiilgs'

saddle

:iji^lr,'i' --?

IBSORPTION OF CASES

are iow cost per cubic ioor, high absorption capaci_

ty, Iow _resisiance tc gas {ow, and reaionably'long
life under the extlerrLs of operating conditions. A conditicn know-n as 'floodi.,g" oi"t,r, when the
upw-ard gas velocitl in *:e packed iower reaches
a poini ia .,vhich ihere is a hold-up of the liquid
phase on_ the paciine, prwenting the Liquid Ecm
passing dow-n the to.+er. Floodi::rz cccurs ai cr
soon after e gas veiocji-v knowl ir .,Le icaCcq
velccili is reeihed. la a plot ot' pressure .irop ,-i
gas ';elccir-; i.::e pressi:ie drop usuaily increases
as lhe i.3 cower oi ,;-he air mass veicciiv (ory- o.
wiiir lisuiC fcw i:: :o.r er ) . r See l'ie-.ire g-3. )
\vith liquiC :hase dcw-ing, the pressr:." I.op .u '"
turas abrupllv up.rari at Lhe "flocding point."
Tle oressure drcp ai iie floori:ng ,tci.r has been
found io be befveea 1.5 and 4 inches ci 'waier per
fcoi of paclcilg (for tie v.arious ccrxrtcn t_vpes oI
packing materials ) -where the liquid useC has the
same viscosit-y as watel. PackeC icr;l-,ers cannot op-'
eraie flocded, anC are exi:ernel./ se?;'i:'; i9 ..zaiaCons in 3ow- raies when operaied ber.;eea i:re ficciing pci:'ri a::<i ioaoine p,cini. r. See aisiiif@*-

chie rings, spiral rings, beri saddles- various metai

and wood slais cr grids are
-"ih sh"rp*t, 6b"tt,
o{ packine ar.e show:l
Examples
used.
"o**"o1,r*flow-is usuaiiy coungas-liquid
The
9-2.
in Fig.rra
and liquiC iates in
gas
maximum
The
iercuient.
such tolver: are dete::mjaeri by ltmi"ng factcrs
s'.rch as flcoding and

enfaicment. The reiadveiv

,t
,fl

103

Therefore. in designmg equipment icr continuous

ser.rice a maxjmum cf -i0 to ilfr ci tj:e focdjng
velocity shouid be use<i. The pressure &op at
fooding is recuced with more viscous liquicis. At
an cperah.on point of 1Cfi of flocding i5e pressure
d.rop is approxi:nately ){ inch of water per foot of
packing depth for typical packines. The mass gas

-fl

0.0t

fl.ow rate in packed towers is from 10e to 1C.

pounds per hour per square foot approrimating a
superficial gas velccif of L foct per seccad.

lco

*" ':':;",];

:t

"s
".jl
u,t
11

d
il
fr!
_.t

.l

9.2.2 Plate Tower

.,1

Figurc 9-3. Prrssure drop of air ilrrouglr dry

paiking.

I
i

rateri ilom tire mail ges steam (causing llw

driving force for difusion) resuit ia packeC to*ers
iarge iu size compared to process absorbers cr
conyentional dust collection equipment. Where

supoorting grids are used, each grid can be loaded

wii*r a predetermined arnount ot pacldng instead
of the rardom dumping of paclcing matirial into
&e entjre tower volume. Selective loading on grids
miairaizes the tendency ot tle packing to plug,
results in better conb.ol over channeling, and produces a iower pressure &op. A variety of constuction materjais is used aithough &e shell is com-

a thin UquJd

j:t..

i'r:i,

-.

large gas volume handled in air pollution problems,and the low concent'ation of materials to be sepa-

moaly rnade of steel. The configuration of the packing slould be such that the surfece area is marimizg(i and the pachng parcicles are covered with

;,;

]y::rxsq

nU.

OesiaUle packirg characteristics

Plaie towers are ccmmcnly cyliadrical

in

shape and contain secfions of horizontai plates,

ihe two most common types being_bubble caps and
sieves ( Figure 9-5 ). in plate towers the gas iiquid
contacting iakes piace in a series of steps (at ttre

plates

rather than continuously as

in a fi:lly

packed tower. The s-ieve piate is usually a plate

o{ metal perforated 6,v-smaJl holes or slots and
the bubble type of plate is best characterized by

e plate which is peCbialC- with short chimnaT

r""tio.rr, each secion covered wiEF?tap. Eacir
$pe utilizes a downcomer liquid over8ow pipe,

which re:noves liquid from &e plate, above aad

it to the surface of the plate below. The gas
si:ream passes upwa:'d through tie bubble ps or
tle perlorations ia the plate in the form of ioegolar bubbles and ttrrough the iiquid trayer resting
on top and mixes with &e liquid. Rapid absorptioa
feeds

occurs by virtue of the large irterphase surface pro-

duced by the very sr:aali bubbles formed. Success-

I
.{iR POLLUTION MANUAL II

I04

I
roco

600

4CO

'/t )t

I
I

2.O
I

100
(u

o=]-"
t=lq.,

060
od,n

ur (,
-!

*.,iq,
I

.na
.oro

.co5
.oo4
.oa2

.o2

.2 4
,|ft zr.t

.04 16

.s==

10

2.o

f rrn
liquid mcss velocily, lb./(hr')(sq. ft)
u- qot moss velociiy, lb./(hr.)(sq. ft.)
D= liquil density., lb. /eu. fl,
t.l
rb
gcs densily, lb,.1an ft
.G
o=.
#JJ; i'J: I1r b.
c= ;l"Ti*
frcctional voids ( dimensioniess)
F= viscosity of liquid, cenfiPoise,
u= roiio density cf woter to dEnsity of new
t-

#i-ff.;[I::"

--:: :+-:-_:

css)

( r t.

)/

b. torcex

liquid ( dimensionless)

seci)

-i

--:-

4.O

ABSORPTiON ()T C.aSi.S

iul

ooerarion

'li

&11 ). In this rvay, the spray is directeC centrilugaliv io &e wall from w-hi& ii drarns as a fil-iit

the plate tower requires that the

ges velocit-'i :e such as to maintain a iaver of iiq,lid or"t &e gas passage opening. Caps vary in

flow'. il ihe simpie sDray tower the pressure drop

is :eiail'eiy low and a high gas raie can be used,
provided the sucer5.cial gas-';elcciiy* is iimitei to
abor:i 2 Ieet pel lecond to ir"rinimte enuaicment
carryout. Simple sDray torvers caa be eiiher ccuntercurreni or cccurent in :peraiion, ha.re a :elatively io.; ,ressure ilcp. and aie act Stbjec: to
piu$g:lg. Sone sliraf iou/ers have 'ceer successiul
i:i the abscrpucn c-i reiairwel.z i;rsolucie a*r.-5. br:,i
inasmuch as e'/en i:: ccuniercurie:i le'arers the :::-ting of slray a.ni gas ls aei-es vlgcrlus x tn ct.hel
ec-uicr::,en:. r::. rcril6rft,rrAiaun!/ :o,v=rs -s :erhaps best su:ied, io ccrr3iicits -nTffi eesill;
absorbed:ases. As with ,:iher tower iesigiswhere
ihe gas v'elccid.es are such as tc ceii'., droplets ':pwari, the use oi eliminaicr sec:ior:s ai t]re'ex:t section of ihe lcw'er is rec,:ired. As :he gas Xo.v raie

size foom 3 urch diameter rvith 3,ri8 inch slots tc

laree herrisphericaj shapes with 2 urch V notches'
C.Jss secconai :ieas for gas fi.olv aie usually about
108 of the iotal piaie area, with the pressure &op
across ',}e tower equaliag lhe sum of '&e resistance

':hrcug:: ihe ocenings aaci the heed of liquid cn

5iEVE TJTE

altal:

j.1P Pl-lT:

-;uode

i05

:.o

increased. in a gi'zen, r!r.],' t?ygf:ti* smcunt

of entiaineri spiay carlied out 5ilche exii. gases

is_

il
il
i

il
il
.

Figure g-5. Tyoes o{ plates.

ice piates. Tra;zs si:aced veracalL'r 6 tc 18 i::ches

apari a,re ccmrncn for iadoor iasialiaCons and as
much as 3 ieet apari in curiocr to.rer desig::s.
Vejocjijes iircugh the plate to'w-ers are ccmmcniy
1 to 2 feei per second, which serve to prevent enhainment of drops greater than 1C0 microns.
Sieve plaies are perforated uretal bays ihat must
be helC le'reL or serious channeling wrll resuii.
Thev tend to oDerate progeri,v wit[in a narrow
velocitu range. In one type, used for both gas
abscrpdon and dust coiJectlon, bafles are placed
over'ihe perforaiions and superncial velocities 5
to 10 tjmes greater than in bubble cap towers are
used. Instead of bubbling, a jet-impingement action
takes place. A similar effect is produced in a
double layer sieye tray desig:r'iritrilffiEli' the perforations are ofset.
The pressure drop through a bubble cap or siev6
plate is made up of the pressure drop tlrough the
dry plate and the pressure reqrrired to oyercome
the liquid head above the to'p3 of &e slots or
orfices.

9.2.3 Spray Chambers

The simplest rfpe of spray chamber
eonsists cf a rylindrical shape ia w-hich spray
aozzfes are rnounted in the upper section and
the droplets made to fall dow-ovrard with some
liquid flowing <iowaward on ihe interior walls of
ihe chamber. Although the liquid and gas. flows
may _be cccurent, commonlz &e gas steam is

iniroduced at the iower seciion ol the tower tangenlallir so that a spiral motion is rmparteC to i! and
ihe liquid sprays aie directed radially (see Figure

:ncreases g:aCuail';,

Siudies of simpl.e sDra)/ iowers in wirich ihe

gas

:s lniroducei .vi.thcut spiral motion and i.nic which

the liquid is spra;zed. frorn nczzles lccated ai the

top o{ fhe lcwer have indicateC ic.ter{acial areas

ranglng from 0.1 to 0.2 square {eet per cubic foot
of lorvel .zoiume for a liquid rate of 5CS pounds
per hour per square foot and countercurient gas
velociiies of 5 to 10 feer per second.. These calculated sur{ace areas ,r" .ll"dr"l'r small ccmpared
io those of packed towers.

q.2.4 Venturi Scrubbers

Tae venturi scrubber is essentia3iy a
spray tower .n which an effcrt is made to maxi-

rnize the miring of tle.gas strear*r passing 'Jrrough

the main section o{ the ventuc . riih the Uquid
in$oducql_ at &e tlroat of the- yenturi (Figure
6-21), Ia the yenturi scrubber, the gas stream
passes at a high velccitv through ihe venb;ri w'ith
the scrubbing iiquid being inircduce<i at relatively
low pressure at the
throat where shearing
=ve-nturi
of the liquid and &oplet
formaticn iakes place.
The contacting is eqsentia.ll-y cocurent with the
flow energies being_supplied sepautely fcr the
gas and for the liquid" The eaiirgy iequired for

forming droplets aad intimate miring wiih the

gas is furaished by &e gas strearn; the liquid ir
iotrodueed at conventional line pressures. The
resulting spray o{ liquid mixes with the gas, a
degree of absorption takes place, aud it is ucfessa{y
thal an entraidment separlator, commonty of thL
simple centrifugal or tpray type .be provided at
the discharge of the venturi to reurove liquid from

the w'ashed gases. The.pressure drop across.ventrlri,;-

.+.*iif+i*,,ni"*\iTT,i..itE

;**"iE*}.l....
:

:jE.:i.ra xi::::

r:';-'.

:':l

*,1

i l:ligi' ti ! .. i

AIR POLLUTION I{ANU,{j-

106

9.2.5

fiom l0 to l0O inches of water

*ith sas velc-cities at the throat exceedilg 5C00
the
i."t ,?. m1:ute. Tle high ,ressure drop in
necesand
cost
Do'i/er
high
L"r *""", results in
attenr'iiu,"t lugn .il sr'eed on ihe nain fan' with
or
noise'
elosion'
problerns
in
dant inciease
':i
scrubbers ranges

rotor imbalance'

9.?.5 )e+ Scrubbers

The iiquiC jet scrubber (Figure

j
9-6:

is essenoallv aa electcr,desig:e<i as a lume scr':b';;huch

ber. Eae.g1, ls impafied to lhe iiq-cjd spra';'

thro"gh

"i-

11

rtpitation efiect prociuces the suciion

Y't

el Cell Washers

Wet ce1l rvashers consisiing oi lar-ks oi

wettei ibers ha'ze been s::ccessfullv usei :cr ebsomricn. Various packing materials ue used ilcluiinz gless end synihetic ibers. ani :-ile iqrupment .""Joe of single or rnuiiipie stases. -{ nuiiipie
g-?. The oresstaqe rirsorber is show:r ln Figure
,lrr"= ,i."p tnrcugh sever:1- rypes ol lllrcus ilacking
a:aterlati (but'rith no inriica'.icn of loacins ';elciCes :s sho'r-n i:: Figure 9-E'

"2.7 Cornbinaiion TYPes

A wide ranqe of wet iu:i rciiectlng
equipment is appiiei io absor;oticn tasks'j'd'' iis
or,r""il, withoul predetenined inior::raticn conhkelihcoC of success but 'a;j.ih si:ccessi.rl
;;;;
jn evidence' Maay wet
aool-ici.rions nevert-heless
cclledors manufacri:led for use cil gas siieilxs consuspended Dardcr:1aie materiai utiiize a
,rioi.rg
-r^.i".y
9

wruch ccmbrne
of basic principles,
*id"
-gas.
and
absorydcn'
ccliection,
io'ltoa"""' dust
de-

rernivai of enlrained iiquiC dropiers' ln, some

,{;; th" principles of operatio' incluCe ( either
irr?iAaorUy or ir combinations ) tangentiai enLv
packing mateo? jttut, slxays, baffie plates, trays.cf
sprays,otJ1
(w-etted^with
vanes
riais, directional
barles'
otset
orilices'
submergeC
w'etted Vpe )'
tans containiig water sprays'. high presorifi ce
""rrrit,,rg"1
t,-"' #;r,' riiri"t, fibrou"s packing sections'bubble
secticn'
gai
streari
or ventun restricticus in
plates, and sieve Plates'

rirli

9.3
,v

rlillrliil
itllrrilii

Figure g'5' Jet scrubbet'

move the wasti gas and also suctUo"gh intennixing or sur-fa99 area contact
"""a.
in removing an amount o'{ absorbable gases' The
.be
;n;-"rry oF t".U scrubbing - 93uipmgut ca3
design
iali;d iy changing &e llquld fiow rate 'orentrain*I tf" venturi and'a droplet
end'
"n*r"t"iltu"t
ment separator is required at the-discharge. per
pounds
100
about
at
wa-ter
i" l"J't"*'bbers,
the
souaxe inch generat", fr",,"'" difierences of
rates
fow
gas
and
f"i irches oi w-ater
"]J*
exceed 1,00O cubic feet per Ti"qt:
oot"r"
io
"r"tUy
pL r?,-i"[tb;;.'rh;t; can be mounted in banki'
necessari

to

GTNER,AT DEs/GN CONCEPTS

It is beyofd th.icop" of this secticn to delin-

s"*bbJ, design p'otud*"t' These are effecSherwood

"rt"
6ve1v cover"d i" tlrJtG*is by Perrl'l
ti:e aboi
most
Wbile
oilttt'
,"i''ptJ".aj ^;a
plate
auito packed tow-ers

"p-"rv design pri.aciples can be ex'"#;fHi;

;;.J";;, ;;; "iih;
i""a"i io txh-"t types oi absorpdcn equipment
Sirnsuch as spray towers'and combinirion-units'
desip
for
been"developed
;lr#- dr"t'"oarhav"
liquid concenba5^f

low-*as.gnd

""irnJ"r-where
are iniolveo and wh-erE the equiiibriurn
iio"r

cunre

of concentradons used'
ir-Gur. over the'-ia"!"
"qrpicai
concenEation chart
a
S-9
illustrates
ffg"r"
i""*fri"f, th. op"trtio! iiire Iies above the,gquilib.r'r* Iio". Figure f-i0 illustrates an "qyi*.bniq
curve and op"trUrg line based on i-ne ,*y*'ig .:'
air by suifuric acid-. In this exampie tne equubrium cunre 'is not linear. (This 1s a condition
tfi"i il"q"""t1y oceurs in actual practice, and.in
thor" .r.", where chernical reactioi:s occur in solu-

F.

<t

riiiSORPTItii\i (i:' i.,i\SES

il

Weiied fiber

WetieC impingment
s

Arr flcw

il
!
il

tli

1",,'
1ri,ilr,'r
",',rri,r

il
il

rt ll
t I I f*=--:
l\t\X

,.rF;

i'i:
f

i,, t t r ,,

ffi,1'i,,1

dcn tie equilibcum ljne mav have jittle signiicance

in deining the driving force lor mass hansfei. )
Schematjc drawings of gas absorbers are shown in
Fig:.:.re 9-1i .rzhere ,L is the arnount oi' scrubbins
iiquid flowing dcwawarci fmolesT'(i:r) (ft')l aad
G is the waste gas passing up &e tower lib
molesT'(hr) (tt')]. The concentuations of solute

c_; I

i
X

:"

0.4

500
5co

;4ao

x.2

zoo
:Y
EM
>v

rco.]a

ls

drcp

h indE! oi Eler
X, ilols obe,b.d g{,/lOO

I:t llfillffill
oyftl:- 459 it
ibl tt dh,t,

irs": lfi

ilquili

showrnq .auiibnun .ine (l) dnd o@liiq rin. i2) lmo{rq

qEsical det mimlion ci nlmbe? ol fi.@tirEi piote! cquired .b. on
obso.9riff ,rocs. i Ir ogerprio! pm!! lhe oF.rcrirg lim ii obow
hE eouriibrom ine.)

.55

tloS@-t-Sp qt 5.L ib,bt It dEiir

sorber slages.

abscrbable gas ) in the scrubbing liquid and in

the waste-gas,are showo by r aaC A respectively.
(as mole fracton). In a packeC tower the absorplion coeficient concept relates to "driving force"
or concentatoa difference as shown by the vertical distance beiween &e operating line and t}e
equilibriurn, 1ine. The solute transfer raie is direct-

slope and consequeatly

Wheie-'ebsorption is accompanied by a chemical

of &e absorpuon t}r*.y is incompiete and' each

system should be considered sepaiateiy: Absorpdon with chemical reaction is discussid ia some
detail in the liierature.1,r,{
Geaerally, the two-film absorption theory is used

oroportional to this coucenbation difiereace.

The slope"oi the operatag Iine is LiG, ar,d an

.. ,:-:.-

,,J:e

reecd.on, as is fi'equentiy &e case, ihe cie,r-elopment

ly

.li::.:

F;gurl 9-r. TliElloncenfration chart.

increase i:r L inereases

tr\e mass hansfer rate.

Iii

mh

:ypr6l ftive

Figure 9:8. Pressure droF vs face velocity, for vadous ab-

oua

6CO

i
i

tcco

il

ceil

Figure 9-7. Four siage gas aisar!er.

dt

fl

Dry fiber

y'<ive cnd drrin fcr

clecning only

t
t

il

ls1
I

il

cel

lcge

' .:\l-+!'":
1-. +.i-.r. j
lj
_, _--_ i L;ri::;

.:

AIR POLLLTTION NIANUAL

108

iI
PLATE .'CWE

PACKE' iOWER

,i.-

tr

-i

'!

i+J- iI ---'-----)'

,1.:

ilt
5i=

r.cre

c.oo8

ri

,=ffii&

ldd ioieridi' Gi] -Y?i =UX''lJ

Oo.Erinq line i. d lunciion ci aostPriil
ri truis 'n jqud :M ;cs iri6lG
,""t t ,* y ctB mob kljo!

ond y
a: lddsE qrcsicolly ih' 4htid lerwe'n..r
scerrdEn 1 t:1f-.1-'n"
ca3c 1" rh. wiiibrum am noiaiuq rtc
i <u(drum
3f hc soiur' in lh' !6
l"ir",a1io li"'"**trs
'hde

:}le 6pemling :ine

of absorpiion towers'
Figltte 3-1-1. Schemalic representation

acid'
Figure 9-i0. Drying cf air by sul{uric

absorbers and ini'mreiation of

assumed'
nedornance. In ihrs design approach it is
io conproporticnal
ii
sansller
ilri'iri,fr" iate oi

for the design of

at the i,,ltt'i^"*'' (2 ) "q"'1the gas- and liquid

tlif"* ""-ar"o"t "*itt tetween
up or
no
;;',h" **ti^.*, and (3 ) there isoverall
.hoid
coeficient
The
interfacial resistance to'flow'
;i;;;""sfer is exp'ett"d in terms of the individual coeficients as follows:
(Eq.e-l)

:"ot:iiJ;,fi;;il^l'

i
ti

K6,a: I
:

ili;",
;;i;;;'
i;;;

"irr."
reaction-' In many cases
;ffi;";;;"*i"l
ir-t ir,"r.teci design aPproach'
o{
9.3.1 Tower Heighi and Number
Trans{er Uniis

,I.

ii
t1

il

keo

rn
r

using
Tow-er height may be calculated

kto

[1

fit

Kea

$1

&i
fii
il1
'3

illI

fi1

iHl

tHl
ilffi!

lffit

flfll

tflt
f,fi$,

ffi
ft$i

fransfer coeficient, ib-moil(accve cu ft of absorb(ht)'(mo1

fraction solute jn -'
er )

c-V*
h = rcr)
in
da

vaPor Phase)

kfi :

uniis

Voiumetric liquid Phase

(Eq. e-3)

g2

where:

mass
ka : Volumetric gas Phase(same
transf er coeficient

:$i

ffii

tfie following grt Phltlequati'on:

: Volumetric overall mall

$1

Il

a svsteln involvins' cherr'icai :ecf the

il equilibrium paraal pressuie
has
which
reactron'
the
it ,*r'r"uow-ing
( gas
&eory
two-film
th"
JI
t}:e applicatioo
.ooooUi"g) to absorptioo systems accornLhis

;nass uar:sfer.

heighi o{ Packed zone' lt

g.:--,rrrol-ar'mass veiocilv of gas' lb

h :

rn'ass

transier coeficient (same

units

i(,--

molesri (br) (ft')

ovet''JL -mass iraaster

Eotei/'(h)

)
ttl : SGPL of equilibrium iine'

P : tctal Ptot*" oi

which relates the gas and trq-

uid Phase concentrations'

the
In svstems where the solute is readily solu6le'
slopl approaches zero and
(Eq' s2)

1Qo: ka

sys:

This is described asr a gas Plase confu,olling ' to

;; r;;,il liquid phise o^ffers ao resistance

1*Y]D

cient ou a voiume basrq

sYsten'. atatl

il gas
gsolute ia gas
rrYE: mol fraction ofwith
bulk of
in equilibnum
.'"Equid',''
u, : soiqte conceutraiion sf :gas elr1 ter'rng the colurnn, lb- moies
mole 1i'acilon ,o{-.'aolute
stre, m

sbfute/lE molbs iiiert gais'

.\XSOBT"TION O!' CASES

ccnceefarion oi gas
-U: .: sclute
ieaving .jre icp of the col,*o, iL moies ioluteT'lb moie
hert las

Sherwc.ori.and Pigford, present a considerabie

;rumber ':i aiternate equaiions and graphicgl solu:ons based cn other data and varied desigr con:itions.

Waere absorpdcn cciurin pqiorma:rce is exoressed in ierms oi iifr-= i ihe height oi a :ransfer
,rrit). .al.rriadcn cf ihe cclurnn heiglt requires
integration of ihe ex;rsssi.cn
i,.
J

*,
q

iFc.

q)

g4

9.3.2 P{aie Cclumns

The basic design concept in.rolves rhe
"iheoretrcal. piate" and. is based on ihe assurnDCon
i:rai i:re gas and iiquid lea,,rng : srage iia in
ecuriicr:um. .\ granldcai analysis oi the ;.perati::!
ljne-ec uiiibr jurn in epLot usin g s t ep*-is e in r er; r el " tioi: enables rhe determraaticn oi the number cf

'ahich is a dir:rensir.niess term called ile ;umber

of lrans{er ur:iis b.asei cn' an overall z:s iiiving
i'orce. Thereicre
1-

tv

tu

\:
fi-t

A-r-

,f\ !q.

)o

:nd :-le HTL ,:cr il:s

&ecredcal plates recuired

sepaiarlcn. The s;epunse

r1
,-a r'r

ccse, ':ased on :.he cver-all

hG
ii,,'" = ;i- : ;i(=-\ r*

Ec.. -r-5)

il"s ( I{TL- ,"i.re ) is erpresseci in ihe same

t

'"irt,r J;."uiarr to rate il,^ perfcrma:rce cf packiag materials in ter-ms of HTI-t-'s for given geom-

9.3.3 Seleclion of Equipmeni

Nlcst absorbers used in indusiritue
packed tower, plate tower, or spray tower types.
The sysiem characteristics affecfing selection aie

[:

(Eq. e6)
^v"or XH.*
ihe iategrai N"" (number of hans{er units) represents a degree of separation. it should be apparent
that a given height of paclcng reprsents a certain
nr:g:ber cf taasfer units and produces a oarticular
separation for a given iaput corrcentation. llTU
yalues range frcrr L to several Ieet.
In a simple a,bsorption system involviag a reacijve solvent where y - A; -> y the number of ffarrs=
fer units N"" equais 2.3 log !r/g,. T\erefore, the
reiationship of &e number of kansfer units to p6=
ceat of solute absorbed is as follows:

fl

0.5

39

GJ

86.5
95.0
98.2

i,

noted below.
1. Packed towers ai-e prefemed for smaller instaliations, corrosive ser:rice. high foaming iiqui<is,
high iiquid,rgas rados (LiC), and Iow pressure drop requirements.
2. Plaie coiumns ars'f*equeutly more eccnomical

of their abfity to tolerate higher gas

veloities and there{ore smaller diameter col-

because

Per cent Soiute

trnits
(N.*)

Absorbed

fu,-

L)

gi,)

/v,

3.

i.

to

Spray towers are-of p.articuiaqilqpsrtaace where

presiure drop is a major consideration and

where dust particles are preseat in ihe waste

9.3.4 Seleciion of Absorpiion Medium

(Solvent) ,

This indicaies &at the height of the tower is

proportional to &e logarithm of the reciprocai of
ihe output conceniratioo aud re-emphasizes &e
iaci il:at higher scrubbing eficiencies become successivei;r more diffi,cult

umns. Taey can handle liquor rates that would

{lcod tppicai packing. Tngv are less susceptible to pluggug and Lhey lend ',hemselves
readily to., ceoling-of the iiquor to remove heat
of &lution eiiher by cooling coils on the plates
or by exteraal ccoleEs.
-

gas steam.

ooa

o;?r=.

re

erpresslon

Number of Transfer

ri'ze:r
F:g',:ie

tc,;rers are gSneraliy riifi?I", ur height for the same

degree of separation.

etries, speciic flow rates and specific gases. In the

il

to prcduce a

clct is sholl:r in

J;1y:":x?' 'IJ:ff :i :1 # ;
The aciual number of
siages requlrei w:-l1 be
abcut tw'ice ihe iheore,{cal vaLue. The overa-l "i
nlaie ef;ciencv is defned, as the ratio of i-ne nuinber cf iheoretical plates to Li:e nucrber cf plates
necessaly io e$ect a glven separai:cn. f'Le :na:n
iaclcrs affeciing piate effcrencies a;e gas sciubiliry a::i liquid viscosify.-Piaie iow-ers and packe<i
:::"

gas phase drlvrng :orce. is

where

r09

lYater cr wxter scluiions atre ccgtmoaequipment. when appli4

for air poiludon control. Commonly, &e choice of

ly used with absorptibu

attain.

-..

: 1i-: !:

'

.'"

-* -=:il!ii.. . .1
..;.r.:.!i.,.1:
".,
.41i+=-S:..."i'. ."..
' - ni riilr' ..

r-

r:
3i

,i,
il

AIR POLLUTION IIANUAL II

110

T.rslx 9-1. Exlupus or

Sxs:;lrs

A-asonP:noN

rt

-{-m Porit"rroN Corqraor

Pmcess

Oxiies oi niL'oger i!
vert sas r NO, liO"
in l:faoie:atio)"

Perfomance

Equipment

-\bsorbeat

Contaminants

Wa5lg emmoni2
Busric ioLutlon

colmn

Absorpb.on

i/eniui

scrubber

;ii:s

eerainment separaior

:iuoriie. Si,e. kom

riduiaton of

w-,}rer icrav iowers

lrVater

j :owus, hrsi tso wiij:

1;or:iozzl.e;:acir

iirosphaie ;ociC

poiated'against zas

l-rst lower

iu::,e :cr:bber
Ent:ai:meEt e.iininator
:i 1." oi Saschig mgs
in :ase oI stack

Eiicierc'r:

aas cxDaciiw: 7.i00 it'gin.

'&-:re::' jt:C ::i, nrn :r 6O 2.s.:.3,
iiic:ercy:9815

mmPartments,

Iffc:ency,

Packed iower pius

ilier irox ccnteininq
giass fiber f,iters

Capaciqr:

i1

-i5%

Gas c:pacjt-/: 1-1,0CO :tn

','f ;ie::- 60 3ai, m:n rr 62

iior;zonrai .rater
;omy scrrlber

!Varer

Cas :epacii'r: I3,0OO fi' x'1.

3eclrcuhung rater: 292 Jar. TiD.

dr,v. )

(i-:n,r

i-l,rrra

Eow,

Gas caoaciV 490.000 ft'lhr ri 15"C.

anri 2 g.s.i.g wiih 19,400 PPM li.9%)
ccncSltraf,onCoi,,-n: 3'D, 41.5' of 2" Rasc:ig rirgs.
Veniun: lX" throat
E.ffierci'; 93U ai 300,0C0 :13,'hr

s.1.1.

99%

hst one drrI.

aitenate up. riou flow
-duminuo chloriCe

:n<i HCl'"

LOW JreSSUre

steam. and

waier

i{,S stripping ftom

natural gas"

Plate

1,:o nCnO.-ihanolamine

iower:5:niis,

by 68' :igh
23 uays with solutjon
io 4th ':ay. Water..

wsh io top

tra7.

Pressue 200 2.s.i.9.

gas

i' ci ssddles

effulrt ronr Z{}I

imace

Effcierc;r:

each 7'1.D.

83% 'rater
FIow rare:
2-3 gal,'MSCF

oi

Coiuna: !'D packai wiih

9?%

Feed zas; 50

alumimrm

of liCL, i00% lor HCI'

x iff

it',/absorler

..i,S cclntent: 160to 180 gxains/'l00 SCF

CO. mntent: 0.3 to 0.4% (bY vol.)

Outler gas: 0.02 io 0.3 grcrns/1O0 SCF

.\ote: Stripping colmn used rith

s,vs-

tem

HCl (usuaIly iu
acld nalufacturing)"
i{Ci and SiO- ,1me"

i gatl(-ir) (fr)

Water at

stoneware

velocity: I to 3 lt,/sec.
r "ented qas: 0.i- to 0.3%
l0% or less HCI
Weak acid

Wet lber 51ter,

2 stages of werted

Cas fow rate: 216 SCFM/ft'

Pressue &op: 4" H"O

Gas

Pacl<ed tower

Water at

HCI

c0ntaining

S.3

eall(min) (If)

"ooriitirg

produced

IICl ieductiin: from 3.15 mglro'

5O qlass 6ber mats

+" Ihick each plus

&ird mat 2" '.hick

to

0.0025 melm'
useti

Eficieaqzi

99.9%

tu,
SO, (from smelter
lases

)"

Dimethvlanilire"
mirydror:s )
seccnd stage
(

&lute

and in

soda

solution

SO, (from
roaster

"i'c
plaut)'o

Aqueous soiution

of

a::omonium
srlf te

Asarco processb

cleaned. ccoled, gas

cutacts abrrbert in
- io*er pag of towe5
sas *en to tray tower

Fee+sas contrining 5E SO, by vol"-e'

E"mvErv at 999. Dioethvlaniline con!.1 lbzton SO" Produced'
t*".i

ioai"- "t*tUoo"te

sc<ia soiuiion

-consul-ed at 35.5 Ib
acid
im stipping DIvIA) consuaed. at iate
;equirement:
of {O ibzton SO.. Power
145 kw.-hr./ton SOr.
;

Comincc

Gas flow rate of 20,000 SCFM at ruPer-

iectjon where SO,

absorbed by dilute
Processc

Woo<i siat Pa&ing in

muitiole stases. Packing
heigltt Per stage 1? ft.

Tton.tlo' produced anci sulfuic

&ciai-velocrty of I.7 ft,zsec. Four stages

in series e^ih *itl, circdation reie 9f
45O eDm. Feed sas 5.5% SO, md tan
q* i'&.*c So=. Eiffciency for So" re-

moval: 975

:->

SO' (from 190-Mw

eoal burnine
power piantf '"

Dilute aqueous
solution o{

alkaline salts

(c-halk slusy'

for

mai<e-uo

aikaiiniV)

Eaitersea Processd

Counter-cEent

vertical scrubbers,
wooden q-rd Pa&ing.
Chaik added +o all
wash water (Thames'
dlver l

Oxiciitjoo cila.lyst (MnSO.) ad<ied -to

exit solution io make itmore sritable for
river &sposal- C)eaoed gas at rate of
1.0

X loi

SCF/hr containing 0.52 gra;ns

S/ftr ai 25O'F. Exit gas xt 0.052 grains

S/ft'ai 85"F. Water flowat 1750 Tons,/

hr. Use I.0 tons challc (CaCO") per hr'

Reouires 8.7 X I0 SCF/hr of air for
<ixidation and remove muri irom solution at 0.4 tons,lhr rate.

an *oaatic mile whic-b en absorir SO:

Sruiting ,rd R.ioirg Coapuy'
Lrci"'laii'
.Dc*lopcd by Cmolidaad' ui"t*"1"J-s-ai";-';-;'"'
lDevdord bv Siaon-Cne Lrd., Steioor, Ens.

CiIIN(CH:):

^Diacdrrlalilinc,
tDaclopcd' by .la*iea

Canada

\SSORPIION OF

CASES
r.

a liquid absorbent is based on high solubiiii-z for

the iolute and it should be reiatively ncnvciaiiie,
inexpensive, nonccrrosive, stable, nonfoaming, non-

visccr:s. and non-fammable; if the absorbelt is

chemically reactive wrih a solute the tvpe oi :+.

acton, par:lcularly reversibilily

should be lcnowi:. lVarer is used

characrer:.stcs,
gases iairiv

for

soiuble in ,rater and soecial chemicai scivq:ts

for acici gases such es Ii-S. CC. and SC..

9.3.5 t/apor-Liquid Equilibrium Da*a

Infcmzation is availab]e on the veilcriicuic eq,rilibriun: C.a:a. Soiubiliiv vajues deiern:ine the liguid rata necessar/v ior comr.lete or
econornic soh,ite lecc'zery and are published in
refereDce ie;<is anci the technical literature. In iie
case of ini-rtures for which no data are fcunC and

no predictions are possible, exoerimental deier:ainaticns mav have io be made.

9.3.6 Liquid-Cas Ratio

t. .t

.Prgrs1r" drop through packirg ran!,es from X to

1 inch ol water per foot of pa-cl<rng.

t,

a""r"*",

with an increase in &e. vcid fractiin cr size

oi iee
packing. For grven absorption sysrer: an increase
-a
iri the void fracijon- requires an lncrease -n .ile
height of tow'er i'or tle sacre degree ,-.i secar:.con.
Table 9-1 gi.zes a number oi e*^*plei
sorption si/stems.
"i-;L_

'
i.
2.

R:F1:i];CrS
Sanlvcco, T:rou:s K., ::rd ioeE:: t . prcrcm,
Absorpr:,cn aui E1yllUa, -\IcCra*-,.1:ll Bcok
Con_
pany,

-\ie',ar Yorl<,

Pra_ny,

jcr;N H.,

i!52.

lntziaeers Eandbook, _ttn

9:yfar!
erijtjoa, McCiaw-Iiill
tscok C;mlpan.r,

1gei.
.3. I.:v.r, )lax, To<aer ?ackrngs anJ ?icked. f**,
Tot::er De_
$qn, T'ae Unrie<i States Stone.lare Company. -1.k:on,

Chio, i953.

4. Tsurs, A. j..

'.\bsorpticn WiLh Chenicaj

ileaction-,,

Chemtcai Engineetins SZ

5.

1.,"

1960).

(it), 111-24,1;i;-il.

Sr=ax, .{_a::rr.a C.,. Air poll.uizon vol. Il, Acade:njc

!:ess I:rc., New ':'".rk, 1g6o.
6. M.rcir-1, P_ru:, I ., Fn-rrc:s R. ifcurx, and C::-r.auis
Ac:c-ry, ai.r ?ollutino llarujbook, .'llccrayr-Iliil Bcci<
Ccmpany, Ne.p Ycrk, 1956.
7, Kor:r., Aar:rr,-a L., 1nd Fsel C. B.esuxrsrp. Cas punfi_
criion, NlcCraw-Ili.ll Book Compaay, New ycrk. 196'C.
8. Srnr:cr:r, H. R. L., ''Reductiorof 'Cxides of -\it;;;;
in Vent Gas," Canadia,n lwmal oi Chernicol Enginie*

The miniraum Lr,C ratio is calcuiated

on the btrsis of the eniering gas ccmposi.ijon and
sciubilitv in the exit iiquor, asiuming Lhat the exit
liquor is saturated. In the simplesi cases, the heat
of solution can be ignored, aithough it may be
iag J6, 3-11 (i9S8 );
necessarv to estimate the efect of hiat of soluUon
9. Prrm, A. 8., Air pollution and Smoke prevention
Assoc. Am. Ptoc. 41, gS ( 1gS1 ).
qn tie exit liquor temperature. Generaily, after
LC. DoNoso, J. J., "Development o{ a practical and EcoLhe minimum L1C ratio is determined, an acfuaj
nomicaj Process for Remowing the Aluminum Chloride
operating ratjo increase of 25 to 100 percent is
Smoke Nuisance During the ehlorinatjon of AJumiuum
applied, based on eeonomic considerad^ons. The
Allovs," Proceedings of the Aanual rVeeting of the
h'igiier t-he L1G ratic, the shorier the abscrpiion
>moke ::eve::t:on .lsscciation of .{-u:elc:, 1941,
-1. 3g.
11. Clanry, B. R., "Reconversion program: Shamrock
colurnn but the weaker the concentration of sblute
Complete," Oil and Cas lounal 46 (17),56_63 (Auin the liquor from the botiom. An optimum l/G
gust 30, 1947 ).
ratj.o depends upon a balance between the cost of
19. Krnx, R. E., aad D_- F. O-rxura, Encuc!,opedi.a o.t'
additioual height of the column and the ccst of
Chemi,cal Technobgg;. Inteniience pubilhers, hcNew York, 1951.
concenttating the solute in the scrubbing 1iq,.16r,__
r . .l .i3. FrnST...M., and R. W,r,_enrN,, jField Evaluation of

9.3.7 Tower Diameter, pressure Drop

The cross-secdonal area is based

Web-F'iber Filters for_Treatnent of Air Conteminants,,'

on

the required gas- flow rate and a pressure drop oi

a few inches of water. Mass gis flow rates in
pacled towers are of tie order- of 100 to 1,000

lb-l(hr) (ft.) representing a superficial gas velocitu

cf aboui I ft,/sec. In plate coiumns tGr"
haiament restri.ctions and the'G yalue is "r"
"*
similar

io that in packed'tou/ers.

l^yry:!-rJ.the Ait Pollutiaa Coatrol Associatiort 6, 3234 ( 1-os6).

14. Fi-e-ral.rc, E. P.. and T. C. Firr, ,.Liquid Sulfir Di_
g<rdq From -Waste=S:nelter Caies,,, In&Btrial an^d
Engineering Chemistr,a. Ifldustrinl Edirinn

42

(17),

2953-,il ( 1950 ).
R. A., l'EconohElrriliratioD of Su.lfi:r Dioxide
5*",
ffom }leiallurgical-eases,- t"&*rAe._z*{tnA**r*ra
Chemistry. Industrial Ed;i;on 42 (t\), Zg<t_lf r-SSO
t
l.
i6. Rrrs, H. L., "The Removal of Osdes of Sulfui
trom
/azmal of

tiu

flue^_C^a1g,']
25,
350-57 (Vlarch, t95I).

lrctirute-of

f".lTfiaoo,

'-n
.IIVCINERATION OF GASES A{VD
I

10/

VAPORS
cSNTENTS

0.1
I10.2
w'a The Combustion Process
o{ Com.bustion
i'0.:.r Mechanisrn
Flammab.ilitY
of
Lirnits
io'"2'.i

lntrccluction

io3:3
io.i.z

0.4

Eomtrr:stion Calculations

10.3 Afterburner

10.3'1

Design

Gas Burners

CombusiionGhambers

IO,1 INIRODUCIION
a
Combustion in its manv forms is principal
is be*
This
cularit in communiry air ptfiotioo'
or
i-acinerators'
designed
Ir,i; of"o 6t"t' p;rly ietolt it'
{lProperlv
internal ccmbustion
iet, well.- ccntroiled flasre
;;;;;i"J ;;bustion-""g*"t
p.oltid" essentialiy pollution free
combustion
"^r,
il;;ils tf lo"o*l,.tiute residues ire efiectivefv

of such
;;;;; ;"ti{ ih.v-toot'lo 1ow amounts
gocd
short'
In
elements as s.r:lfi:r ""J-ti'ioti""'
air
of
can be an exceilent method
;;;"td
presence
recent years' the
i"if,r,l""- """""t. In
ccmbustion exbausts' prciu
oxrdes
cf nit'ogen
in-lhe-combusi"""+;;' ;u *iatti"o*f $tose1
aspect
import3nt
an
as
been recogniz{
;;;;i.t
prool9!f"=

o{ some community air pollution

To illustate Uu il,poit*"e { Srya combustioii
eonsider the drsposal of
;;J;;;"
"ft",b"*"',
a-flame after,?"ti"-*r"J r',"u " tutanol in
U"- $dI
wo{d
;#;. io"o*pi"t" combustion.
acid' bcth
butr.ric
a'd
;"*;;;";;-;;#;a"hyEe
p.J"'"t' gf pa4ial oxidation of
:f {;buJ";; ,{; -these
products have even more
l"t "of'. Boih'of
eomfrr?Uiy"-"q"dr. odo* than butanol' Thus'would
complete
tl'o
less
bustiou !o auy po*i
,ioui",,u.' than would result
Irl?;-+'L"."',"1.; i"i"
*"a" to desiroy ihe
iJ no attempa ", ,U
solvent bY combusiton'
of
""'frr;
*rfi"al^f with tle -applicationp91"i"p."t to li" aitpot'I -of g-aseout
-Fort,natellr'
fame cbmbustion
-;;;o*r.,

10'5

Materiais of Ccnstruction

SafeiY Feaiure-s-lppflcationslor Ftan:e Aft-erbur;ling

rb.+'t

Smokeless F!ar9-s'
Oiiposat of Krart Miil 0dots
Coffee Roasters .
CuPola Gas Afterburners
Spiciat Waste Liquid Burners
Pe#ormance Evaiuatlon

10.4'i
i 0.4'3
10'4'4
1s.4.i

This is
applicaticn is more or iess hcsrogeneous' soiid
of
incirielation
:- .r^o- ^nnircqi *iL tt.

to disPose
J=r*. "arr*"*;;J;;"" c"' b" used
catalydc
than
gases
waste
of
oi u *id", variefv
gases are free
when
How'e'er,
'iaste
Io*Urrrtior.
il;;;o;ulates ani materials wiih soiid resi-

decided
may- have
dues, cataiyti"
"a
"ornit-tttion
afterburners'
fam-e
direct
aivantage over
and
""o**i"
The incinerrtion of contaminated gaseous
Itq"td wastes is iustified on several counts:
odorous pollutant
Control-All highly
1. Od,or
-^r"'c#bustlble
'changed chemicallv

ot
"i" healted sufficiently
when
po't"t'ott
to less odorous
th,e- concentra; ,h; pi"."o""'of oxygen'in Qften
g-as is exwaste
the
G"- Oi'odoro"s materia-ls
method of- con-

gr.",

;;;it

1;; ;;e,h"'onlv
-

ieasible

plmtl:
troi is incineration' OaJtt from rendering
kaft
ironl
- and mercaptans and- organic 5ulldq
amenefluents
are t*^fplf of
;G;J;#atioas
forms oI oxidaof
type
ihis
to
able
"o"Jof.'Oth"t
cari achieve
ozoniTatior
or
Jlt*it"tlo"

;;;;h-;

the sarne eads*

z. Reduainn hopatita of

?Ws-llame after'
*""*. oi destroyrng
.ftee-u-sid
b;;;;
" visible piumes' Ex.
*rri"n"i&"t"
sm oke
p te"u"r-m"fi ee ro aster s'
=;t:';;rt.
;'i#; "?"ffiJfi
burners
Such
ovelf'
baking
iliil;"d ;;;"1
;;ru;*d f* ,i*plt healting of wet stack gases

that might otherw-ise show a steam-plu+e

3. Aiaua*oru in Emissinrx of Rwdioe HA*n
regucorb@s_-Some' air pollution control agencies
bevap-o1s
aod'
late the emission of oig""i" gasus
-photochemical 'roog
their involvemEnt in
"f Flame afterburning is one' of several
"r*t
i.rJo*-"
ways cf destroyiag these materials'

l'J"'uq"idt'
ffi;;6
"Ja it is usuafly possible to con;.f'A;*tt"titit
combustion'
i"Idt ; at the vety least, conlol
of in any one
rinl; rh; material to be dispcsed

10'3'3
10.3'4

"g*ti""

112

.-r::=:::-.qa3!4@

INC]NEX*{T]ON OF CASES A}iD VATCRS

4. Reducii,on in Explarum l-,-laerd-Refineries

ald chemical plants are arrcng ihose "-rpes of inciusrries that must dispose ci lng-aly ccmbustibie
or otlenvise daagerous crzanic riraterials. The

by bumne :c
sar-est methoC of iisposal rs
'-sua.Llv
{ares or speciaily desig-nei iuraaces. Ilowe'zer,
special precautions and equipmen'r design musr
be used ;n ',}'e handline cf :cteniially eg:iosr-re
rnixiures.

series

mechanisms
between aethane and its 6nal o.xidation products.
There are a number of mechanisrris for tf,e cridacon of rl'z CO :cr_ned &at i:rvolve ihe sar::e chain

carriers.

OIl, HC., axi H.

'

Ndehvdes ald other oqrgenated crqanr.c compounds are alsc ,:rr.sent in a ltep-wise cidaflon cf
njgh_er h',-Crocarbols. It rs evident, r-leretcre. iha:

..c!/cn+r'i.-;-

oi Ccmbustion
This chaaier dea]s with combuscon

10.2.1 Mechanis,-r

ccm-

-ivpe of

ccrnbusaon. ) This tv'ce :i conbustion is Ce{ne<i

as rapid, high tempeir*r" odciadon in iie gas
phase. ,Vany- of LLe waste u:aterials to be d':spcsei cj in Eame afterbu;;ers can be liqrld aercscis anti ihe iuel it-"e.E csn ':e a liquid such as oii.
-\everrhless, iie actuai cor:,busdcn occurs between
).'crge:i :nd the vapors or gaseilus decomFcsiticn
products of these liquids.
The fiame is usually a reasonably well defined,
brightly giowing area, the envelope within whjch
most of ile compiex oxidafion chemistry occurs.
This rvpe of combustjon employs a stationary flame
with fuej, contaminated gases, and ori&zer '( usuall.v air) being broughi to a burner. The flame front,
which is the boundary beiween unburaed and igarted gases. will also be more or less staticnar!,
It is a region of rapid chemical reaciion anci wrii
vary in ifuckness and shace depending on a num-

CH, - OH -+ CIL + H,0

CH. ' O. + OtI'+ HCJIO -+ IICO + I1..O
HCHO -r- Oe -+ CO + HO,
IICHC + HO, -+ OLI + HCOOH
HCOOH _> H2O + CO
qgll0 + O, + HO. --+ C0, + SOti
:'
2HCHO * O, + 2CO + ,H,O

t;; ;$i
.;e
ii:

rr':; ir".ffi ' :i;X: :i,::, ;i-T

;nd ,:roducis.

aaC

:::

Tcese crrvqenate<i maG

rials iend to be iriltating anci oc,:rcJs. T:ie cha.a

reacticns coiat or:i ihe need Ior :he

.3
T's" oi com,busticn:
1. Tine (reacton tjme)

.,areil

iaowrr

Ternperarire l'increases reaciion rate )

'
Turbu.ience (mechanical. mixing of o,rygen,
iuei, inies=ediare prcducts and inain cair]ers
presence of excess O, is jmpjied ).
-the
The crincipal plvsicai processs th.ai afect reacticn
raies ie .{as fl.ames are ccnvecdcn, therrnal con_
2.

duction, and difusion. To these must be

a<iried

radiation fcr the buraing of waste gases containing

aercsols of solids or high boilinq liquids. Thes!

are also factors that contribute .L ,,}re brightness
oi fiarnes.
High temperature is perhaps the most important
^
feature
of a flame. Slow cornbustion of g"iu, ."o
be iniiiaied at temperatures bejow 1000oF without
ihe_ appea;aace cf a ,;isible flarne. I{o.aire.zer, i}e

high teurperahues we shall deal with, are the resr:lt

of the reactious themseives. In combustion, as in
any chemical reactjon, ie-Ttperah:re greatly influences rate. The gas phase'claie carriers form at
an erponeuiiai rate with teurperature.

Iu &e

combusdou of hydrocarbons, a complex

seies of chain reacdons plays a prominent roie.
At the high temperatures of 'fame!, hydiocarbons
disassociate into radicals, which in luro'reccmbine.
There is eyidence that the radicals and atoms, OH,
HO", H, and O produced iu the oxidatioa of H=
are innportant chain carriers. Lewis and von E1be,
list ihe prinopal chrin reactions in the slow oxidation of methane as foliows:

;i

pear

",,*'-^;

,J.

1. Type of fuel
2. Gas aad buraing velocities
3. Atu fuei iatio
4. Temperature of gas mixture

ia this

and is an'intermkiate of ali chain

anytline whic:: djsruprs ihe chajn leacicns

lC.2 Tl-!t CO/1"lBL/SfiC^i PROCiSS

in llar:es.: (Chaptel Lj. d*als '"iiittr caial,vcc
bustion, a icwer lec:oerar-:le, flameless

Formaldehvde apceers promfuently

11J

rc.2.2 Linrits of Flamrnabiliiy

In the design of {lame aJterburners
for the combustion of oiganic gases and vapors,
it is importanl to haAe kaoirUag"" of the
"*ptoiiUitity or flammabili..t of both the waste materia.ls
and
the_ fuel gas in ni$irrEs wiih air. For 'example,

such hcwledge ffi1 show thil-lEcautjons'are

to avoi<i exolosions or &e likelihood &at
a grve=q_g?rs mirture will support combustion with,
necessary

out iuel enrichment.

- A mixture o{

combustibie gas and airiwithin

certain conceabaficn lirnits is expiosive, i.e., any
fleme iniUateC wirhin the uririe *ili b.'r.ttpropagating. Reacfion, is most rriolent when the
mirhrre .spfnins somewhat mere than the stoichio.
metric Amount.cf combustibie. -{s the mlxture is
"'made leaner oo .i"a",
tl""-*Ji*"o1t
"*pioulr"

6
.\ln PoLi UTION MANU,\L I1

114

mixiure, conrlbustion rate decreases. The concentations of combustibie on the lean rnd rich side
be.;ond which a flame will not propasate are known
as the lower and upper Aammaolliiv limits- ie5pectjvely.

limits of fammabilitr, but the pressure "tr"'! i'

;i;iir.ri sma11 for pressure increases that are

no.maliy' encounteredln afterburaers' As

the range oi f,ammabie conce:HT:".::

"-p*t"i.
i, Lo"C".

for upward than for downwaid

flame

i'x:r:

ieifl"H,fr,,;#."f
"l'ff:
:o
'zclume raiio q:ves a orothe lar:e surlace

r"a:t;r,:i

:i'fJ;1.:#%;f:

n:;1":

";;,rI

;tlf*;t

ol

-l
-l
rl
<l

0.6
TUBE

t)

l_0

0.8

IA MET

1.2

CENTIMETERS

of tube diameter on limits ol in{lammaFisure

- 10-1. Effectgas-air
mixtures (downward propagation'

litiv i" naturai

1 atm).

T-lsr.i 10-1. L.arrrs or Ful-nM,tarrrY or Ssr-rcr.Ep Gesrs

VeBons. Upweno hoe.tcelrox
w Lence Vsssrr-s"

or Fullrs

Limitr in Air, Percelt

Gas

Lower

or VaPor

Upper
45
14

4.3

Hydrofien Sulfi.li
Carbon Moaoxide

lz.5

Methane
Butaae
Hexaue

14
6.D

10

'i<
1J.'

t.2

Natural eas (?ittsburgh

Casoline

4.8
1.4

1.O

48

1.9
J.U

Ethyl Eiher
Acetbue

E&vl Acetate
Dieihyle-i.s

2.5
2.8

Didethvi Suifide

22

Vinvl Chloride

4.0

Ethyl Mercaptan

9.8

*selctcd data froo U.S. Bursu of Mine, Builetin 503'

-11

i4.4
22

1d 7
1Q n

1952'

The fammability limits depend upon pressure'

temDerafure, tlie geometry of the veisel and the

il;it"";

fr*:

fiop"g"uo". 8"9 increased

aod io"reri*d tJnperature broaden the

.lp
*p
-

10.2.3 Combustion Calculaiions

The design of flame afterbumers

:?i'::il1:J:rp:'m
ture involve,

,-:

i#:':HJ"15',:ff

ti" rlt" of combustion

for

:ff

calculations'

These calcuiations invoiVe ihe manipul"'?"

quantities, temperatures, enthalpies,- speci Xt"fi:
i"J fr"^ti"g ,ahies -foi -the fuei and coutaminated
sas. as 'tel as the prcducis of combusticn' "
of gas w-ill i:e siaiei n te::-ns ci

ts!

a:[i-t
&r;*"d:*r:,i,11,::1T
bne ib mol =of-perfect gas wiII occupv *'::,r

EE

Quantiries

4.C

Hvdrogen

;;;il

-\nother use{,:l pubiicarion is available irom iie

National Association of !{utual Casuahr Ccmpanies,{ which gives not only the exp}osi're lirnits of
b"t us9ful
soivent vapJ.-air
flash point, evaporation rate, and thresh "1it^Orii
values^ lor a iargi number of organic solvents'

;t*;t,-

.{ND

!,

;:*"li; tr

.i9l-1

j;t:t"*j:"i::"J"t,;to'i; .""

siCerabie daia on lir-ciis of framrnabiiiir oi a wice

r-ang9 o-l_ combustible gases' anci vaccrs
riividually aad in mixiures of several ccs
Tabie t0-1 ilsts a fe'.rz ot these data' The Bureau
of Nlines' Bullet;'n 5C3, aiso gives ':seiul daia cn
the e#ect of adiiticns ci inert gases such as niircqen. water valor. an,l cerbon dioxiie on the limiis
ii flrorrrbilirz of tornbustible 8{s-.a5 lituT'

;lal

i*i tr

t
in Figuie l-L'-1.' It is ajsc- apparent.-'h1r
-i/nrcll
a naiuial
throughinq dia:rieter of a h-rbe
.

-l

Jl

iJ

,"il;.

(h
a;"bic felt) or number of pound mols
I

feet at 1 atmosplere (30 in.

Hg)

aE'

and 60'F'

Entlwlpg i-"-th"*oiyo.*ic It"'"ticn; For ""y @

system, it is-deiaed as-[qile'vs'
(Eq..lO-l)
H:E*PV'
-

I/ : iotal enthalpv
E : total internal energy which rs
a function of temPerature
only'
PV : Pressur+.volume product or
potentiai work function of
the sysiern

e
a
b

h
G*

ffi

"w

I\CI\E.F-"_TICi\ OF C,\::i-{ .r.\iD

VA_pOHj

li.

il
. li:

Since we are interesied in --arhalpy changes

sysiem. the equaflcn is ncrinai]v *iltt.r, "

lly':aE-tPY

I!.

#
#
l.?'

il

t#
i,:ra:.

i,

;-:

il
1.,

ii,

il

il

t
,fl5'

(Eq.10-2)

(Fq.
-h*a",
Q

r..m

r .&l
i$
l#:

f.#

:"8"'
" -'i:

be

: heat absorbec

b,,

ile

and

"Y-

t//
--.----?4.=-=---

sur-

:cundlngs

-t-J = enr::ajov given up bv the

al

ll

': l/

svstem

,.",-1

-*

L
l

llesi is defined as iie cuantit, of heat

required to ra:.se ihe ie:::nerrt .i of a certain
_quantii,v of a subs.tan." on" degree comcared to
that requirei fcr the r.*" ,*ollit cf water.
Speci,f,c

Since ;nost ai'ierburners w-:jl opelare at esse::tjaljv

aimospheric pressure, &e specific heat at consiaJi
pr-essure, Cr, will be used ralher than C,, the sre-

ci.fic heat ai consta.nr volume. )iaturally,

,i."
^ry
in temperature under consiant pressure coudtions
will be accompanied by an increase in volume.
In engineering units specific heats are stated as
btu/(ib)_('Fl and btui(tb mot) ("F) ;iih-th;
symbols C, ani MCo, respectively.
, Practica.l problems involve &e heat absorbed

or given up by gases between liryo widelv difierent

temperatures. llost problems can be staied in

equ4tion form as follows:

Q:n(iVCo)", (t._i,)

(Eq.10_l)

where:

Figure l0-2. Mean moiar heat capacities of gases

al
stant pressure,
beiween S0"F and

,ds"i.i" t.rpEir't-uru.

Taerr 10-2. Cncss Hr..lrs or ColrsusrrcN

Comoound

Ii,

ccn-

C,$xs

of Co.mbusbion : -, \ .y" ),
,Kg H",.I
cai,/gm moi @ 25"C and
I at-m
68.3

S-+SO"

OU.J

If.S--+H,O -r SO,

132.8

CO

I{ethane
Ethylene

,]q

Ethane

i .o

372.8
530.5
688.0

Propane

Q : tctel heat required

n : number o{ mols of gas

n-Butane'

used.

Table L0-2 lists gross heatjne vajues oI

s.omq qolnmon Fueis and conta4inantsl ]rfet
heat.

(MCr)". : average mo-lar heat capacity over the tempera_

pg

ture range between f,

Specific heats of gases valy widety with tempera_

, over the range encountered ture

in combu-stion
worK. .t hereiore, curves relating average specific
heat related to some base temnErature Le usefuI
in cornbustion caiculations. Fierqe 10_2 shows the
. sp.c*" h.rt Jth t"orpfor a nugrber of con:mo-n

The heating xohp of a fuei gas is its heat of

combustion, usually at constant Dressure. and, is
determined eroer:'nrentally i, a -gas calorimeter.
lne nearng vajues of solid anri liquid fuels are
measured in a bomb calorimeter. = i" *"n
"*_

v'alue can be obtained

by subtractmg 10.5
moi hydrogeu.
l,Irjlpf"i;;-the ?alue,
th," table by 4.77 will
*"ri to biu/scf
)",
(dry)..'Ihe gross bggtiog"oo,rerf
yaiues of most natural
gas is close to 1000-6?u,, cu ft.
Example I uzill illustrlt" tf." calcuiaijon of heat_
ing value of a ga:equs Eel and lhsls" ;i h";U";
values and soecific heats in , si*ple
combustioi
kg

aad /,

gases.l

ffi
,#,

ihe rief hea.ing- vajue must

i0_.3

in, averagS^got

1s

l*t

:11:1,

r,re gross hearing".rlr*"Lr.gr*""

:ffn:o."*edtheis e.rha,1:t
d,.{"erourrers
leaves it "rl;.-t
high temperarure with the warer still in ,n"-r*".
f"r"- Ura",
:;ese condiilons

Or.

:t:g" above. 6O.F

erature
.,#

vapor-

formed from hlzdrogen

,n".1flH:,::l
ru
lf :I
Llc luers $ :usuallv
condensed and grves up its
of -,aporiza.lr.-t"-tfrJ

heat) ure_sig1s of lE and :E_are negative as iong

as that of aPrr in ihe ercanciing gai at constani
pressure is negaiive. In crliel words, t}:e heat
absorbed by &e surroundinqs lrom a syste:n at
constant Dressure is equai to *e enthalpy chanqe.

ls,

For rn exother:nic reacron_ -one that gives cff

Pi r'.

I15

in

calr,o1y1

calculation. Thrs calculation uses ciaia and methods

ircrn
,readil,,- availabie textbooks on;;il;;
anc cxerrtrcat
engineeing thermcd],namics. How_
ever, short cuts in ..he farm of high temperature

pqvchromebic charts

,"J At", Jr"tiltpi",

-;;;frroo

caa s."ijy
fli::'catcuiations
:l Tgl k*.poSiures
suc.rr
for those who mist do this'sort
of work routineiy.

EXAiy\PLE I

amount
plu::rI: contains abysmall
ulg-1t*cspheric
2Oq"F
at
passing:he
to@cfm
An airstraam of
.::l!,odor,is :o-|e destroyerj
gtve
of an c.dorcus gas .il;;ir[ar:ic^aer..oi. .n" qr-*tit,.cri;tural gas required io air'
and
products
rft;;;;;;;,-Catcutaie
air ihrougn a ;tame
tlit"e of-:cmoustio:n 21" nitrogen' and
fSCOUf ln:n" io,-i
an outjet:emperatur? ii gi7'tii;;;' 2?L )rtcane'
i"d!':
*"t']u""'
burner' The presence
A,ssurne a ratural g;; ;;
,=;;=lj*.gas
i;
l0!/o
r..-in"i
air as prlmary ali' :n
=xcess
1?i" car:cn cioxide
tt :it c-o1-r^a11nir=d
iie
-lse
srnarl ;s to rnake rc
qumrn-v
aerosor'oo"nt=
so
ii
of a
ae'csol
'ni
't
.i.o"rol='g==
:,]r.iir,
=n.
,i"
the burr:er.. ff=c.
ihe sysiem'
l""ntiil"rion io the heai inpui :c'
s0l-u Tl0t{

,r. ,,3:.[:* I;ili'",'Lj!'

carcuiaie

Gross H'Y'

Gas

PrcPane

H.V.

1al

Z-:.o

etr
.1C

Vlethane
Eihane

Fractionai

kg cali
gm moi

Mois

Naiurar Gas'

Mois

Net

i{:

H.Y.

,1

34.i

-JU

it

L'o
:JU.O

o2

.d8

iU. C

xa

Nitrcgen
Carmn

.01

Dioxide

,)9

Toiai

,)l 1,-,H' 1:

)."lsf
Q = MCo AT

207.C

; 3,8ffi 5f,i?l', r#, "'

(from Eq' 1O-4)

mol/min
quantitv.of natural g9:^legyil*'-lb
t".',I i u o rl,-=- r _1, ;"0,
?iuJ S'il, n, vo u m e
and AH" = ihe chaE-a:1.::;]iH,;-,;;

Let G

l.#ifffif

1OOO

#
#
F
#

cfm ai @ 2@"F
_ iCCO)119e : !.B4lb mols airlmin

379"660

:-

.39 moL0r/min'
L.4s mois N'/min'-

;;

'gT3,H'1",X'ru"8$'
Air

comhustion Products

Required

gel:
.85

Methane
Ethane
Prooane

.1U

.o2

oiiqinally in gas

ExceSs

Airwith

6.38

1.70

IJ1

1.8

.10

38

.21

.80

Fuel

Totals
COMPOSITION

Oi TOTAI'

Hro
NI,

1.4i
.39

_-?$'='-

-'

llro

t_

1.70

5.38
1.31

.30.

.08

38

2.08

;"8s

.06
.01-

HEA1S
EFFLUENT AT.IE SPECIFIC

F
d

.02
.80

Average

Soecific Heail

Btu/lb mol "tro_1SOO.,

SuanlitY,

6rI-200"F

lb mol/min
0riginal Gas
COr

.85

1.12 G
2.08 G

45+8.89
-.:g+

.zr e

9.20
8.10
7.00
7.10

1]i52
8.93

7.4$
7,81

H
Y

";tE

tr

INCI:\EN.ATION OF CASE.S AND !';:,;115

#I

EXA*IPLE

il

Q uo-roo l
1

Q1.o-r.0,

ET

il
il
il

= iii.45)(7.00) + (.39)(7.iO)l
= (i0.15 + 2.77) (t4O)

: (12.92) (14O) : i8i0 Btu/min

: i{\.72 GX11.52) , (2.C8 c) (e.99)
(.39 +,2i
= (1.45 + 8.89c) (7.4O)
: (i2.9G + 18.7c r i0,7++ 65.7G
+ 3.04 -;- 1.64 c) (144C)
: (98.9 G -i- 13.7) (1444)
: i43,000 G , i9,700 r

G(373,0OO): 143,CCOG -r- 19,700l7FCn

,
ii/

230,000

cr i.O7i7) (379)

il
il
il

I'lame aiterburners use gas bur-:rers of

the premi< ?pe in which all or mcsi ci the air re-

il
':..-..

il

I:..-

ii1

G)

ii.ei)i

i-+trr0)
'.1L

+-

II

A,FTERBURNER DTs/GN
1O.3.1 Gas Burners

quired

ior

ccmplete cornbusijon is mired wjth

the gas ahead of tbe combustion charnber or fame.

The-f.ames produced are short and hot and are

eficient for raising gas temperature to &e high
levels required for afterburning. Griswoid' classifies buraers as follows:
1.

-z
-

,J.

Small port burnen. Port holes less &an No.

drill size (0.1405 in.).
I,qrgs pori burners. Port holes iarger thaa No.
28 &ill size.
Rodi&Lt or ti,lz port burnen Bumer ports are
mounted rn a burner tile which becornes in28

candescent

in opeiation

Small port burners use the high velocity jet of

gas to inspirate combustion gas into the burner.- T.oe asrount of air inb'oduced is varjed by aCfusting a series of shutters on the buraer.
The afterburners discussed here are generally of
the large port or radiant tile port varietv. Th"y
ean be of t}:e atnospheric type, which use aspirated
combustibn air, or may have a ecmbustion air
blowel with damper cont'olled &om the gas tr)ressure regulator. Flashbac-k is prevented by maintl*iog the velocity of the gls-air mixture weil
above the Ilame veiocity for any
iny operatiag coadition. The *tura-dowa ratio"
o" is deffald
deffaed as the ratior,*.
ratior
of maqmum to mjnimum fow rate cver the range
of satisfactor.v burner operaticn aud is usually-3
to 5 for mcst bureers,

F,iSure 10-3 shows.one.

f;:e of mu1tiple port tlle

ia afterburners. This

'-Dulner that has found,use

Figure'

-i&3.

uuitipte pcil-tfii tiiiinir:

bustion Engineers.

=f;nrTresy

Hiri

Com-

caa be used for. t'eating coniaminated air where

&e ccntrminaat <ioes not. tend to plug the br:raer
oriffces 3rad bru:rer lile open:ngs. ffeating of &e
air is eficient dnce ihe, pollui{ arr .is &-awo directly rlrough the a,ne and contnbuies, to the
cornbustion air., T-'he ineandescent br:i-ner tiles also
in U'ansferriag hea.t to the gases. .-

ai<i

*'tc

.,trF

29.4 scfn
(60'F anci 1 atm)

t03

il
il

i8i0

i iA i?lCr;

il

{-

tti

(Coniinued)

*',

tr

T-fr

ti
ir

ir

il
l:

AIR POLLUTION IiIANUAL

.q

:L:U

ii
ll

afierburner coniguration
Fig':re 10-4 shows an

:+ # r{: *$,:;;iyru il' i:Hxl

J;
ccmbustion
oot

ii

''il

lll

cnamDer'

ny
:nared air is leated

iit
t,i

lil
tll

mi--ring

with

Cre

com-

il:i
!rr

"l:l:t^-il'*"

ot

t1i

trl
,1

ti

excha

ili
itt

il

Ul

fr

l"","n;;"ll:.ti-:l:iJ,:.1*g;
;;';i:,,i"ffi
ciern' a heat
suficientlv
;.";;'-;;;

iir-a ;i
t,

desticv

qanic r::acel:ai or aerosci'

t-i,:
ccnrcl system' *T:;t:;.J
*" "l a suitabie
E
.nr;f* * tt"L tertperati;ref^T T.:51,- ryi';ins

J.i
,1

,= u'il

;'.;.;t;

ll

1l'
.tl
I

F
*k**r;ikm-*;;
;;;: -\Ir
ffii*
i
fsuniv
io'"{nseles
:;l:;;:'rt'"
*m:ni*i:l*,"i"[.ff
,1#:i;i$"'
" tr
'"
.,,.h
::;i:i.;':,j.]'t
'econc
' t::;l;"r.:
lirec thar . t""''"ttt*lt"'t"i;ic:r
oc'
rir:ost anv

srl

s1.ie

fuei

oI heat excrangels
savings' 'rtowever' use

r1

t{ri

::

,i

111

il).tl

iiq

10C0'F.*
ihat iemperatures of

'1"-1,
wasie qas Streafos 3e nealcu
It is zenerati'; :er:';go's

l1 il

rli

11

ii

<;.trol

Ilt I

rA

mounted gas buf n'

IlSl',illl;,i-ffi:Hr?"#1i

EXr#J''J::

of
burners- The-presence
bustion gases from the
imnorinallv
wil not
solids and gummy ";;;i;
of this afterburner'

;"#;;';d;ion

1O.3.2 Combustion Chambers

'

o{ simple
Combustion chambers qa'1be
than

desisn. vr"riv .ilt-t"*;;;"

a v e-rtic a l, ,, t ory- t"'J tn

nothirg,nore

:l *l-n'-""' "fll

"f
;,J":{:g:L,;*}#,;,-':llt**
:fAT:,'fl:
cham"

J"a "' I ::^r', or of

:f:?Htffi1fliii,,u'i"is'oori1"
z0'000-btu/hr
ber volumd fot "'"ti
(latentrand senhiai-content
fn"
heat libeiat"d,'
th?*}be ing":
siblel of both f""r ""J waste chamber volume'
cluded in fi guring tnJ to*t"ttiori
reccmmends
The,{'merit'o p*t'oiii*lJ1t"*t";
sized for: 5 ltlsec
that the oo,u'
'""too"tl-o.rfa-tt experience in the
maximum gas "1""i1-v"--Ho*""""'
t;
'#fi"
c

*ff *:y,.i; "9:: $"t"T:ll'"T":

i*"a' is adequate''

oi
r"ifi::iH.""l%:;ii
to ;ilh ; contaminated
The temperature

of

gas-must
oxyEe-1,io burn or

p;;t
with
Jnll""1'*tnani'wi11' varyat the
destroy
otherwise
ir'" ti*"-i'"ld
the nature or'tu" "o'oi'i'lot1'f
concentration'
oxygen'
elevated temp"t'toi"''-tt'e
has deand-the degred "i"L;;";;;l.Yo"oihe range
terrnined .1" tt*P"';;;;
ot a JYrJ:
excess
an
;ii,FF i" the preseice of
aerosols'
odots
"nd is un=
ficient to distroy'c"H;t*;
The residene" o*f "''tt'"[-?"*perat''iles
has shown
knowu. lvailach' :"'L;;il;T"od'

be raised in &e

i:il;,i;

**;,i"

."I.;'*',iJ

i:lri::

r ienciency to
ccniains qases tnar have
of rhe
royo;ion'
::*"
and cause plt'ggi"g- ot
clern waste q* :11i":;:*i;,-;i;:"0";":;= nti.
strearn ahead oi th
ihe svstem'
o'n t""titl'" p"art1-o-|.
condensation
vent
'"

r
t

E
'u" "o*'
",:;;",:.i#4:_; E
i:
ii$li: t t**y, ffair
i

",:"
" stack

q.'

"

:-T-ii{ :l ;

ii::"'f 1 " f [t'" iJi

T9 ":: "5:'fr1'
draft fan' ii needet

..li#";"

i["i**^- l"

"' downstream

the

:.rnb,rion

dil''ttiot'

Ji

chamber'

1O.3.3 Materials of Construction

t?:*':"lf-::l- E

Ccmbustion chambers'
su'bject' to mgn regpura'ter areas o1 xa afterbui-ner
o{ high temperature
tures must l" to"il[a

ffl *T;:.

#'*,'",'#','?"

t Ht

;Ti,il*;E

?'l"r"I'
l.!:: ;tn;:TT::, aJ""#::ia
""E"i
t'
below
i,u"r-in";glal1oYs' 200"F
t-t11.t*
temperahlres' r'iJ'"*'lii"-'"a
13t1\"i:

'":J"lr ";H:'i'i" g
li:n^u;:tm*'t"-r ffi

,.
- ;;;!"ttios-Products'
- =;:* .^r :--R"f'actoriis are noriiXTlsed
in .
qtl -i::;J,?1if
c'to high temperature,because
increasing combustron
incandescence' thereby of therr
ioss
--beca''"e
ficiency; tU"y pt""""i heat

'&"i'
,#;;i -,.i^,i;;";i:;;+;;d
-of
ffi;;
ternPerattr
hieh
to thoie

;;;;;'"d

There

,,J

i' ^ *ii'";;"!

Ji--i&""to"'

**

materials

io high,tegpe'"t"'" proce11;1$:iff

rTt:E
tlU"', mullite' alumina' PaEPe
tempera"i*t'
oi io"'e*ti"g serrice
:"?;.;#;: i"

,ll"'ali

ffi

"*ffi

firc

INCINERATiON OF GASES AND VAPCRS

*r

ture. Fire clav refracrories are the type used in

6cst incineraiors anci aiterburners. They consist
mostly of alumii:a and sfica. The relative refracroriness of mirfures cf -iese comcounds increases
with alumina conteni as shown in Figure 10-5.r

FT

j,J00

=r

j,ic0

il
il

l. r00

t.

riil

il

TApe R*'actot'A

il

'

Super

duty

AST!1

Class

PCE

Hot load defornation,'% Z46OF

Bulk Deesity, LblFtr

ffi
%;'t'
-g
ffi;i3u

ffi.
,&?

.lre-.,
3#fli.:.

31J2

2984
,3056-3092

33

.rl /J

Super

Ifi-L

Duty

Duty

33-34
8%

Apparent Porosjty. %
Chemical Analysis, 5 ALO"
Fe.O.
CaO

Mgo
Alkalies

TiO"
+Cortey Kaiser

lvledium

Dutr'
ar

32i3

UA

1.3

0.84

l0%

s000F

s,

2768

29

2640F

SiOr

ffi;
'ba:..

ing those mater:als tc achie.,.e their marjrnlr*- ir"_

fulness. Areas of an ai:elbunel receiling i:.recr
flame :raingemeni irequenriu nust be -l;:ed. -":t:
super-'flli:y' brick. ii SO. aai'other qases .iie
i}resent in srgni{cant qua:iiiCss. :educei ieiractcri li:e
ciue io spalling can be exrected..

The hanclin.r.- of iasrmabie ,,^,:ste inc

iuei gases iequires fooiprJcf safefz- precauiions. -\:iccntaminatec w'ith flar,:mabie wasie gases :rus: be
dejivered to ihe al'ierbr:rner rn such a wav cr a{
such a concentraiion oi ia:nmable gases ,jia, n..
flash back inio the onccming sa""i .rrjll occlir,
This csn be done in se.zera] wavs:

Temp.,"F

19

10-3. T:cgxrcer. Dar,r-FBxcLAy Rrra*cromrso

lR.

fl

,. , ";:;;i;*;;Eo&

be heated graciually to cirrve ofi".**rrr.

moistare be_
fore aeaiing- to full desien ienperatursr. ilra,riacturers cf plastic and castabie refractorjes reDori
ser.rice equal tc superiuqv firebrick. Iio*ir";.
exirelne' care and skili :nust be exercised ia- icci.r-_
must_

b.

Dilution of waste gases ,riih ajr io weli beiow.

the lower explosion Umit (LEL ) for the wasie
ga$. One-fourth the LEL is often used bui
less di,lution is someiimes necessary to i:-cprcve
operating economics. However, o.r. o. '*oa"
gj h" _following measu,res must be employeC
if the LEL is approached.
Use of gas velocities at some ooint in rie waste
gas supply duciing that are well above the
flame propagaiion rate for the fammable mixhrre.

Ta.sr..E

Panel Spalling 2910F

ffi,

,.vith water anti

applieC

1O.3.4 Safeiy Feaiures

In additjon to the temperature soecification, there

are limiis on shrinkage and sprlling 1oss. Table
10-,3 gives ciata on three types of fi.e b.ick.

:t&

mjxei

PCE

Low heat dutv

Intermedjate heat duty
High-heat duty

il
E

r0O

60

The softening iemperatules of fireciays are stated

in ierms ct fte p,v-rcmetric ccne equivalent (PCE).
It is the number oi a standarC cone d:at sot'tens
and bends simu-ltaneously with the test cone when
both are heeied according tc a specified croced,ure.
The ASTI{ has classified fireclay refractories bv
lheir maximum service temperatures as follows: '

#r

:i:.

10

combustion chambers of unusual shape. plastic

refraciories come in the form of ,Ug ,Ira. .virich
must be rammed into place, *hX"

Figure 10-5. Refracioriness 0f alumine-siiica miitures.

il

il

-:riatnrci:0
:0

EI

il

lo0

119

143.4
12.5

&.76
D.'.1D

1.07
o.47
0.57
0.87

1.1i

139.2
13.8
':o oo
53.87
1.96
0.82
0.61
1.59
1.09

135.2
16.8
e< no

59.64
1.72
0.48

0.49
1.39

1.16'.

R.efmcrories.

Firebricks are by far the Eost common form

gt frg- cJav refractories; however, .plastic,, and
"castabie" refractories are gajning
in p6putarity because of their versatility aid easi of -apllication to

c.

U"se

of perforated piates or screens in the

gas

stream whose openings are-too small to permii

ilame propagatlon. Cornmercial flame arrestors
are available. Isis rnethcd, would be iimiied

to situations where the perfcrated plate w.ould

not be heated to ternperatures approaching the
igniiion temperature of the mixture.
d. Use -of -water spray or water dip leg in the
suppl;z ducting to quench fl.asres and prevent
their propagatlon .back through ductn oik.
The handling of the fuel gas itselFrequires precautions, but these are esseniiallv the same as ihose
u;3d f-q-1,.?ny large scale, commercial, gas-ffred appliance like a boiler, heater, or fi:rnace.- One of tie
most criiical items is the flame failure ccntrol wstem, wbrch shuts ofi the gas supply after flameolt.
On small ap_pliances , th.r*o"o"trile-activated sysiem is usualy
ldequate, al&oughits response time
may be as much as severai mUites. Laiger equip_
ment, which would include most afterb,I*"rr- .._

o{:

tr

fll
lJr

II
Atn PoLLurIoN NI-\NUAL

i1

l2o

i1i
11l

seconcis. Devices

i1

ill
l!l
iri,
il

J ii.

til

Xli

$ii
,I

11

;1il
J

:1,

rt il

t'lt
i!

li

:i it,

^irnrritrv
""iil'ir;;;"#i"t

irsursponsc*e<i b1' ttre var:ous

guides
and
p"LUt*a standards

u:
i

ATT ERBURNJNG
au poiluFlame combus'ljon as a medlod of
cf
varie$
a wiCe
tion control hr. 'o""' 'ppU"a to

which inciudes
Drceesses,
*;1;;..-'^;J

f',,""""t for disposal cI waste gases

and Liquids
Cofiee roasters

?,.
mru*l:":'""#:X
iO-O ,t", schumacc iiagrem ;i

i'Pic:

prou'c"'Ioo; ;d"g;

benefiis :

'rsed 'n
as:.iretec
""'i;;;rk;lare

r
: reiieri t
iornhg

it

oxy-.gena

r:::: #

wtth the b';drocarbons'

a4G
po,rrri. thai b"t"' reaCilv at low temperatwes'
t'":
.he
oi
i. ;;;;;,he ;artiai Dressui-e
Thi fffi?,:
gr""a", ,""*r"i--oo of the rrolecuies'
llkel'r :c
s:echanisms
the
of
pcl,,.nenzad.on, cne

;|

sieem to hvdroca:bca rs 'mpcrtant'

rado ior smoieiess cperalion increases
and fiaction of un-

''tl-"t1i:tci
rl. l"""it"d

Sc'roke houses

Rubber cunng
Cupola gases

ffi?*-'";*tl,leighr

Rendering Plants
Varnish kettles
Enamel baking ovens

Asphalt blowing
Printing Press Yent

#'lY}*T:
ru ;:":'ri'
{i.r.ru :lt"s; thJmost
satisiactorv me&cd

bve. Sieam iers are

Mu&

^Iierb,rtrett.s'r':o':i
IO,4 APPLICAI'ICNS FCR FLAfuIE

g
d::*'i' ?il",:;d #

I"frr"r-a

ance carriers ha're

instailation of .combustion
fi"lf." t"l" desigp- andthis
is aPPlicabie tc flame
of

;;;;.

rt

Hfr 'o.lliii, J"""'l

*1l,mi:il:1"r**:'
bv :ioviding adeqtate *ltio.g of fuel and

uy-.raituoo 'loon wi& suitable electronic

i)-siem'
are requrred lor t-his npe of conkcl

;;;;

li

feasibie tc bure them in a refractor'r Lined combu '

"i":ei' can-not nortion chambe. sirrce the flow of

of on-lv a few
quires ccntrol svstems with a iesponse
sensilg
such as thcse 'cased ol'e:

il

10 4

r
*iif i;i;'1:3,;".,'1+!;i't.T,ff r
2

i;';:,1":l::::[:L:]il^u
*
g"*t' [H'5' CH''SH'

lcralt ,ro"..r. oioto*

gases

:E

:"'"t

ilio,

rehei
,orrr""s of odor, the digester

a'

*:;f.*:1" f;:f-1!Lr,:l1T
tri:i""'"";#gases
tor dlsposai' -Durrleb
Iecling these

rl g
tc

venhog
:"^H. il. uri" r"r" ;;;"T";"4
"hlottt'ating.or
"od
t9-*
.':i?""-T'J1 E
an oxidatiol tower
wcrk by tht
li'",;"J.- ;i d,sppsal Jn-earEer*ith
*'ste h'rptotiae
"

haeuser Co.,t2 a

ft.r*""" fited

odorous gases'.
ir"r *"af". lo*iog ih
ffi";;;;; P'obl"i,' with buraer conti'i::'il?

ofwaterintheturpen"tine,aacsimilarproblemsre.

[**#"Yff-1#r",*e
;:'i:,1:i:*'fffi
-s4,io
Per mooth', *T-"l.:-'f:"i,,.,,ed
;i;;;;

i,

r:;;,x"ff "81f;
-Tl?,k"r""*"0#ffi
of heat- to=Ihe iime kiln''
Courlesy
Ficure 10-6. Typical elevated flare'
lnstitute'
Peiroleum

ot lm"ft"n

1O'4'1 Smokeless Flares

tq
Flares are widely used-in refineries
6t"su5e'o{
tatr'"a
dispose of gio. Al*,""*'ta
rate* The $rges
therr nature or vanable emission
pro-blen in
aimcuit
lpl-"t"*
in waste gas release
"
It ii not
gasei'
ot L"'"

,;"-;il;;;-i;; Ld;;

ffi#;;;"i
and gas buraing ott8]i'rn"*t EL gas haadlinq
-E
t*. rrtua in thi; &sposal scleme'
10.4.3 Coffee Roasters
A-fterburners are
metlod fo, "ontollin! orgaaic

uy

ihe most *T*:l f,

gas. and aerosoi ocl-

tI" riasting oi coffee' Burl.irg

[i H:lTi :*1"*:'.i'[: :1u": ::.r;u*:'; I

i"irlit*o*a"""a

I
-

.ffi

tr
il

INCINER,{TION Ob' GASES ,,\ND

V.{PORS

il

of this fu'adernark ol an interesti.ng orocess.

T..vo basic types of afterbumrng are used, wirich
correspond to batch and continuous roasdng r"pspectivel;2. Batch roasters are **r. *"ri.lf ='.oirolled by insralhng duci work anci dampers to
Cirect &e roaster of-gases into tle roastei flame.
Direclinq the off-gases into the fla:ne is recu:red
oniy after tle smoke frst appears, aboui one-fourth

Er

,--\
''ro,,OSrqftf\
_:_""'':i:.i

il
I

YiF+-

/1ll

.\-/

1,

11 c:polas with iarge'.r-*grrg a"".,

afterburning
"a"q,.,"t"
,may be-ccst1;i iue' ;-e; excessive
amcunts of coic air enterinq :.ire svstem.
V"":"rtfr*
less.. afierburnrnq js acvis2!]E :i ,"p;1,
gases aie
io b6 cieaned br- u:eens ;f i:as :iters,-ottre.wjse.
the
bags csr: beccrre .toggo--irlr'.";a"l*j';#;
an<i oii. and beccme more susceciii;ie io
fires. f-ui_
ther:nore, unbr:meC CO ca:i oo"dr". ,"1fri.r."
hazarC :n a baqhcuse. -LterLurninq .;" J:;"i",
plo:". the appearance oitl" plurr-'irl- * .rrpoj*
wirh lume ecnuci or wiih _*lmp[e ,i/e! caps.
The quaniliies of gas requied for co.'uventjenaj
c^upolas wiil iarge ciarg:eg docrs can varv wiielv.
Ooe 38 lon per hour cupc]a uses rhree br*"r, C"t
consume aboui SCI cubic feet pei i1oui. Assurni:rg
gas
50 ceeis cer 1,Cffi cub.ic ieet, the gas ccsts
,al
,roulci.be
{-5 cents.per.hour evlng a unit
las coa_
sumption oi' 24 cubic feet pel ton cf iron"tapped.
Another instaliation on a 50 ton ler hour cupcla
was designei ior 6,000 cfh gi,uiag a unit fuel consumptiou of i10 cu ft/ton. N-o data were available

i-:

;crueern

Arrierburcels are {recuently instalied

ou
r{on cupolas_ to ccnsume smokeland
oit
_iSt
Fray
rrcm ihe use of ci_lv sclap iroa anc. io
burn CO gas.

F,-AyE

GAS

,/ \l

FLo\v

l\r--, ] coruraor

1,
EI

FL,lt
A 8RE

6IS JANDLJNG

I:i

SYSTEU

,
YE]{T

AIR
t

{
t^i

tl

il-

i!I

o.n c,rpola gas volurne and temperatme rise

through

the afterburrers.la
One installaijoa is connected to two 40 ton per
hour cupolas whr:ch are operated on alternate diys.
The cupolas are top chLged and a b"stle ii"!
below.the charging point dlaws of
"*hruJ!r:."ri
The afterburner raisls gas temperatures
to teOO_
1,700"F pricr tc entering a reduperatiye heat ex_
chanser for heaiing appioximateiv 10,000 cfm of
. ?i, !q 900'F tor the cupoia hct blast. Gases are

FLTME

IRRESiER
I

lvl

FLt]lY
c

il.lTR0 L
PRI MAflY

AIR

{
,

I
il

FAN

64S SURltlING

.
'''
fijither

SYSTEM

Figure 10-7. System for disposal of digester gases

from
krafl pulping process.

thr

of the way through ttre roast. Figure l0-g is a diagram of

lfpical batch ioaster shiwing rhe method

6f q6sfi6lling smoke.
In a continuous roaster, the compositioa of the
off-gases is essentially cor:staat once &e
roaster has
for awirile. The gases tend to be
::._"
T"i*g
Gl.lute ul.terms of
-organic gases and aerosols, and
reqylrements for
operating an atterburaer are
FT,

nigt rrnis55 a heat exchanger is used.

A cost estimate for an -afterburner w.i&out heat
exchange on a contiouous roa.ster
showed yearly
:^o_*:

(!1eita1,,13d o-peraring) ro be abouttlZgob

ln"L*qg
70ooF
ot

&
{oo
tlis totJ

or &fo+
.ort,-

quarters was fcr fueI gas.

.-

"p;r;.d*;;ti i;*:

cooieqi by

:g!"rpg a

watelir_"y_**p*rtion prior

to

baghouse. Cas ccsts imount to about

but
mcst of the gas is conzumed during
Y/7^V
start-up when the qFstem is beirlg brought up ti
temperah:re. D:ring periods of cupola operaioo,
gas consumption is low. Overall unii gas .o.rsu*p_
tion would be about 360 cu ft per- tor of iron

AJFough rEfrlas .orrrrrrrltioo *ry ,"1*

lipp"+
hrgi,
'&e aiterluraer and heat exchanger replaces
a hot-blast heafi[-s}$a t]"t ,.# th"'sam.
amount of fuei and ilised hot_biaifffiperature to

only 400'F.

10.4.5 Special Waste Liquid Burners

,;*i;;;;.;;,"

10.4.4 Cupola Gas Aflerburners

llRtSt:t
I+-

lr

This type df buraer can talce manv

the
or"rie liquid ts
*!oror".
"o*b"rtibl;-*;;i
[r*; at a con_
. ,- con:tart compositiba ,,i.T qm b.

If

trolled rate, a simpie cyiindricai

lhe

bu*.;;;"

be used.
ia aa

waste tiquid cea usually be handled

lp

3
A]R POLLUTJON

L22

atoslizins bumer similar to an oi] bu-r-ner with cr

withoui iuxiliar, .uel.
*S-" 10-9 shows a flow diagram and^ a photos'^pE of a burner used fcr disposatr of ryanide
rl]"' tl"
ilas't;. To ccmpleteh destrov the cya The
de'
2,200oF'
to
u"'preheaied
*,rst
;;;;
deteciabie
no
,eloa"rs of this equipmeot claim
rr Se stack gas'ts
''
"uan'ide
ero'.1"t rype of Ji[uid disposal unit is shown in '

\I.\.\U.\I

1I

Figure 10-10. This -equipment is designed to &sand contaics a

,"r" "; halogenateri hvdrocarbons
hvcroi"t
chlcr''atei
HCI
ienouing
.Y;;;.-]..
'
tcr
unit
sucn
invesiment
iitial
The
carbcns ).
ot
per.
gallons
minute
i
to
haniling 4
"apable'cf
S250,0CC,
operatbui
about
be
waste is repcrteri io
ing ccsts aie 5 cents per.-ga1I9n of waste,as ccmp*I-=d *lth 10 cents a gallon i-or disposai bv &um
burral.tu

G
*

G
G

OUTLET FOR :XCE55 YAPOR

G
G

G
/u

G
G
G

g
E

E
E
G

E
E
@
Figure10.8:BatchcofieEmastershowingmethodoffumebuming.courtesyJabez.BurnsDiv''Elaw.KnoxGo'

#
ffi

ffi

ril

INCI\ERAT]ON OF ClSi.S _rlil) V-{pCits

t!3

IO.5 PERFOR}A"irVCE EV,ALUATION

C'kr Controi. Perfor-:rance roav be derelmined f,v insi:rumenis such a.s lnfrai# alalyzers.

'{ril
! =rrx

lLEg0rrc

lriuflAt ia3
io!8!:trE

Fig,lre 10-9. schematic drawing oi a system

Courlssy Prencor inc.
liquid cyanide

ior

disposal of

flame ionizeCcu derectors,,rr g$rrachsatographs

calibratai ir-, :er::s if speciic oJJ.u", matenals. llihough nc l<:1c.,ri:t quitl-telve standards e:<jst cn
er:issions ii :dors. peCcrmance in terms of teduci:cn :i.tc,;rs -rra.,'le ielerri;r:ed bv the :se ci _:ersor:he1 tained ir cCcr detecron, ca1leC an ''oicr
paaei." T.:'ese :aaels iia/ e';a;uaie exhaust zases
CireCtl'r trT :rli';'tse i<io.;''n CirutonS Ot the edauSt
lc d,eter=i::e :::e o:],:ticn factcr io rr-iv at ihe od.or
ihreshcid.

"eastes.

FiC{rs

1G10: Unit for disposal qf 4 to 7 gpm chlorinated

hydroca

rton residue. Couriesy

Carbon Pmducts

Div., Union Carbide Corp.

L-'

.-'-.--w

AIR POLLUTION NI.{NUAL II

Op<rcity of Plumes' Performances

areas
ma.r be determined by trained observ'ers il
by
or
isused
technique
wi; dris enlorcement
Red,u,a'ian

2'

in

lft"tption or Iighi scatterrng tecnniques caliplume'

ffi;J-," i^erms of .il"ti"" opaciiv ':[ Lreare,
conceutrations
particulate
If residuaL
lPby
o.""i^bi", p*iot t ^""" mav be. Ceter-mined
dust
for
iechniques
iandard sampling
il;";l
concenEadon.
Ilgdrocar'
Red.uc-fiotu in Emlssions of Reacti'aemateriais
scecific
cf
a-r.- lV-fr"te :he compcsiiion
a1
rnfra,red
as
such
ir" ilo*=, phvsical -"t-hodt
adin
be-used
rtav
,lrrri, o, sas chromatographv
ai,i", i, ihemical *"t-hodt Cesiqnec ior rhe com-

3.

+'

U-i.i

and'
r*rq R and G. 'rorq Er-gr, Combustion Fktmes
Press'
LonUniversiLv
Cambr:ciee
o1 cot"t,
;r;;;;
don, 19361952'
iJ"J-;os, U S. 3ureau oi }iines,
Companies'
Casualty
!(utr:ai
oi
X",f""rt Association
'fi*iii.t
Solnents, 2nd ecliiion,

of Orgraic

lruit-r"vitial

1981.

5.

6'

ior*ot on Ail PoiWiotl, American Petroler:m Instiilie,

\"w York^ 1961.
Route to Polluiion
i""r.., R. \1., "The '{iterbumer
(6),-39-9 (June, 1964)
Coorroi," Air Eogineer"ng

Observadons on Comi. W.rrr.t.r, A., "Some Data andfrom

Bakeri Lithograph
l".tio" oi C^r""ot Effuents
A;;;;t,'' latrtwi i the '\ir Pollution CtntroL '{ssoc:c,jon l-?: i09-i0 liarci- i962)' ''standards
8.

for Safetv'
irod"r*.it"x LaLoratoies' inc',
io--"t.i"1-l"ciustrial Gas Heating Equipment'' UL

i'or
N;,i";"l Boa.d' of Fire Underwriters, "Standards
August,,i963'
il"""r ""a Furnaces." NBFU No' 86{ "Stanciards
fbr
i0' N;;;J B"*d of Fke Underwriteis,
Redualrn in Explnxcn' Ilazcrris' Pedormance
Cr. .LppUr"""s and Gas Piping'" NBFU \-o' 54' '\u'

pounds in question'

by measuring spe-cifi,c com"*-U""alietmin"d

mentioned
methcds
using
gases
lrrtiUt"
'1.:"""^ol
calibrated'
b,.,

gas analvzers
rn"rot'of combustibie
-"i-""-uo'ibl"t

or' percentage .of

il ;"*";,;g"
on the
usually-based
are
instruments

LEL. These
rise in temperature of the gas siream

or,

9.

sust. 1959.

11.

19"

ihe tem-

ihe
;;;r;r;-;i'a heated platinim fiiament due to
excess
;;;;iy"; reaction of the combustibie gas with

or.vgen.--

13'
14.

REFERENCES

Canbustimt and'-Fwnorce4
1.
^ Gnrswor-o; Jornr, Fuah
1946:

--A;";Iiilt s".t

companv, New York'

LD.

16.

Good
F;;";-ilr"tance -\ssociation, "Reco-mended
-Br:r'er
Singie
on
Safeguards
ior Combustlon
;';;;

Boiilr-Furoaces," June, i963'

O"-li^*, C. G., ind C' A' H'r'rsrN, "The -\baiement
h"i, vtitt Odot. by Burning," ]aurrutl d the
"'t"fr'rf,
iechnical Associtttinn of the Pulp and' Popa lrul:l'sttg
cC lPl, 732-38 (December, 1955)
Private communication, -\'
Co., Deicember 19, 1963'

ffilh
$tI
i;i l;i

ii

Weyer'baeuser

.o--unication, B- D' Blo9r.nffeld' lvlichigan

i#"r"
jj"p"tt-""t of llealth, November, 1964'
i963'
FJi*i" .o-*uuication, Prenco Inc'' -Decemher'
iiu"t" **t unication, Union Carbide Corp" December, 1963.

r-r:-

dllt

A' Coleman'

-.ri,

11/

CATALYT|C CCMEUSTICN
CONTENTS

1.1

lntroduction

11.2
1

i.3

Principles of 0peration
Design

'1.6

Eificiency

1.4 0perating Characteristics

1 1.5 Applications
1

11

.1

11.S

Costs

'

Sunrmary

II,1 /NTRODUCTION
j-^i,
qrrsLr *ui:iration
r.Frrnano

as a metloC for &sposa]

yaDors and gases is aot used
i" ;;;r;
cases because of the excessive cost of t_ire hiqh
tem_
peraiure recu:red. In 1g4g the use cf a cat"alvst
to
promote ccmbusijon was inkoduced an<i ihe prob_
Iem of
ignition iemperature was overcome.
.hrgh.
fy-passmg the waste gas stream through a catalyst
bed trhe temperature ,"""rrrry for thJ exothermic

cf crganic

yapors or gases wfth oxvgen

can

of,orgaaic
l1r:11
De tessened by as much

as

i00oF. This dislcussion

tnvolyes catalyhc combustron of efluents

ppu|lon signrticance. Autornotive vehicles of air
are exc.luderi as a specia_l case.

II.2

PRINC/PI.Es

OF OPERATION

The catalvst conforms to deffnidsn by ca3rsing

the reaction bel'ow the normal .o-t"rti"o
tempeia_
tures but dces not become a part of the eud prod_
ucts. The chemical ,ni61 sf- ssygen with &; ;-ganic fumes occurs witlout fame in, the
surface of
the catalyst. The temperature rise of the waste gas
1t'eam- afier passage through the catalyst bed is
dependent on the btu value of the fume.
Many. substances have catalvfic properties
and

for this,,puqrose; metals oi th'" platinurr

_.f"d
ar5, Sengral]y chosen for efiuent csntol
since
l3"rly
they prduce
1'.

&e lowest c-at{tjc ignition

tempera_

hrres. In prepar"ing a catalyst beC irall amouots

of.
catalyst are used in a w-ay designed to expose
the
mancimun surface area to the-gas
sbeam. One
method consists of electu-olyti" a"?Lil""- of plati_

cn i.hi'' nickei-chromeHil which is

:* "lolt
rnto. elements similar in
r"Tf
aprearance to

metatrc a:r iilter mais ( Fig:are 11_1).

hro assure

passage

cf all

gases

,ioo"Sh tfr"

clt"iyrJ;A;,

tie

-Figure

-..-.. .:..

11-1, Filier type oi catalyiic combustlon unil.

the -elementg are rirdu-rte-d on

3gbesigr;!r.t"a"a
&amework' inside -I[a hrme ."Effi*;;,
iousing.
ge al_s_o applied to cerprnig 1od*5
9:l*r*t,.T{3q..
beads, p-ellqts, and other shapes, Re!f tq"" 1{.3)
gardiess
ot skucture. the bed must be a::inged to
maintain uniform deasity under elevated tempera_
h.rre in order to avoid charureliag or bypassiui the
catalyst. Suficient sudace *""=-".iil dvajabie
to permit compietiou of the oxidation reaction withirr the bed.. Normally caialyst surface areas of 0,g
sq ftiSCFM are u+iri:.gd -[h";gh;;;t *. aim"rit

lll!$ts$l ll[.tltfl lt
ltBuB?E(l ca{l

il
ill

AIR POLLUIION IVIANUAL II

i26

applications maY require as much as 0.5

sq

ftiSCF\,I.

availabie hearing value of the fume is 10 bt-u/cr

ft or nore it is pracscal to recycle part of the

L1"ffi *!,?

+if:rii?';",ti::,Tl'!.{tilt*

heating value of the fume is lower than

,llI

1(

il,t:,'J:T:X1';*i"L":,","Hil:l,'f: f;. :*^Tt

ili

gas.

iill
rll

.4 aPERATING

CH ARACTER/ST/C5

Pressure drcp tiuoueh a cataivdc combustioa

eiemeni i.s quite 1iw in most casei "***rl?
ieiati.rei'r oDen construcdon of the r:nit'

tli

F
6
F
fr

EXHAUST

OUTLET

i
I

plaliFieure 11-2. Catalytic combusion unil consisting of

nu? irrov activatedilumina coaiing on porce {ain rods'

II.3

DEs/GN

6
F

CATALY5T

When the combustible fumes are released at

temperatures higher tlan the catalytic ignition

ELETEXTS

.,F

point the design- and irutallation of &e unit are

iuite simple. .{n enlargemeut of the stack or duciis
the caialyst elements is all that
tt
"""o-*odate
gases must be preheated before
If
the
required.
entlering the catalyst bed a separate metel structure
may be-used to house the combustion units (Figwe

BURNER

lf* I. The firmes, are drawn- past tle preheater and

Uio*r, through the catalyst bld' Useable materials
or
;i"";;;'"dz; include iow' carboo, alumirrized,ex-

stainless steel sheets, with line welded, standing

pansion searn constr.rcficn, suitably insulated an{
ieinforced with an outer jacket of light weight steel
sheet. Preszure vessels are used for high pressure
s,vstems.

In order to properly specify a cataiytic combus-

tion unit, detailed-i:rfo.*ition must be available on

the following items: 1) manufacturing process causrates
ins fume gd.eration, 2 ) nature of fumes'
"heir
exhaudc
3)
behavicr,
cyclical
and
of"lib"trfron,
volume requiremeats'of the process' a.nd a) control
and safety-equipment eisting on the fume generating process.

irr-""rtrio pto".Js".

various lesias, oils,

etl.iondense in the exiiting exhaust iines' A special

design feature iovoivrng indirect heating -oi e: "*l
hausi throogh a doubie-coilection manii-old or heat
b" used to control such condensate'
exchanger
"L,
important
feature in design consideraX
is the 6nerg;r content of the flcres' If the
tions""ty

.i.44

prcheat
Figure 1't-3. Catalytic comhustion syslem including

burnt and exhaust fan-

ample,

in

srl-.element similar

in

meiallic air llter mat (Figure

to b" fi
"t
11-1) &e-pressure
1f99ar.an

fir;'tr ;jix
*ru"r,qr*'y*J#,ffi":
pidssm:etap fu9"# a cataiyst
thick. Tbenti:rial
bJ 'r"ri". from X io # in; w-.g. and thereforb

*"

@
--

power consumpiJon is insignificaSi'

. EIv(aximum fuei ccnsumption for simple eataiYtic of proless 'systems may be as hig! as 10

-btu/scf

ffi: ;P;'n'fl' ff*.0?ffi?i:i-"ii#

assume no latent energy available from the fume

1trffi,:;":*":;yil3"ilffI:"ff

"#::

"1T#il;

#
f
G

Effi

,fire

,tr

H
I

Er

4
I

=r

CAT.{LYT]C CCfuiBUSI

.iimiied b,v insurance underwriters to one four& of

Lhe "lower explosive or fammable hmit" or less.
For hy&ocarbons this is equivalent to about 13
btuz'scf and reoresenis a temperarure nse ucon
oidaton of from 52oF to 55.i' per btu,'sci Jr a
total nse of aoout 675oF. For higilel wasie gas
concentrations, automatic safetv coni:ols are re_

The. caialy.:ic n:er

;-i ::,
ceuse
Iacem

quireC.
Caial.v*tic ccrnbustion systems can be Cesigned to
handle ex-hausi gas flow vai-iations uo to i-0# and
heaiing value cf the fume concentraiion varjarions

qil

il
,il

il
il
il
*il*
:._

'.Y

",J

to be un-

[a .*oia
::# ['S { i:* HTi','H,T"1ffi
a"*-*]j]:i. rrese materj*ls

w:outa

"'

en

t-c;;.

;;",::::::l

-1e

th" c"tnr"rt
"r
marTtelance

JJ

and re.

:*e

e.za_li:ate the proLienr,

II.5

ffiii'H""&1X:, i:

EFFICIENCY'

desrgnei catal;r*uc ccmb,:stion

,^,.^ I^r^o_P"]i.vl:ni.ts
na./e
been operated w:i.n .;ery *"""pt^-bl"efficiencies. Disncsal of va:-icu-.

oth.,
insialiai:cn.s. In &e cata].zti. a"""*l.ritio,
"fi.i*J,-ro ,oo,"
of
njtrcqen cxjdes acccn:piishei b., $;
;tdti",.
*
,I
reac{.ze tuei, such as tuel gas- :o
tfr"
grr.r,
the efrciency of the svsierts is in the"*lnor,
range of g5_
97%
-h.r;r.";;l1n*u"'],.d
orgaruc vaDors ha,-s g*.--6ed
_aij%

il

fl

founcr

frcm iounirz a"potr^ -'rr ri::rson the exhaust.g_ases

Doliers cannor rr" l,l;?ji'l-iurnac5s, and coal-irld
has also oeen CeleI..I-.y -:" caia.lvtic metiods. It
tvpes or harogenaied r,i.;;";;il:l"T r't-li
paint. additive
i" ao'ofui;-;h;-;r"'l::"T.*"
cuesaon as ,o :h;:;;b:li; .l:l""l:L:_: there is a
a procsss, p,t"t pr"r.-rt-o*.

#r

il

ll"$.,*. teeu

,o.,rd ...,r1 I"

-;'J."::14
p

,.1

su:riore when ihe

fl

#r

iO\

Figure

changer

l-4. Catalyiic combuslion

lo cut

costs.

system using

a heat

up to 13 btu,/scf. Generally these facton do

Bx-

remo'ra1. In one instaljatjon a

;lil,d'load oi
over 5,000 ppm combined oxdes ;f ni;;;eo
in a
waste gas stueam was reduced to less
than i6O opm
in the efruent. There was cornplete elin:inltion
of
the-characteristic color and cCoi of
oxides
in the area around ihe plant.
"i;o;

,rot

greatiy infuence eficiency oi the unit.

lnstallations
?.,:::1v in_operation with^temperatures as high as
1400oF and pressures of 1g0 psig.

1i,5

APPLiCAI/ONS

. .The catal;rtic combustion method. of fume dis_

posal has a wrde range_of indush.ial applications,
irr_
clu din g su ch divers ifiIed *;";il;;;";tities
ai :,
fou;odry core
-baking ovens, renderin-g of fish oils
and animal fais,
solvent evaporaUoin processes,
cirernical pla.,rs, oil redneries,
and
frp"i
varnishing and plastics *^orrf , li, g.'f.i"'t*g,
ih" urethod

The initial cost of caralytic combustion units

including installatjon varies widely, *rth each
situation ..q:.rTg a separate design study. In general, a ccst in the range frcm $J to
9S.50/SC}\I
will cover most of ihe ristallauodrwith the catalvsr
blias.about $ 1,,,SCFII. Th" ;p;;d";;;;i
:1."T:",
of
this methcd of dispcsal cousists of iaintenance

b: usefully applied to pair:t t"=kd;;;;;;;

iii
me palnt does nct contaiT voiatile catalvEc
"^t

of ttre catalvst and rhe svstem, and fume preheeting,

whicn is dependent oc._the narure of theiurne.
Nlaintenance costs incluce a periodic cleaaing io
insure
lroper eftciency and ahJimrequeni ,eplice_
ment ci{ ihe elesrent.='Under aorrrra#ation the
catalyst elements shculd be i::spectei ev.a, six
months. An i:nmediate raspecijori shoujd be :nade
if abnormal operation is observed. D".; apd dirt
may be iemoved from the elemeni bf-r**".rioe
and agiiathg in hot water ,xzit! a"t*e""t.
Ed""1!

poisons.
Satisfactorv rezults have been obiained'i;-the
com-

hydrocarbons, of heavy
.:::_r: [berated
$ l* b,oiling.poini
yapors
in ihe cooking of oi]s, tars and
isphalt, and chemjcrl ,.dr"uon'"i;H, of
nitro_
gen un<ier reducing con&tions.

ln recent installations involving heat recovery

from ovens and furaaces the cata$tic-i:ethod
has
not only reduced heaiing costs of *" op"r"tlo"
l"t
has prcvided fume elimriation as an
adted featr:re.
In a few instances the recovered heat is suficient
to maintair &e cornbustion pr-ocess a"d th; onfy
fuel requireci is for heatiag of, the
ry""* initially.'

1.7 COSTS

coated w:th oils

or resi:s should U" n""t}- t"

;;;;
*ia lr.ir.
..trtrri,
rra"; last
several years vtth no loss *
"ff;;;cy."U'r."".ri
1,10O'F, cooled anC reated *
With propel gleir{sp3i1ce ihe

Y
ffi
AlR POLLUTION VIANUAL

1rR
insta[ario ns :1'f 1v':

51:Jffi
- ]:T U"::T;

-:f
don over 15,000 oDera*'5 '--

tactory serrice'
p-reheatinq t:"t:li:f tT::The cost of waste gas
ar'i bt" content oJ the irrmes'
ly to the temperature
for preheacng and
Natural gas is norm;il;;+
a reexchange svstem or
lilH;r;;:"ut" " heai
rematerially
th;
cvole ot--a portion d
"ffio""t"""'
duce the cost'

tt.8

SU/i'l/HARY
combus'tion is aPFume disposal by caiaiytic
wtere larqe

;t casesolicable in a great ""'i''U-t vapors with relariveg-l"t''"a

imo,:nts oi organic

Iy high rsridon temper:Y;: i::u"f:ETi;,IH:

-uv
methoci oi ciisPosai-can3;Jr";:ild;!
"'h ^"d
f."Hilfr..i
fr$ X""xffi
H";t.,q

*, *.k

il,X":t;:"?:ir'a""1i*"u"Jppir"a'operatedand
;;;;;;;gJ ot q1' me&od over
servic"d.

i,",

distinct

da1-;i*
lY ;l "Xt:: ":l
";. y::T;
oxides io niirogen u

"- are Produc'

fliirogen
"

i:"lrt;, '-l ,"i'-tt" *i=ogt"

w-aste gas streams'

BlBLIOCR,iPiiY

r, 'ciit#;#ftlt::;'r#rTffiA'.T"'
1 Rrrr, 1I(Hl^
Vapors."
I

fr
I

II

October, luDU l '

e
d
e
F
F

fr,
l

s3:

#,

a
d
a
e
4
d
l

e
@
I

;Fl

i
I

12/

P{RFCR{WANCE TgSTING
CONTENTS

12.1 Ferformance Testing Pertinent to the 0bjective

12.2 Types of Efficiency Tests,
12.3 Efficiency Calculation Techniques
12.4 Standard and Accepted Test Codes
12.5 0ther Factors of Performance
12.6 Laboratory vs. Fteld Testing
12.7 Safety Requirements for Testing

2.1

PERFOR/4,ANCE TESTING
PFRTINfNT TO THE OBJECTIVE
Pertormance iesiing should be designed pr:manly to determine whether or not the ilstallation
has met the objectives for which it was installed.
Teslhg of pe#ormance is frequently (and erroneousiy) taken to be practicallv synonymous wi.th
lesting the effciency, or discharge concentration. of
the control equipment. Even on this basis, most of
the stack sampling methods that have been standardized applv to determination of the weight concentration of solid pariiculate contaminants. In
some cases these met-hods can be &rectly applied
io the testing o{ the instaliation to determine
w'hether or not the desired objective has been
reached, but not in many others.
I

Furiirermore, most standard testlng methods are

related primarily to ihe eficiency of the control
derrice, or to the resulting stack concentratisns..
Other considerations such as reliabfity, power cost,
and maintenance cost may be of great imporiance, for a number of reasons, such as the large scaie of
the process, or perhaps its already rrarginal
economics. These and similar factors should be included in performance testing whereyer they are
sipificant.
A few of'the more common. objectives for urstalling poilution eontrol equipment are: a) to comply with statute requiremeats; b ) to secure a
"clear stack," nonyisible ai, or close to, the stack
top; c) for recovery of econorric materials; d) to
improve. public reiations; e ) to reduce groundlevel complaints o{ odors, vegetation damage, nuisauces, etc.; f ) to improve visibility in.an area.
Obviously these objeciives may be interrelated
and, overla.nping in any particular case. Equaliy
obvrously, sosre of these objectives may be quiie
hard, to quantifu aad bear only a loose relation to

the effect,zeless of the pancular a:i poliuccn

ccntrol cLant. Nevertheieis, rhe'i should- ajl oe

carefullv considered in speciqring and iesting the

perorrrarce, anci where possibie, quantiiaiive performance requirements shculc be delrved irom
t]lese considerations.

!tr'hele air pollution is instailed purelv io meei

staiutory requirements, the stack &scharge or efi-

ciency poriion of a perforrrance test is usuallyfairlv direcily arrived at. Aithough there may be
argument as to the worttriness of the statute requirements, at least they usuallv are understood
by a1l parties with a minimum of chance for misinterpretation. Consider a hypotheticaj case, liowever, in which a wet scrubber is installed on a high
ternperature gas stream to rCuce the discharge
of solid partculate-matter to statutorl Limits, and
that ii is successful in this regard. T,he resulting
highty visible steam ph:me, however, can lead to

a pooi public reactioq,uniess tthat

aspect

of the

problem receives due attention.

qptollary exarnple, reiadvely eficient coldry soLds {rom a stack on a weight basis
could well result in lit'Je or no reduction in the
visibilitv of the plume if a large amolnt of very
fine fume is present.:fte orvner might want to consider insialtng equipment more.eficient than ie,.
quired bv statuta ev-qn,,lhoggh more.expensive. In
this ease more needs to-ibe-knowLabout the small
end of'the oarticleitd dtsr.rbudEffi"d any quantitative performance tesfng teehniques wtli be
di{teren'e than if a sirnple weight percent collection
effcieucv is desired.
In ccnsiderations other tlan eficiency, othel possible combinations of objecUves become. apparint.
T:n one case, it may he'a simple. matter ^ti, shut
down the offending process in event, of failure of
ttre. gas deaaing equipmenq whereas in another,
suclr shutdowo. is techriically,:or ecoBoo.ically un-

- In-

Lection of

129

.i!' ;r: irtli: l::.'. :: '.:1:,..-,';..1$1n1;*i,

-. . i_a i:l r'_i-,

+9';#tli:..

i+*uiffi+:

-.:

--

li-i::

__

-----

@
I

lv(i\NUAL
-r.iR POLLUTION

130
ieasibre,

p.-flp"ii.,1",T"il"'UlJ

olant is iustrireo' . 'rt

;;;;,
anotlter

it

,1T

:""#ili

b" i.ry*ffi,"1,1,"J,f."-";i*'il

maY be 'rn

*
or properrv. :*:::::*:],0,.
anG
number
rhe
ffT,*:t'""",r}-;?'i:H ;

II

in a Poor eosiuon"'1
t::
or
speciied".lii;^1"-1i:::*;m,'::',:i":"ff

'nc"'

"t's
'+",X-^"f"J'J'il+:11!::il1;;;
oirarantee disclrarge
.u
,.rd
ioy
::"*']ll'"rrd ,"r,-,lttoe guaranrees prosome speciiiT:",i:.:- ;."ot-"rti"ons to be ob'
vide a set of o"-":-T;:;:ls';;-;i;1et concen-

-C

:",j;ffi#*#i;:'"il*:l:tr#:1::::[
to
4
tained #J"*'".ioo*f;,i"$'T[:,",:""ffi",q."1 ". ""'l;'i:;r;;;ry equivaleut
tedons' Tht: *^"i#;r;;;,
spe-

"io:"':,TT;::"*11:I:,Xi?;f;i;;;;,,n**, 4
rs

of ioi"t conditions'
.1ving ".he efrclenryliency of a gas cleaning dev-ice
, The coliection l*'--,^...-"nr rerarovec fom t-he
is the :T":,:,j:'Jt;
:cntarninant
,h;;;;unt of :cn'larninant
oas 'strgam,r urvruuu
usuallv on
is
r^.-i^a. 'f.i"
=-'
a*JJ"."'d"

,J,ii,"1j":;J';::r1t':..:fl,t1,'"ff,.1 i"!, :,ids3;""S:riaJ:l"i*j!T_.;;=,i**

cumstances'

'

';:.,1'"'','"1t"f'{^lii:i :,iikfr:;l':,,ru"*in:T}"i:?i
1?o;r;-,;"+"qy"t
into ,t-," jtlr'ooeh-L
"m"i""cv
#
"r,y',t-riiten' will irequentl,l"l"*ilrryr"a'
to,
;'.T:: iut
,n""l"I tT
to be
-1 ; "ff"t"o"1,-:rrit:.*rl
u"rir.
sirica,
T
weight
:'J":,i;
:a #":, f"""'l"ih"
;t :i1L ;"iliree

The
or,

conc

"'
test iletncc'
'i],"il*;"="
srrndari

"

1n DUL,I urL

'"c*"''

F
anv

;*ir:*:::"11'":l;
;r'*tffip'*''*
LT,3l',T;'1xt:i:A: -"r "'- '-;lems-a
"v--llg:'",#1t*Bi*tl}.*ffi:r}

rXUS4i*;t*

different basls rrrdv

:rrined by

In
;H;in;''"r"'i'-i:f"""J:*';:i""
l"""o"ip*u'"f
:r"-t?,""""J"*';:f"":"i:L.*:'lI
.
:cniamiempirical,"::"."f^t
c
soecifi
fr
:-ire *"'gri"r
;;il;i-;nv
ic
wa'r
'n"""""n'l"J"i'#
'o'
simPle
:*Ji*J::"i#
""''ted

TEsrs
6
,,""ffii,t#*+r;:=**jrli'-,i# ;;:
EFFtctENcy-cALcuiArrct{
'" ;iiHNiqurs :fficiency a
:l
:l'l#U:1:1fi,5rT:T::ft:
*"*f;:f
F
t
cleaning
tnvolves knowing,Jl'rr';;;;m, and th.
:I;;i"'io^*o,
calculation of gas
"misrioi
[:*tu^:l r'fit.llf:{f 'fit** lr,y'n ffirJ*};1":;'1,i"#t ihiiffii$'*,llt n
w

t2'2

TYPEI

oF

EFFtcjENcY

on,

ff,T:"'::"ilIi:':"$::"*##*:l':"n

Ti:ilS'[ $"i d:l"r:il:i"""";"5"11]"r"'"1'""''

Hi*Uf". concept or corlection enciencv mav #

lT;"*""1'f"t:iii:**;3";ff*::W
1l b"'"frr"**d rr,
f,t[otior, conJusion :"*:,*fi"[;;it"" el6ciency" to
"'"^i'
(Eq r21
r0o
x
*"
U**,:t*:"uE""#:l--*;'-;*o,",
#
+
=
- ffit gas cleaning'"q"'pT;;;""i,
releases
*a

I
I

[I
ill

[ffi[""#: i'if #'*fji'fifu',g6*n."ooiif,t-["'*":.'1tT;'"i;r"r. Inlet, eticre*C],. r

""rlfi"#'ifrJ-collecticn,l*-_-::,",o.1 that any Mo
;ra ai'"n*ee are variab":;""ffi;""

where:

oi

tr

"ooi;*lo"ti
ri"',"?l'*-"r*nt

#'.#i]+;ffi*i'.;-fr:rT; '
[+:*
machin:1^tr
f"slnsensitive'-I;.,:":ff',:'*"1:
?f;:

","*:l*,yl
per::nit timt of

- . -G: ""'lil"ightremoved tuom car-

?;;:,ill*g

tir.re

per unit
='*]:l*:5i'"r'"i;;'s

clean.

"d;ff;i;""l' ,,^-. the Eas creaning E

i"-:::l S'il1":tiii+;pfl*rllff_"t

using anv

Hffi:,*'T--I$
cleaning

= .ou*.ro,i

ill
{fi

#i"#*nx*r;:.p:;p"3p?i"r""':.,; ilIffiiT[t?"[{ii]-{ffi}},*.*"i,t,;,r,-

$il

the inlet loadin-g'

tr

.,rj5?Er#i'*:L',,'.'.HT;#JJ;,*iJ:fi E

:*"r'";s,'"**,*'***
fifi
r
*ifl*:Tj*H*,il+m
-fl\t
ffifi
frl*

ffi+

m;:"xffi&r:i,,uy*,yi"ru'.F:
t

3:

'

g^'
m,"L:'#"iTii:"'"*:ffi"'ii" ""'i"'

**;':mlllx.i"t:*'i:i"t""r
antee ut

.qe

[
F,

PERFORI,IA.\CE TESTING

plicahons. As a resuit, even when sampling-is coniucted. bv ccmpetent personnel using adecuate
eauipmeni and tech4iques, errors in such tesilng
..n ."sil, re :s high zs lUtr.
The choice of parameters for samplia$-inout,
outout. an<i catch-and the arii:hmetic manipularion of the data shouid be chosen to minimize ihe
efiect of the sampling eriors on the final computed
result.

iie ouiput

carrier gas is usually the

error. The contaminani
lowest
w-iih
ihe
oar"mJ,"r
ioncenEaccn is iower. anC usualiv of much f;::er
Sampiing oI

size thaa rle input, so that {ailure to

particle
-achiere
irue jsclcinetic samoling conditions intoduces iess er-ror. IL ntost circumstances, the concentation profile of ccnraminant, anci degree of
definition cf flow pattern, wiLl be better in ihe o"ii
duct or stack than ln the inpui duct. Sampling of
ihe input duct is usualiy subject to much higher
error fcr rle inverse of the above reasons. Sampiing
cf ihe caich mav vary frorn highi,"- reliable to
highly erralic, dependicg on the myriad possible
combinadons of local crrcumstances in rhe aquipment, and jn the handling and cjisr:osai of the catch.
As a result of the above considerations, the most
valid eficiency calculations are usuaJly obtained
by sampling r:f the output carrier gas and either
the input, or catch, or both, depending on indir.iduai assessment of the magnitude of error expected in tlese variabies. Furtiermore, most regulatory r,.iles deal with the output concentration
or mass rate o{ emission, so that sampling the output is required anylvay.
Each of the following equations is mathematically
equivalent to Equation 12-1:

r : (i\ -9\t/ ico

tr:(,-r.-/_j_no'\ioo

L -t

where:

'

(Eq.12-?)

il
E
E
.

rl

**.
s
'i

,j

gg.gg%

requiring four-Egure accuracy in deiersrinarion of

boih input and catch, a virtual rmpcssibfilr even
under laboratory conditions. Use oI Equation 1?3
wouid be:
o'o'
tr _ i', 99.9e;o.or)xloo

, :(t-

0.0001)

How-ever,

ii

Equation

19,-3

F:!1-

too=99.99%

'.he catch were measured as 98 lbs,

wouid yield
0'0]

9-o,0.01

)x

too

: (1- 0.000101) X 100:99.9899

or 99.9ffi

thus yieiding a valid calculared iesujt wrth raw

daia to two-figure accuracy. Table 12-1 illushates the Cesree of error resuldng from various
combinations of actuai sampling errcr and technique o[ computation. It is obvious that with expected sampling errors, catch and input samplifg
leads to 1arge, even ridiculous eficiency errors,
whereas output and catch sampling is best under
all conditions, with output and input sampling
yielding equally valid resul.ts at eficiencies of 95%
or better,
Many air poilution conkol jnstallations do not
have a "catch" that is readily identjnable or measurable. A cataiytic combusfoon process is an obrrious example, where the contaminaat is converted
to carbou dioxide, water, and nitrcgen, and passes
out the stac-k.
It may be concluded that effciency sampling
should be based on output and catch, if &e catch
is identifiable, and availible (ot-Ean be made avai.lable), for measurement; oiherwisq outtrlut and rn-

(Eq. 1%3)

= output of contaminant in carrier gas, weight per unit time

other units as before

oo ao

F - ::::: ./
I0O :
".
loo.0 ,. -'

-e,/

Op

Or/I or Or/(C*Or) is the "penetrafion," and in efrect Equations L2-2 and 12J compute the penebation arid subtract it from 1006 to
yield effciency. This technique is much more., .
valid than use of tle basic Equation 12-I for apparatus of collectioa eficiency greater &an 90 or
955. For example, if a dust coilector had an actual
eficiency of S9:996, with an ibput of 100.0 lbs per
hr, catch of 99.99 lbs per hr, and ouryut of 0.01
lbs per iu, use of Equaiion 12-1 would be:
The quaatity

131

12,4 STANDARD AND ACCEPTED

rEsT CODESCodes and wide,ly. ac,c- pted procedures. con.

lvith stack samp-lrng, "ffSiqqv testing, and
perf ormanc'e sprcrff catiiin
t".E"=ffi e cuieotly
available as follows: "ia

-cernedl

(a) Air Polh*ion Contol

Associatiba, tbrough its

technical advisory committees aud especially
TA-5: Dus! MiSt and. Fume C,ollectors, periodically publishes, relorts io the loffifrl of
the .4ir Polhai.oru Cimtral Assoaiatiott. Publications to date haye beenr
TA-5 Committee baformadve Reoort No. 1

rii

rii

lli

II

llr

iil

POLLUTION VANUAL iI

the Measurement o[ Partculate Concentrajjon in Flowing Gas Streams"

I. APCA -13 (11) Nov. 1963.
TA-5 Commitee Informative Report No. 2
"Information Required for Selection
of Electrostatic and Combination F1y
Ash Collectors; llethods of Analysis

iil
lti
til

rii
t!i

liti
li

i]R

11C

!l

ilti

llrl

l-or Chemical. Physical, and Elecuical

Properties of F1y Ash" I, APCA -15 (6 ) ,

ilil

June

illl

fl,1

a
\a \a

(,

Other reports on precipiiatcr controls, selec5on and pertormance evaluaiion of wet cci-

g! al

lectors, are

in

PreParation.

b ) American Socief of ,'viechanical Engineers

perio&cailv issues Power Test Codes pertaining to the subject. Current codes are:
pT C 21 ( 1941) "Dust Separaling Apparatus" (Pertains PrimarilY to flY ash

collection

28

*nsumption in terms of pressure drop-9f

the carrier gas ii usually important, and the only

i-c6)aJO)

z
q

ru)
:SA

u;

z?
<;
)z
oo
>l !l

qqu?6.4.?

sgd555

Ji
d-

{-.,

<F<

o--

>!

ao0

9Et
HH
df
F=
14A
FH
r*

o<
5i

.i
I

6l

i
t

EI

12.5 OTHER FACTORS OF

PERFOR}AANCE
Althoush adequate and continued collection
efrcieacy is, ind should be the main criterion of air
oollution control equipment per{ormance' many
Ither factors, of perforrnance are just. as important
tr pi""U"rUtV, d"oo"ori"t, an<i even to continued
aad reHable contaminant collection' Some ofthese
factors are:
(a) Pou;u conxtm,ption Power is consumed in
several ways: a preszure drop P carrier gas;
direct po*6. input such as to, an electrostatic-preor the^cleaning mechanism of a bag filter;
as
"ititadr,
;o*". consumpd6n' of auxiliaries,insuch
wet
a
"od
water
;;;p'*g power for recircuiated

cn-QQ
i-irn::oc:

N
Eqo

Scrubbers."

scrubber.
-*ic*"t

;.1

) "Determining Dust Ccncen-

tration in a Gas Stream"

(1965) 'Determining the Properties of Fine Particulate Nfaiter"
No additional pertinent PTC publications are
cr:rrently plamed.
(") American'society for Testing and Materials
has recently created a Stack Sampling group:
Subcommittee II (Task Group E--Stock S1*pIing) of Committee D-22. Presumably ASTIv{
mettrods will be proPosed.
Com(-d) American Standalds Association 2-105
mittbE is working on the subject. Presumabl;r
an American Srandard will result.
(") Industrial Cas Cleaning Institute has published a brief, general 'Test hocedure for Cas

P"fc

F58883

!a

1965.

Tv].11
an
( 1957
!r
I f v

a!

F-ocrQ?

bQp

!il

qoq

61
b5o]al
^

oi
6)
6

Zcl

;si
b0>

rr-fl
bl

cl

co
CO co
Yoq oJ
o6JJdJ

:Q$

co
dJ

-=l
I

50c
ba

ii

-Eo
EA !R

HO

-q

rc)oro6ioa
Hirioioio
b cci -co-.@ io

O.

loC
FO

oo)c)5:

cJ

*---

sn
#il

il
ET

EI

ri.P.

consuraed

aP. :

,1

:.;

;il
ri

CF,VI^

(Eq.12-4)

horsepower

by gas cieamng

loss

in

ear-r'ier gas.

in stafic pressure
kom inlet flange to outiet
{ange of de.rice, ir. *.9.
actual cubic feet per minute of gas flow input to

change

device
density of carrier gAq r5rput

relative to air at

*s

power ccruumplion due io pressure loss, because

the eaergy for such Lhecreiical power conzumption
i.s avarlable and would oiirerwise be "wasted."'
In some types of gas cleaning equipmeat, tJ're
cleaning action and oower for movhg ',ie carrier
gas are contained ,,lriil-tin the same machile. In
this dase ihere js actuallv a pressure i:1crease, rather
than a pressure ioss. in the carrie: qas. The pressure lasies assoiated ,zgith '.he cleaiue action are
witnic lhe maehine and usually *" oo-t separately
determinable. In rlis case, such power cost appears oniy as "ineffciency" of the equ:pment as
an air mo.riag d.evice. The power ccst of gas
cleaning alone may be estirnated, hcwever, by cornparing the total pow-er rrput to that which would
be required by an ordina,ry devi& such as I crl:
lifugal fan. The power compariscn shouid be
based on the gas flow- and required static pressure
external to any gas cleaning device. Sometimes
the rating data of the "coabined" .y*pe of equipment are pubiished il terms of totai pressures, but
uniess the installation is specifically engineered tc
recover tfie velociiy as useful energy, the total pressures should be reduced to static pressures and the
comparison made on this basis.
(b) Utilities Conxnnption Other utilities such
as waier, fue-I, steam, and compressed air, may be
required, and their cost should be included in
performance evaluation. Whether average or in-

equipment due io Preszure

x 9!Y^ X d

H.P. : iheoretical

il
f
:l

:P,

lL,!+3
rulrl .

0.075

Some gas
devices (as a wet scrubber
"lsaning gas may appreciably alter
on high-temperature
)
the physical properiies of the carrier gas. In such

in available mechauicai euerg;v due

to statjc pressure ln the carrier gas, from iniet to
exit of the device, should be estimated by Equation
case the change

,t

(Eq.12-s-)'

tr D

_ (P,x CFli X d),"- (P. X CFM X d)^,t

where:

in = input
aul : outrut
P. = static pressure, in. w.g.
otier uuits as before

In

dre effect of the alteied properties

of the carrier gas ( temperature, deusity, moisture
content, etc. ) on. the d"ty and power consumptioa
of the air moving device should also be considered.
A combustion operation or hot process'may be
operable on natura1 draft withcut a separate air
moving de.rice. In some such cases, a $as cleaning
device w'iih very 1ow pressure loss is included to
oDerate on ihe aaturai stack &afi; a dbvice with
such

cases,.

ryou.ld require ar:_riliary fans,

or fcrce<i cr induced draft fanJ aot otherw.ise requirec. In ihis circr.rmstance it seems reasonable
to nct charge the low dratt loss equipment w-ith

w'here:

f,

grearer pressure-Croq

one of the above that presents ccmpie;oties of

on the aszumption ihai gas veloci;;;t;;;;i.
;;. fr; the discharge of the gas cieaner rio not
.*"t"rt useful "o"t!y, the pressure drop is 'iethe change In static- pressure trom ialet
fi.iJ
";
fange to ouilet flinge of the gas cleaurng device,
nq,r?uo., i9-4 enablis the calcuiation of
"heoreCcel
movtng
ho-rsepow*r, and the ef&ciency of th9 gas
de,rice anci driver ( usualiy about 50 to 60{5 lor
centrifugal blower and eleclric motor) is used to
estimatJaclaal horsepow'er. Eouation 1!'4 is valid
for gas cieanirg devices that produce negligible
change in the phvsic.al proper:iies of &e carrier gas.

ET

il

F.RT'OR}I,IN CE Tli S.iiNIC

cremental cost shouid be used depends on ihe local

conditions an<i cost accountiag praciices. Availabfity and cost of aciequate waste disposal should
be included (see Chapter 13).
(") Nlainterwnce. ,\{rintenance of the equipment and replacement'of components, although
in some cases important as a cost factor aione, have
a more sigiiificant aspect in termfof continued aad
reliable performance of the main function---contuol
of the air poilution source. Some of these aspects
may be a matter of judgment, related to the process
involved, and iiot ieadily reduced to equivalent cost
ternas.

Some types o{ equipment require either- elaborate-conEols or continual att'buttffilr: operate at

top eftcienc/; others require complete shutdowu
for replaeement of key elements, sonae frequently
and others infrequently; some require reliable pr+.
tection from freezing, others are subject to corrosion. These aad other factors should be erzaluated
against lfie process or bperation being coutolled
for availabfity of meintenance time, economic
a.nd practical feasibility of shutdoraro, e{fects of

Y
AIR POLLUTION IvIANUAL

134

and similar opereting tactors'

Other fac/l\ U]i;rcellaneorx Reln'ted Foctors- or
economt
technical
&e
,^il'**".t,iv not Dart of
equipmeat itselr'
"o"u'01
in the o"erall installa-

{olpm"oi'

i:";Xffil.";i

i "11H;;-ut
"h;
"o*iaut"a
the nuisance catetion. Inese are ffequentiy in
much ol
sory, and

if

not

*ltU"#a

may undo

Piiot
contaminant contici problem'
tf-..1-.,::":l
adequate
scale resting can oe equllly
aud provrsron is
tr*rfi"g loiaticn can be obtained'
pilcr stream
the
of
*ia;Tr? lrot io"o" withdrawal
when
-'F;tdrequired'

to a specific

collection eficontinued operation at lowered bvpassing th"

of temporarily
^icnnv nossibilirv,_

iliii

II

long enough
all
throughout
to ne.rmit o"tfot'o'of"-"'"1""tioo
whethprocess'
the
in
I.p"'1ta ''"'iables
o" loncr or short term cvcles' and incluCing siarfup
Such iests wiil permit
-d::'' evaluacon
' :;d ,;1;";-

l"t,t"g

should

be

conducted-

::rffiili;

trucks.haul-

ntY,:i::1
;*""iil,;;" efficiencT, pressure
oDerauonar
immeciaie
anv
and
;[; consumption'
retuued iI

IT5T/NG
12.6 LABORATORY Y5. FIELD

data on
qas passaqes are Gesueu'
sion, or piugging of.
might
The loregoiog "oJ"otig"t if fi"ld,testing
of
use
for
be consider*a 't'o"g it""o**""dation process'
:;;;';;;'t"o"u" " oo-the same :l
'1*t*'

it*XT ",t",* ::"H

:*
fro* i*pi.o-poiy

riil ",r"*",:: :" 4#

ooiludon controi' rr
-ole,

dusting

"q"ipp"a liom iarge'

ins dry dust; excessiv"'ooi'"'-ot"ally"
settiing
tE.:;"* 1^r* o' *;;;; and odors.{rom
ponds.

advantage of
The laboraiory possesses the
controlled conunder
tesiing for collectioo "ffi'"i""tv
of ductwork'
&tions, with propei-"'''"!"-""
minimize
otl"ifacilities.to
sampling stations,'oa
the errors'

other--standpoints' how-

f'o* 'tl*iail
l' **tft"ary inJerior

ever, laboratory testin-g

to field

testing'

'e exceptions' it is highly imi5 dupiicate' in the laboractical if not impot*if"

the carrier gas and conffi,"}l',o.lt"p"iti"t
"r
in-the applicatamilant that wiu ne encountered
cannot.":,"
*tst cases the potential userthe;;;;
sample-of
rePrtrs'ul'*;;r;;il.--Even
furnish
[urnrsh a representative
a simple
for :t:.*T:
anY
in
Prattical
;;1
dust control svstem, ;;iil;'*t tT:t^Y"*1';
* -l'"t' nor even that
ffi'u:TX:' illl", ?ri"*
collector' is rePresenta;ffiJ ; ;;; ki"J oi *1l1
be presentgd at the
dve of the dispersion;;;
io th" (.pioposed)
inlet of the gas "lt*t*ft""i""
sample
,"p."r""tative
,
new installation. Evil=it
of
w-oul{.1o'frn
pt"Ui"*
t[?
could be obtained,
in
be
will
H;;fi*"n-i" tn" fitl;t"'v as it
"he
ffi ffi ;p"ri:*eq-r:f":,;:,*'ffi:::iJ"l*,",,:il
Wiih a few

Possrot

eration, adsorbect au

see Chapter

A;;;'^"d otU* t"pnyti"al-properties

tUit aim"Ury are a) g?tare
:'^
Exceptions
2).
'i;.;;'J
p-.obl"mt where the c9nlamlnants
Jt*i""t entities'-a.ud
ideatifiable
the entire product
"oa'"p'oioJii"
b) oneumati"
"o""ffi'-*ntt"
;#Lr sls" EYen rl such cir3 ffitrJ;v-E"

to' full size

iuastances,,"^t"-oi*t'o*"i'bo'"tory
;#"';;;;t prob[ms' Furt]rermoie' laboratory

ffit J * ;':fi-,1*,Hlttt""1,':?f.,:H;:o""',"any
determine

Perrc

po*', and u'uility requiiements'

*itl a1I its problems.of incoovenil.tlv -v'"jd' the best
t"ro';";i;"['of p;;;;;-,
::J";#'"r"u*e -"^Gfi; ti"d or equiPment
eficiency,

lection"
'""f,i.ia'rtt*i"g,

;ffbH'ru,i"h'iG;;
f"-g Y*:: ccst' coromaintenancJ and replacement

butthisisnotnecessarily.so.}Iost.airpoliucon
''f" exception o{ a fenaz
conirol equipment, *iUl
is not siven
;";l;t;;-o? "gt"*ot" installations'u:":
ot vendor
?i""u"n bv either

-=,1;"'i"ii"i"rr

and "successfuli''
once ihe installation is on stream
considerable
If the installation o ""t'titi^"tory' -a
if it is
but.not
obtained;
amount o{ data *;y t"
regulations' the
satisfactory' ff ,tqili""d [1 i93't
rate of
output contaminanl concentration-or-mass
data
good
Bu't
tested'
emission may be p"itai*Uy
paother
all
*od almost
on the inp,,t "ooJitioo' -m
of
absence
usual
rameters will be lj;G
main'n" records'
ouantitative, oblective iaintenance
it

"hisl"' because
a
":
i.'"j*"it frrghfv '[gr""ating.to !"1" P maintain
only inoiece of oo.,ptoa,iStioo "qiip*"ot' ,The files' the
il;"";;"";;;;t ;ti[" io tl" vendor's
;;';il;'&"iu- c'..r:oot"d ard sold' and

t#J"*;ii;illilu"

q""t"a

ilii.

from the actual opffi;; difier in laigidegree

installatioE runs
il',iri'"o"ditions' B'ot "i"tt the
tr""d;pt time and
rnto diffcuitv, oo o#i"i1i'"t
Thus mu& of
moneY to det"t"'il"th;*;"1;s'
r'"u";'"g bv time and
ffi '
"i'J
t;i;;t'sca11v verified or
reperitiou, u"' ""'?l;"

*J;l;;#;fi

correcieo-

t2.7 SAFEffiRfQU'IRE//EN7S FOR

field testing rtay
Altbough arraugements for
reoresent
should-still
they
be temporary * ;;#;
*a
"*"u
ryS9U'"e'should
adequate safety' Tritftit*t
u'"a'ails and similar
be sicure *d pt;ie;i
equipment should be
sa{ety pro'*.i'ioos'- Uiu"t'i""t
Elect{cal Code
u"tii"if
rounded, *o "ool"o-Jl"
-1o"tti"n'
Interlocks or guards
with hieh voitage'
should prevent """iJtt"t coniact
If toric or dangerous contaminants are' invoive4

rfi#*";il}* t;

4
d
A

e
4
a
q
d
e
I

F
#
6
F
F

e
*

d
#

il

rli]::wffi. : i.:,ri:..i(.:-;-:::.

:rr:, -:t

i,

PERFORMANCE TESTING

persoBal protective equipment or temporary Iocal

ventilatioi should pt6to't ag2inst both acute or
long-term rxposure. lff- the gases being sampled are

4aJ'nable, alpropriate preiauti6ns should bq -t*en. Hoisab8,i"otiu"., iven if manual, .3:{U U:

availabie so tlat awkward tools aud equipment are

uot garrie'd up ladders. Hard hats ,ho"ii L, *o*
if advhable. Weather protection may be neeCed
for persorneX: g{ ugig;ent. In.. r}orq of"t, pr=cautions should be adequate to the task

DISPCSAL OF CCLLECTED

1s/

MATERIAL
CONTENTS

13.22

ia.r:

13.1 lntroduction

1'1 Waste Sources

'ig.i.z
uttimate BisPosal

13-3 Liuuid Wastes

Solid Wastes

13.4

13.2

Salvage and Ultimate D-isposal

Volumle Reduction for Disposal

3'

ii.i.:

15,3..l 0riginsandCharacteristics

Public control

13.2.1 0rigins

ii.i.z

Treitment and DisPosal

Summary

in a
carried. arvay from the collection equipment .
are
suspended'
il;id ;"#, *h.th"t dissolvednotorincluded in ''he
and so are
#;ddilq,rids
I*Ui *"rt"." category' In gener-al' waste materials
dry or wet'
,fr* ."" be handled as solids' whether waterborne'
.", be permitted to become

13,1 /NIRODUCT/ON
Industrial operations and manuf acturing
of ''ie
p.o""rJr-"1*o"t 'o""it'bl1, resul1 tn poilution
disposal of
environment, causeq by the necessary

t""fa
il"tlo"fa

be &isposed of in solid form'

total quanIn air treaffrent equipment a smaller waterborne
in
coilecied
is
tiirr-nt waste material
fot*' lVastewater cha'racteristics'
f#r;;;a.y
significant from the
;rtie;- -"-,ir,'tty more-d'isposal
is..much more
oipou"tio'", and
;:;;,
Strearn
solids'
for
rlifffcult for watery wastes than
today's
asPTt
,of can be
i"*u"["" "rnuol is " "t""ttoy. p-ou"tioo
obpcuot'abl"
It,iiJr*" bt"^o.t
o{ ce:tain wa;;;J;r;"ty t*"11 concenbations
erist in the
;;tl;;'*at;rials' Th;; pollutants
form'
suspended
#;;'1; ait.oi""a, coiloidal, or
or
removal
ff;J "f ,""u wastewaters-equiris
consdobieitionable
the
of .
professional field in itself'
- tuents.- This is an entire
its solution should
;;, d;*rp" of tl";;Llil andcontol'
;;';til;ed in air Pollution

lrii9: .?1d,fH
;1""*
m
teriai contamlnaflon
^Xnffidii},"o,"f
the environment
phase
of
;;;^;;;,i*"'
'r,'u
fresh water
ff; b;ffie polluted''thl atrnosphere'
and- land sucaces'
ocearl'
thu
ff#;;ilIIk",,
at'*fit";;;;i
l; devoted to the controlofo{that
practice
but in tle
**;*l; polution;
qsstaminatioo *ty be caused in
"r"#"f,^t""5"J"y
*ouitonments' The fault is not
d;;;il;troh
often results from
;"-;ffi^; "t*otpi'"ti" poihrtion
of sewage a1d water;;"'ilild""-r"ia a*pital
and from tle desb-uction
;;;;;;;ttrial waste-spoteniial
land pollutirg madecav of
;;;rtd;r
c&ert the-&schapter
;i.t lt;"i-r" t'"'n'--rLs
th9 processes
I

ilil**"irilt.r,

-^",1 of waste materials collected 'n

ano
5ffi ;*fi;"tio", i"ai"^F"g.F it,significance
and
water
1f
their confroi ", pot"oti"-pZU"t^"ts
land.

13.1.2' Ultirna+e DisPosal

13.1.1

'*tlw in

Waste Sources

di' Most of &e waste material collected

&e
in
is
equipment
polloUoncontrol
,ii

av- collectors such

iH "id; ;H;;;.m*
-electrostatic precipiip.tol
;;;1"#, fllters, aud
ot

Ea#t-t"UJ'wastes result hom &spo-sable Darts

b"qt. Td
the treatmen. **n;;;'t,,*;rt'"t"f
addition'
In
carbon'
;;;;;h.*iLrt
"'
''""h
i".T:t.collection
as
sludges
obtained
are
ffi;[A
or setL"*o"J.",, ""a are formed as precipitates
of
.waste.waters
iftf,ttf"agZt during the processing- Solids
ihat are
ffi"';;?-;ollecti;'n eqriipment'

Waste-materials from an industriai

for reuse in
process -ry ,o*"ti*es' be salv'aged
of eccas-Fffioducis
the orocess' o, ,""o't'"'eti
recovervalue. Ilost waste, howe'er' is not
even when aliow";;f
;;f;" aa ecotomic basis-not
of treatment'
in
ffi;; -ra. for the saving-s
-cost
o{' away
disposed
then-be
il"Llri"rals must

*rr*acfuring area' Disposal may !e into

*,n."^*rtpn*e,
tr*,4.
to a o'if'"" stream or ground'l-ater'
of these' con; th" o"&o, or on land' With any
and care
occrlrs'
environment
;;-l#; if tn*
is not
contami::adon
this
that
exercised
;*t b;

f36

DISPOSAI LlT COLLECTED }IATERIAL

r37

har@ful to the public, damagrng to property or

property rights, or estheCcally objecccnable. Recovery of waste materials, though aoi usually feasible, should al'rzays be the first contu'cI orogram
considered.

The first step in disposal of nonrecoverable w,aste

should be a reductjon in its volume. For examule,
a fow of, a miilion gallons per day of highly contaminated w-astelvater can perhaps be converted to
a_ppronmate.ly a mlllion gallons per Cav of water
,Iat is pure enor:{h to release to a steam. plus a
t-e',v cubic yards of sludge that can be buriid or
orherwise disposeC oi. Even ihe sludqe inay be iur-

ther reduced

in volume pnor to buial, Uy arr"rng

and perhaps incineration. The uitimate ciispositlon

oi waste materia.i lhus incluies &scharge of most

of its voiume as nonpolluting gas or

liq"i"j, ,"d ih"

d1pogl of a small vclume of soiid that
is also nonpoIutrifrf ietained on a land area.
The disposal of solid wastes frcm air cieaning
equipment is simi-lar to the ciisposai of other solj
wastes. The eccnomic signincance of ,;olume re_
duciio_n, as by incineradon, is sublect to ,caJcula_
tion. Wi& or wiitout such reCuction, uiti:nate discontuollinq

posal is on land, whigh- may be on ccmpany prem_

et
fi

ises or.at a municipal <iumpiag area. If the

iastes
are oDlecuouable rn nafule, or may become so by
weathering or decay, they may be teated, b;"d,
or compcsted to relnove this characteristic, or tliey

may be buried.

The disposal of liquid wastes involves

.,fl .:'d
i

;fl

fl

il
t
g

tleir

con_

to aonpolluiants. It is not necessary that

:;":rio*
Lhis etflueat be absoiutely pure, but
it may be necessary to purify it suftciently for release
to a nat_
'ura.l sEeam or ]ake. State authorities
have the rerponsibility for estabEshing criteria of ourity for

,h;"y;;;* i#'# -rl

of this

such discharge, Lhough

increasing assumpti_on

:::
tbe i ederal government. It has always
-F

been ai-

other
or", oa;;;;;"ypriority,
ic the public. Tt" -ii_f96G,
have showa a b-end toward'strici* ;tJ
of waste
discharges, though the ultimate ."j;;;f;;;;;
mand
detrimental to

aor objecrjonable

:11
urat

are not acceprable

must be pretreateC

acceptable, or.mlst fy
be

Indusir_ial wastewaters

in Se municipal
,1,l*

sew_ers

ird**H;";der r.hem
disposeC-"i f"
means.

rrereamtent rs Lbe usual practice. "af*,

TreaEnent of waterbarn"
..,ir-rrt", may be simply
the sefJing of suspenoed sollds,
o. mli"'elaborate
cnemtcal cr bio.logcel-procsssing

secondanu rreat_

mdnf) mav be needed. !V:ih eirticular5z touble

some wasies, even ihese :roced*.,
-*y not be
""
adequate. and fuither ireriinent i, ;;d&.""'
13.1.3 Public

.!

Confi.ol

rrir_cnment,,'xffi i.:"d1ff.#, *",, jJ"bj" rT.

u:dustry should be a,rzare also of p-ubiic ouinion
on this matter, whch rrav be *ore iest.i"U; .h;;
Lhe aetoal la'.v. Neigir-bori:ocFp"bti" ,ulrtioo,
,r..
an_impcriant aspect of inCushy m,anaqement.
Regulation of the disposal oi solicj w-astes is the

:-b

based on aay nuisance che,z mav creaie

"; ,n"
bulk as a tactor in loading o. orrerloadi"";-A;+
A"nicrqll refuse. disposal facfities. if 1iq,_rid ,vastes
are ftscharged to a municipal sewer, they are sub_
ject to control because of potential damrqe to the
sewers, to the treatment piant, or to tle f,eahneat
process.
.Alternatei;r, liquid wastes may be dis_
charged. dlecjll to a surface sheam, by permission
and. contuol of the appropr:iate state authlriry
or of
an interstate agency or the Federal government.
aray- be permissibie if the storage capac:old*g
ity is adequate and if no pr:blic nujsance ii creaied.
13.2.1Origins
Dry methods of air cleanine yiejd solid
wastes directiy, as from cyclones *j bth", *"_
Fq""ri units, filters, and electrostatic precipiiaiors.
Such solids can be E-ansported dlrectlv to-ieclama_

tion ope-rations, to dffisal iacilitjes, o, to io"io"rut-ols an$ other volumi redgciag processes.plior to
disposai. Attentiou qrn.t-U; gi"aJ,o._r""ni srpifiot -complete purit-rz cannot be acliieved as
cant propertes as ilgb tempeia-tur6, dustiiess,
long as industries and communitjes are permitted
to
flammability,
or toxiciti. The ivastes
a-j..+
n. Uo_
r&(dled manually in smell quanti.U,es, or by
"*:rWaterbcrae w-astes from air d63ning, togetfier
and otier mechanical equipment io lrrg. units.
"oor"roru
Air
with other indust"ia.i w.astewaters, are-ofien dis.'
may
reoccur
ollytion
by
;-;G;;li;;;i;*.y
charged io a mun:cipai sewer. Thi, p.-r"t". is 2b.
ro}9r;.l is preveniabie'by use ot
jeci to reguia5on by the sewer autfiorities, and
in
air. Dam,pen_
lalrn iltrau9n or recyciing of exhaust"lo."d".""irr"r,
some muaicipalities a seq/er use fee is required.
rqg or,wett'ng down uay be used for
cooling^aad
Certain wastes are not acceptablg *"h ,.'fla*conbol of dust; flushing wi& water i" * Ayair*li"
ma'ble liquids; others are resfrcted in their
eoncenbansport qvstem soiveJ maay problemsbut rbaa

- {E6fD

13.2 S;OL\D W/5IE5 _.--.*

autlority by

sumed that reasonable and realisUc ures

of most
skeams include the tran_sp_ort of man-made
wastes,
after such treatment and ?ilution th"i it
,r* oot

quantity,
:1rrlor9""r:
:]_l"taicompouads.such as settleabte matter

'*

:'rar-- :

ttl

POLLUT1ON }'(ANUAL

hnmc

u,fi;,y"i.,n:*iii*""3$"*:l:,"
*;;,Y"'.'r:Htiifu':l;**ff
.uch as scrubbers

an<

II

th::':T:il',* Hl'#"hE":f 'T

,*}'t'iif"}:i:JiJ,".';'"1"##ff';+*:i
waste. judged.{'?T

,"."JJ"t n':l#_f:"'.i1,;1ffi

;'

ffi+l*d:::

-+r*ti+ffi#ffi grggfilf#ffi

rliffi
'.';

d
ifi$:ilk*;"":il1 ffi*
*Hff$:lilffiZ

U*'*r*****;1ffi
*fffflffi-ffi"#;i'*ffi*
tffi*ffi"td.-"
f.1i':t"t?tTt #'efi*x"""":"
i#f;*$-ii

-ffi'-#f

dffiffi,,rfiffiIff:',r,*ffi
#*hirilirT::i:x..,ip;',1+'#i;+*

t#g,.;lt

**

r;:r

*5'-*-**,$'3$q,-"i{;$
fi#Hffi;#,Hfi1$*Tiujff$fi
f"l

;:fj",*"t';i'.liflht 1l;#,'-*;;"n* """t *i"*ii*,"::*

vwru"" iI{il*:"f,*'rffi
organic vapors.
,ru;":;* i?t'#"i::prr
,
$2

2truf#*1J+':i*

=
2
fr

;'j**li,ii*- #*"'** Y
e
i,r#t"[

.- :
r'"*
qrr:1*fi:ltffit^n"#*'if;
ii5"*
'ff};.?i;#,'irui**
it should be undert:
be
disPosal should

ffinUf--'sm4;-*6ggi $;--fi*'m-+*m:*l;;**;.*
**s-f_'4pn=;5***Urqfui"'Tf'j,+=*q",Hr$ffi9:ffi
::l* #".il"
iuhlt'*-e
*"'ieG*a*u"1'io;
llf*Hhr+'H*f#"'"f"""-,Hi
in
air creanruE
lected
where
bath
metal

"o,'"9, ::{*t"f#

t"J,T#}XrT"*ilt**l/l-fo*o

i
I

i+e;[J*r"*;g5**'*frlt['$j:='r*'t,l,g-:,;H*:{trii**H*r
oP"'"
ffi;Y*"P"r*;"'""'il;o''"*

,
#

tr

il
il
il
il

DISPOSAL OF COLIECTED

,I

t
til

ril
E

.JNE

'i

:'ffi
i;

:t

ij

ril

VATtri.I.[
1?O

wastes and required in the mi.xed product, and the

Orgaoic wasie
,ud,"""d i,,"ril."

HI ::T":Ha rr""Sff rr;:

fi !'Xl"::;,T' :;"::-T::,"';;r;; "l:Ttt"s",
* ";sqxi: fi trt"":H,1"
:l:n;q;;
Tfi:
"
y".lo*q indusuies

relative quanlity of .=ch waste.

Dewatering ca_n be accomplished either by the

removai oi hquid waier or by the evaporatiou of
water as vapor. f-ne larter, properly called "dryingi,
requires heat and is cractical onh- if cheap, walie
heai is available. In dry regions of the iouthern
United States, soiar or atrnospheric heat mav sufice;
in the northern staies, sludges do not usuaiiy dry
merely bv exposure to the weather. Protectjoa from
rain and snow. wi.ihout retarding air ciculailon.
may sufice; usually added heat is necessary, aud
the whole operalion is impractical. It is pracriced
only when reeuired, as in preparirg tcxic, organic
siudges for detoxication and disposal by inciiera_

fo. ttl"-a*rpTr""l' of soiid or

lquid indus.fral wastes. ti-"r*#*""ilrely
feaslble
for air eleaning rvasres;to;;,"i";;.t
wastes mav

lhe other mo;;

for digestion oo composune.
:ir:1,
.rruuges are
someijmes w,ashed, or ejufuiaifu,
to
render drem u:ore .o*p*.tiiriJ;;;
readilv de_
warered. fls procesf is not
feasibl" ;;";,*"; ,h.
large scale i":lcal .f *""lcprl';;;"
treaarcni

i{f :I',}",'

Nlechanical dewatering, by drainage of excess

water, is acccmplished on siudge dryirrg beds, ffI,
ters, or centrifuges. The iast lwo are Jostly, and
are used oniy for recoverable materjals 'or for

. that -require incineration.

ecuipment.
13

presumably,

.3

UQU

tD

\ry,ASIES

.6

13.3.1 Origins and Characteristics

ine liquid wastes irom ajr pollution
control equipment are mostiy w.aterborae.
Non_

of-and
t}le water is lost bv vaporizatjon, so thi
process is subject to tie iimitationi discussed above.
most

Most organic sludges and many inorganic precipi_

tates such as metal hydroxides'simpli *lll iot de_
water iJ dumped on land or into a pii, but hold
tl-reir moisture anri semifluid consisten& Ior months.
The satisfactory disposal
{eguires eithei heat drying

aqueous wastes occasionallv occur, such

as solvents
by coudensation and oils from enfuainment separators. pure solvents can be reccvered

recovered

or

I-iii

:i"* ii*.ru."t*r,,tu H
ilo* ,i; ;;U,ruo, co*l

and o&er solid wastes

siudge drying beds permit water to drain from tlie

siudge
to escape. into &e ground; actually

miing with other solids.

Incineration is th9 most wideiy used operation
for reducing ihe volume of waste before disposal.
Organic wastes can be destroyed almost complitely;
inorganic constjtuents *"
least dried
pr'._
"i otherw.ise
tially consolidated. Toxic and
^"a
obiecion_
able ingredients are destuoyed if they ,r" o.g.ri",
but there is no removal of meta&; *-po.r"otr.
lletailic and other inorganic residues, il io*i", must_
be disposed of, ultimately, where they-cannot contaminate potentially potable surface o, grornd *a_
ters, The incineration of tash can be aclomplished
by gpen burning; sludges ,"a
,o"i,
"o-p*Jrotia,
as dusts require speciai equipmeni.
llany indus_
bies operate incineration apparatus for A.ash; with.
propel lnitial design, this can be adapted io de_
stroy both wet and dry wastes from air pollufion
conqol equipmeni. hovision may be
;;
".';;
furtfe5 air pollurion by smo(e, ott .i
p"rti""_
,a-void
late material, or vapors. Auxiliary heat, eiiher oil
or gas, is furnished for ignjtion and for continurlg
operation with wet or dlmsrlg, combustible mal
terjals. fncineration r.rely carses complete destuc.
tion of -waste, but the residual ash is, loi in volume,
by decay, a"a-fra., tn" o6",
9*:*posable
uonable
characteristies of organic wasies.

;,j;;;; iliJ*;

li:fl:th
"*rtl"ll",

lion.

sludges

for reuse; oils and-mixed solverrt, ,r" oot urrrrlly

recovered except for fuel use, often as auxfiary
tnet for an incinerator. Aqueous wastes, from
scrub'bers, spray towers,.and oih., ,o pro"Lriog equipment, are almosi alwavs poliutionaj. and tf,eir'disposal requires considerabL care.
The poiluiionai characteristjcs of waterborne
wastes may be caused by
- ligh temperature or by
materi.al contamjnatjon. ThJ
-latter' can e:jst in
suspended, dissolved, or colloid.al form. and
treat_
ment-is_necessarily different for each. Hot wastes
are objectior:,able in streams because they kill fish,
red.uge
.o*lS.p solubility, and accejeraie chemlcal
ancl bioiogical reactjons. In sewels, hot wastes
ac_
celerate corrosicn aqd, obiection"bj" d""o*position
of sewage. A maximurn^temperafure or temperafuie
risg m streams is specjfied ty ,o*" poliutjon con_
troi agencies, and ia_effect prohrhits,hot discharges;
in sewers; a fpical ,e*"i o.dirrance bans wastes
hotter than 150oF as discharged. pietreatment by
air cooling.or by diludon
pro*a"J to-**i
these requirements.

"rrr"b.

Suspended contaminants jnclude insoluble

ma_
terials in maav forms, to& ieor!r*"-r"Arigrrr..

ler

*1r..trc inert,- such

;fi"";l?

.. irr,,

chemi_

cai precipitates and siuCges; aud liquids

of oilv

na_

I",,rteam-s, such
H:. aesthetically
-.o"i^*t"^ul, " "il.i"r"_
aote
and becausb
of slud.ge deposits

ldHfi$i$&g

AgCX&Hsi

s$tl{)i-:CA

i{(

I'iii':;*''d}i

CX?{ lfr

r'

re

a
AIR POLLUTION NIANUAL

r40

formed by settling. In sewers, heavy solids may

cause clogging of pipes and fiIling of manholes'
Lishter sulpencieC soLids pass lfuough io ihe t'eai,n""rt plrot-and are removable there, though- :!ey
*ry Jrrrt" an overload on settling tanks- sludge
-and
iranahng meciranisms, digesters, dtyi"g beis,
sewage
Vlunicipal
other sludge disposal processes.
tyfi"rttv c"ontains about 200 milligrams per liter of
rlrp*"d"a matter; an equal concentralion is usuaily .
prorrided that '
i"rliit"a in industriai- &scharges,
unusually heavy griitike matter is excluded' In
streams, the usual criterion is appearance; so suspenCed solids must be removed almost compietely
Lefore discharge. Floating oiLs are compieteiy unacceptable in streams, and are banned-fiorn sewers
beca-use of the fire and explosion hazard.
Dissolved contaminants i.n wastewatert are more
dificuit to remove than suspended matter, and are
of equal or greater siglificance. Soluble- gases are
.ro""i"ll, important in waters that have been used
to wash such*grses from air; among the poliutional
S-9::- SO., H,S,
gases that commonly occur^I"i*id". of nitrogen, NHr, HCl, HF, HC'\, an<i Cl'.'
Some of these Can be destloyed by simple treatment
like neutralizaliort, others require elaborate processing. Dissolved O- is a usual and desirabie comoorr"it in natural streams, CO, is not usually a
iroblem. Dissolved solids may -r1to b9 pollutants'
included commonly are ions of Na, Ca, Mg, thg
hory metals, Cl, SOr, PO,, and CrOr, and organic
substances.

The principal objectionable characteristics that

may betcaus"d by dissolved matter (including gas-

es)' are: extremes of pH (acidity or alkaliniqv),

headness, taste and odor, toxicity, frotJr, radioactivity, chiorine demand, and orygen demand' The
last is particularly significant in steams,-as it re'
drces oi destroys the Eissolr.d orygen in the stream
and makes the water useless foi aquatic-lifu and
generally unaesthetic. It is m-easured by the BOD
fbiochemlcai oxygen demand) test or the COD
(chemical orygen demand) test.
Coiloidal coit"mio"ots that cause water pollution
may be inorganic, such as insoiuble salts, or organic,
of which, thJ worst is emuisiffed oil. Su& pollution
is objectionable because of its tubidij and--*apits potential for causing-oil slicks, and for
p"t
"rr"",toxic^ and other undestu;ble properties of
io, &"
dissolved pollutaats.

13.3,2 Treatment and DisPosal

11re prelimit ary beatment of water'
borne wastes. begins wi& drawing them ofi lrom
aheady settled solids. Sometimes; at this stage,
*turgl cr recovery is possible. Oils and combus'

1I

dble solvents, ior exampie, may be usei as lue1. T

Perhaps most important, the aqueous Liouid. itseli*r, 6" reused in its earlier anplication as a scrubber, usr-,ally 'mth partial puriicadon fust. The ouri- T
ficarion mav be as simple as removal of readily settleable solids, and bleeding off of a portion of the

sbeam io preveni excessive buildup of ciissoived

matter.
lVastew'aters that are not to be reused in the
process usually require treatment before discharge,

their quandry and &eir degree of contami:ratjon are both sma1l. Ii is generally easier l:o treat
wastes while they are concentuated. raiher than aner diluiicn with diferent or weaker '*astes. T.ris
is not always pracCcal but carelul stud,v should be
made o{ r}e merits of different blending scheriules.
Nl plant wastes should finallv be blenCed, for dilution anci equalization, before release; this inclucles
waste",rzaters from all air pollution control sources.
indusirial process wastes, and perhaps sarritalv
wastes and spent cooling waters. Obviously, the
average plant presents many possible schemes or
progtr*t {or cJmbining or segreg,ating wastes, and
ih"i"t.rr" and trealment needs of each must be in-

un-less

T
T

I
T

vestigated.

Physical treatrnent is less costly than treatmeni

processes involving chemicals; with some wastes,

phvslcal treatment is adequate, with others it serves
the overall cost. Reducti.on of temperaio i"do".'cooling
towers, spray ponds, or open lature, by

goons, is widely used to condition wastewater for

i"r-rr. * for &scharge. Heating is less common, but
may be ernployed to "break" emulsions ot, in an
exteme case, to evaporate a pariicularly irouble-

for easier disposal'

wideiy used operation iri
most
Settling is the'
is
used on raw waste either
tre'at'nentiit
wastewater
as soie treatrnent or as preliminary treatment for
more elaborate processirfo; it is ,'itd oo final effluents to rernove precipliiies aud other suspended
solids that form during treatrnent. Equipl'ent may
Le simple or complex;If bnd area is ave'ilable, most
indusfres orefur-to use large lagoons for settiing'
Some of th^ese overfcnv their clarified efluent continuously; o&ers--with small inflorr, hgve no overand percolation
fo* "tl" U"t tuly o" evaporation
-TliFIolids,
"t
of course, acliquid.
to eliminate-ihe
if excesiive, ttey can be removed for
"rr*oltt",elsewhere. ryftiiog provides the m-a1or
.disposal
t'eatnent for water-coilecteJ fly ash, cement dusl
and iron oxide wastes; and ofteu produces salvagsludges.
able
--ijtl.i-ilysical
operations include: skimmiag of
oils and floating solids, usuaily carried out in conou"tio" with seitling; flotation, the use of air bubbles to foat oils and solids that neither settle nor

E
E

E
I

some waste to dry-ness,

E
E
E

I
I
T

1-

ia,*" .

.l

'

{.
Ei

.+ltr
fi **'

:#
i

--"8 x

il
il
il
1-

I
I
i

il

!r
!il

il
il
,&il

#
:.s
g

r
r
E

DISPOSAL OF COLLECTED -VI.1TER]AL

floar readiiy without such aid; screenins; filiration:

and centr-i{uging. The more elaborate eouipment
is general.ly costly, but may be justrfied because
of lower space requirement, more easily reccverable
products, or oifier reasons.
Chemical keabtent is necessary if..po.llutants are
in soludon, and may aiso be usefi:_l in aidiag physi_

man; iis detailed discussion

is not jusi_iffsd here.
Biologjcal

beatment is often useful m the

elimi_
of soluble organic wastes, tfrorrelrlt
woujd be
]*C:"
tppleo to arr cleaning wastes only afte,
admr.xfure
w'ith plant process or saaitary wasies.
Biolog:cal
processihg of wastes may be Li&er
aerobic or an_

aerobic; the larter is used onlv

concenhated sheams,

teatmeai. llost often necessary is pH adlust_

ment, especiallv tle neutalization of acid o, ulkr_
cal.

line wastes. Tne needed chemicals are readi]v avail_

able, aad tie techniques of cherrical addiUon and
pH control are well known. Blending cf acid and

alkaline wastes, where ttrese occur in ihe same

plant, ieduces the quantity of purchased neutal_
izdng chemicals needed- Dejiberaie acidiffcation ol
wastewater js used to break oil errulsions. releasing
the oil rn slcjmmable form; the water efluent thei
requires neutralizahon with alkali before discharge.
Coagulants are used to accelerate the setiJing'of
suspended matter that is not easily settleable. ton
sal.ts are mcst commoniv used for ihis purpose
with
indusbiai waster /aters; tJ:e
i"ol"
frf_
-preciprt^t"d
droxide flocculates and settles,
removing colloidal
cg_ffne part-culate maiter as it does so. tontroi
of
pH is necessary for optimum operation; and adeis required after miriag and
3:rl.,t:IIi"g^capacity
flocculating.
Other chemicals are used for tli a"Iiberate p:recipitation of speciic solulle-'contami
nants, such as calcium sulfite for the precipitation

of fluoride.s.

Chemical o::idation, chemical reduction, *wet

combustion" with air at e.levated t"mjerrtor"
pressure, io:r exchange, and^qany otler
unit "oa
o,punit p.rocesses, of
engineeririg
::i1:11TC
_chemjcal
ior
wastes. r.-r-sually, adosphe.il
T:,::.* controi
.specifc
poruuon
does not result in the large quantiHes of such wastes that justify th"r"
t"'"loiqu.r,
exept as the air controi wastes are
ntendea *iih
other plan process wastes. Treatrnent
airporgl_
thea becomes ihe task of th" ;;;;lJr ""a
controt

IJ1

f", ,lrJ;;;;;d';th;;

13.4 SU/UhlARY
The removai of pollutants from arr almcst
al_
ways results in the. formation of solid or
liquid
wastes. These must be disposed of with care,
iest
secondary pollution ensue in the waier or land
phase of man's enviroament. fr*"t r*rri
of such
wastes, at their sources, is a recommendad
practice
to destrov pollutional properties. f,onoGrg ,oeh
teatment, or in lieu of it, solid wastes shoild
be
disposed of on land areas in a manaer that creates
no nuisance and is in accord with 1ocal or&nances;
liquid wastes should be blended *iifi. otlL pUrri
wastewaters for further treatmeut or for
conbolled
release to a stream or sewer in a condition
tlat will
l:,-.r,r. polluUon. Reqrrirements for release may
De stnct,_and great care should be
observed to meet

them. The American pubiic will no morJ tolerate

pollution of its waterways than ol itr-rt r*pUu.",
and there is as much

*-ori to be done lr th; steam

by th"-'"t*ospheric

control engineer
!:lllj:"
potluhon conboi engineer.

",

BIBLIOCNAPHY
1.

2.
'n

4.

{merica.n Fublic Worl<s Association, Mu*icipal

Rafuse

Di,sposal, Public Administration Senice, Chicaso.

1961.
Cc-n"sa*r, C. F., prnlcipbs oi Infu**lWri"'irr*_
ment, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New york.
1g55.
C.
Id.txttut-Wosteuwer Cofircl,
YTy*1.,^
Academic Press _F.,Inc., New york. 1965.

lla:p",
_,C,- N., Chenistrg f.t
ilIcGraw-Elill

Sanitarg
Enghwers,
Book Company,' New yorl<, 1g60.,-

tr
fr
G

GLOSS,4 RY
particles of
Aerosol A dispersion of solid or iiquid
'----*i"ror"opil
such as
media'
size in gaseous
smoke, fog, or mist'
of contact and adhesion
enellrr"t*ioJ
'^"";-h;tt thef process
particles of a dispersion iorrn
clusters of increasing size'
of unwanted materiai
eit i"U"tl"n: The pr"'J'lt"
'*unwanted materiall' here
;; ,h" air. The iersr
concentrations'
t;f"it * material in suficient and
under cirtime'
suficient
,i.r"t t for ' a
with comirterfere'significantlv
to
:;;;;;;s
or
i".t, fr""f*, or welfare ofl"ttotrs' with the
fuI'rrr" and enloYurent o{ Properft'^0'075 po"nq
,r.ir, Startd:' Air *itt' " deniit'7- of
viscosity of
absolute
an
oer cubic foot and
Tqj
(second)'
(foot)
per
mass
fi;;10-; pou"d
at 70oF
air
dry
to
equivaient
i.-*L*rrri^11y
and 29.921 lt. (Hg) barometer'
of the
-{knospheric Pressurei The pressure
-^-^-;ii;t".
'To-t"standard- Ahnospheric,Pressure'- or
'standard Atmosphere" is equivalent to 14'696
p.i * Z9tgZ1 in' ;f mercurf-at 32oF or 33'885

Flv Ash: The fue1y divided particles otr ash

trained in flue gases arisilg from the combustion of fuel. The partieles of ash may contain
iacompletelv burned fuei' The term has been
uppti"i predominantly !o the- gasbome ash
irTm loii"ts with spreader stoker' undeCeed
stoker, and pulverized fue1 (coal) firing'
irrsp.nde&liquid droplets generated by ccnF"g,- -'d".rrition
frorrrthe gasEous to the liquid state'
ot-ily Ut""fi*g up a liquid into a dispersed
,i*t", to"h "t ipt"iiti"g, Ioaming' and atomiziag. Particles are small enough to rernarn rn
srrip"nrion under ordinary atmospheric condi-

packed together
-*"*o; are
-r*iif "ftet tl"J'itl"ttJ
DensitE to
Parttc-lz
t" ;; [""iAA
A. e;trty of in&vidual -Particles'for a system
term
oitpltio"t iire- most generalmatter
suspgq*d. in

fr
fr
G

condensation, sublimation' or chernical reaction

A common exoperation of an

such as oxidation of metals'

is fume generated i" *"
used in
"-pi"
el"ctri" furnacei. Popularly, the term is
contaminant'
types
ail
oi
'of
reference to any
the added
;;i;;;"Y 1#' o""g'lukoot withhave
some
q,raiific"tion tliat the contaminant
unwanted action'
pt"""t" measured above or below

G"g";;"t;",
--- atrnospheric
C..io.-u"'it

pressure as a base-'
of wllght' One pound: 7000 grains'

entrance
Suctiou: Ariibmetic m of .hood
;."i
'-""i;pl*
connectthe
in
thelelocity pressure
ins duct' *:
water vapor
H"",t*;;;LtouiJ rhe weight o{"cubic
foot or
r!.un{s-per
:i
.'"";;.,;Ji""rt*", centimeter'
grams Per cubic
of the actuai partial
Ir#;;;fl;i";;'"rh;Itio
"*';;.il;-or tl" water vapor in a space to the
of p"r-e water at ile same
saturation ***"
=e1to
in various texts as
defined
temDerature'
in-a
the mp-l fraction water vapor
tiril;;i
m
vapor
water
*ir,,*"-t' thlmoi- ft'"tion of
sT

::

saturated_atrafthesir#rrbulbtemperature
and barometric Pressure' '

pressure-.equal to the
rr"rr["Jwrt* dgf ilio{
a col,mn of l\ouid water

consisting ot particilate
and dilution
air or other g"ut, also, the mrxlng
n :a
of contaminant in the afuroqlhere'otr a f,u1c
Entrance Loss: The loss in static-pressure

Dressure

ijen *
X;?ffi "*"iZJ

by

a standard tempera-ture' The

standard teilperature

is

sometimes taken

as

t#"t:*o as 62oF' One inch ol

OoC
"oa
iater at 62"F = 5'197 lb Per sq ft

"*-;;sJ

by friction and tr-ribulence fowing ftom

no velocity (r-oom 'air'
."ni""'of essentially
-;t"
^;";"ff;;;;)
;"d through a hoo<i or duct
oPening'

Fume is a ierm applied to fine' soLid parFume:

by
- -ticies
dispersed in air-6r $ase+ and formed

b;.:
C"i;"
----"1 g""

;Hfi;,h.;";'it

tions.

it

of water.
The mi-rture of gases (frequently air
gas) &at carries'the contaminant manot
terial. domponents of the carrier ga-s are
pollution'
air
cause
to
coislder"d
""*r"UV
g. isibie dispersion occupying a discrete
Cf"ta]--- oo.tion of space, iotith
b-oundaries'
^pp"t"nt
by the-carmateriai-6onveyed
iUu
c""6ilt."t="";;;;- tnrtl*o"ta, if uncontrolled' result in
air pollution.
of the mass of a substance to the
D-#;5;"-;"d"
--loi*"
occupied by the- mass' In practice'
unpacked dennr*i**tyi"f"" io &e loose'mateiial;
PagkeQ
sitv of *"oot','lt po*a"'"a
of granular or powdered

fr

en-

Manometer:Aninstrumentformeasuri4g'press]rre;
"^*I*"tU"ffy a' U-tube partially fi1ied qrith a
1,-l9

E
fr
E
E
E
E
E

!
I
I
t

;ffi$
CLOSSARY

Iiquid, usually water, mercur/- or a light oil, so

constn-icted that the amount of disalacement of
the liquid indicates the pressure b-eing exe:-teC

Ls
Total: The algebraic sum of the velocity
Iiressure and tle static pressr:re (with due re_

Pressure,

earri to sign).

on the instrrment.
,Vficron: A unit of length, the t-housan<ith part of
1 mm or the millionth of a meter. -25,400

-\ measure
Y:, ot al.rvelocity:
or gas posseSses

densation process or a vaDor-phase reaction,

!h-g Ugurd particles being suficienily Iarge to
fall of their owa weight.
Particle Size Distribution: The statisrical distribu_
tion of the sizes or ranges of size of a popula-

I sure is always posiiive.

.', -Relative Humidityr See H,-mt:iditu, Relatixe,

microns : 1 inch.
llist: A visible emission usualiy forrned by a con-

Uon of particles.
Pitot Tube: A deyice consisting of two concentric
fubes, one servi.ng to measure the total or impact pressure existing in an air stream, the
other to measuxe the siatic pressure only. lVhen
the annular space between the tubes and the
interior of the center fube are connected across
a pressure measuring dev,ice, the pressure di{ference automatically nuliifies the- static pressure, and the velocily pressure aloni js
registered.

Plenum Chamber: An air comparlment connected

to one or rnore distributing ducts or slots de_
signed to pro_vide practically equal suction or
pressure at ail points in the chamber. pressure
loss of the flow through the chamber is low
compared to pressure loss through the ducts
or

slot.s.

Pressure, Resistance (Rp): The pressure required

to
overcome the frictional and turbient resistan-ce oj the system to the flow of fluid.
it
rncludes the resist_ance of straight mns of pipe,
entrance to headers,
bends,

elbows, o.ifi""

iosses, cleaning devices, and aij

components.
"th"; ;r;;
Pressure, Static: The potential pressure exerted

jn _
all &rections by i fluid at iest. For a fluid in
qrotion it is measured in a direction norma] to
the direction of fow. Usually
io
inches water gage, when dealine "*.pr"rr"d
with
air.
It
is sometimes referred to as ..reiistance pres_

sute."

ot ihe energv a mass

by virtue of its mociou;
iire amount of energy 'that must be imparted
io a still mass of ai, o. gas in order to ac_
celerate ii to a given ,relolitu. Velocitv pres-

Resistance Pressure: See preszure, Rosistance.

Smoke: An aerosol resulting from incomplete
com*credomi""rtt',

busdon argirSansistn g
-

of small
combosdbf"' *;i;;;i
present in suficieni quantiv to
be obsewable
independently of ocher sollds in the gas sireaflb
Standardrfffioerahqg es{ pr".r,rF (si-p): 70.F
anC 19.321 in. Iig aE6jute.
Static kessure: See presffire,iffi.
=e
Temperature, Dew- point: The temperahrre
at
which the condensation of water vapor in a
space begins for a_gJven state of huml<iity and
pressure as the temperature o{ the vapor
is re_
duced. The temperature correspoiding to
saturation (100% relative humidity) for a glven
absolute humidity at constant p.r.r"r".
Temperature, Dy Bulbr The temperafure
of a gas
or mirture of gases indicated by an accurate
trermometer after correction for radiation.
Temperature, Wet BuIb: Thermodynamic
wet-bulb
temperature is the temperature at which jiquid
or solid rffater, by evaporating iato
bring the air to saturation adiabaticaity"{;;
at the
gasbome oartjcjes

o-f

same temperafure.

Total Pressure: See pressr.l re,-To*al.

Vapor: The gaseous form of substances tiat
are
normally in the solid or liquid state, and which
can be changed to these states eithei by in_
creasing the pressure or decreasing the
tem_
perahrre. Vapors di$use.
Y_ol"T", Specifie The-_reciprocal of densitv
*" -''
pr essrs|, i uioritu._V-elocity Head: See
Yelocity Pressure: See pue&rr,Lre, il:iiitu.
''

;*

.I

--a-

i-

-- ---iE:i,+*#ii-.i

..irr

-,.i:ri"

i..l

jx.:
,,

''

ii'

,!

t'.:

,.n

SJ

fl
{

il
il
il
.,il

iNDEX

146

Costs (Contiurerj,)

Catalytic combustion, I25 -L28

app.lrcahons, 1z /
costs, 127

of a.Fterbumers, I.r.L
of caraiwic combustion, 1!7
of- cycJone ccllecors, 3j
of dust cojlection b1. various eollectors,

efrciency of , 727
fume disposal of, 128
syst"m, 196
operating characteristics, 126

of electicai precipitators, g3
of fabric Eiters, J2

unit, l!6

design considerations, 126'

Chamber scrubbers, 68
Chambers, combustion, 118
Chenical Corps, U. S. -{.rmy, 57
Chen, C. Y., 43
Chrp raps, !8.
Cleaning equipment, labrlc fiiter, methods, 48
Cleaning mechanisms, air pulse, 52
collapse. 52

fabric ilter, 52
reverse flow.52
sonic, 52

'fl

cosrs, J3

Coilection eficiency requirement, wet collectors, 6Z

of collector lerformance; wet coilecrors. 56
Contachng power concept, 65
"Coke boxes'', 44
Collapse cleaning, 52
Collector eficiency, 18
Compar{son

selecrion

.{

of,

ca-lcu.lations, 114
caiaiytic ( see Catalytic combustlon )

devices, 118
fqme, 112

process, J.13
.#

..

.iil

reCuciion of explosion hazard bv. 113

Composition of carrier"gas,'19
of contaminaot, 93
Contaminan! a gglomeratin g characteristjbs, of. 25
catalyst poisonibg by, 25

ccmbustibility,

;H

24

composition, 93
discharged to afoiosphere, amount of, 18
eutering colledor, emount of, 18'
ilow prooerties ot, 15

ioadrng, zJ

sample, evaluating for ccllection method, ?5

solubrlity, 23
SOrtaDttty, :J

gas flow, reliability cf,'06

operating charactenstics, 36
principles of operatibn, 36
po-wer ccnsumpEon of. 36

Contol equipmeni, selecjon of, ig

:-.

13

applicai:ions, 38
gpllcl.tion effic:ency of, 16

ioxicit-y, 24

' Diffusibn,TltraUon
by, 13

"Dust Separat:ng Apparatus", 132

Dynernic precloiiaior, i}S, 3?

reactivity,24

types, 1&.18

of a<iscrpiion syscems,

Darcy's law, 43,46

Deep-bed fflters, 39, 40
applications, 44
giass-fiber packing specficatiors, 46
typical daia, 45
Densiiy of carrier gas, 21
Design of afterburners, 117
ccnsiderarions, cata.lytic combustjon uait, 1g6
parameters, elecirjcal precipitators, 98
._
1D_etermining Dust Concentration in a Gas
Sheam',, 132
'Deterrr.iuin g the Properties- of Finrparticuiate
!Iatter',, 132
Dewatering soiid wastes, 139
y9r solids, I38, 139

sysiems, 52

sonic, 24

eiectrical, 24

,l

I. A.,81

-u-

Disintegrator, mechanical, 7?
Dsposai of collected waste materia_l, 106_141
regulation of, 137
wei collectois, 68 --'
Drying wet solids, 13g
Dust collection, eost- of,,.hy
'4-1ious collectors.. 80
Dust colleciors; cyc.lonic,. i-g
:l - :-'
Dust removal from ejecbical,precipitators, gE, gO

phase, 23

/u- , t

Direct interception of parlicles,

::

hygroscopicihT, 25

'

scnrDDers.

DanieJson,

mechanism of, 113

odor control by, 112

'

wei,70

Cycloue dust coilectors. i2,

<

chembers, I I8
,,$

reiiabrhry of, 33
Cycloues, i7

Collectors, mechanica.l, 17 26
wet (see Wet Coilectors)
Combusdon,119

'

eficiency of. 30
power consumptron of, 32

18

Combustibility of carrier gas, 21

of ccntaminant, 2.1

",{il

maintenance, 53
operating oower, 53
of fugh-eiiciency panel ilters, 61
of impingernent separator, 35
oi- venhrri sc-:bbers. Z4
of wei coilectjon. equipment. 76
collectors. lS. 80
Cupoia gas eJterburners, IJI
Cyclone, con'zen[onal, 3?
Cyclone collectors,28
coDstructon, 30

test, 131

Coffee ioasters, polluiaat controi, 120, L22

Co$ee roasiing odor, 120

=il

fiihadon, equipment, 53

high effclency, 3?
multi-tube, i?

mechanical. 52

C.:nes,

S0

gg

.:

reliability- of, 36
selection of, 38

.:

w:

Iir

lNDEX
E

Effciency calculation.techniques, 130

:,.rrres for wet scrubbers, 69
of electical precipitator;, 93 - tests in performance testirg,230.
)rona meuuu'
-"thod'
Elecrrical precipitatir:n, "oioi*
back corona, g6
factors afieciing, 85
oarcicle chargurg,

95

n:ft"J;ffi;iio,i
85

rz,

52
Fabric filtration' costs of'
selectioo oi' 53' 54
14
Fibe*i"";;; on'6luauon134efficienq'
pertormance'
Field testing'
p11"t i12a -i1
Filt"' rn"ff'l- CWS No' 6' 57
CC No' 6' 57
p;11"r, ,;rroi" comDartment ixghouse' 48'

S5
ou

as-sa

tf:il#:.""!

reverse pulse' 51

Bg

ultra'

process^variatlles,

e
e

Fust, NI. W.,

=a

44

aud vapors, 11r,

i! imnn}:ffi'"t:i
qo sases
:"i:"-ll':::;:i*

--

;"-:[:*,tlXL",""i::H],,1;X$

41""'a#gui'ot'' "o-

Flow i*raracteristics of carriergSgas,22

';;;;;';i'"o"tr*,ornt,
propel

conectors'

sas,z2
"T":,*H:"Lr:fu?
ilo-o.rt W .rtrlytlc combusUon, I98

67

Xm.t;:X;#,fi;";ii;;;.;];;ance

tiPes' 16-18
Eouipment
' adsorbers,
17,95

iz, zo
"y.i"t"t,
eiectric"i precipitators,
i'itr" nt"'*' arua
scrubLets,

E.s";.-5;

A-'

17, 85-94

mulhple pon'
radiant' rI7
evaluation

;;ffi;';;;;;;;-';nci
124
reduction in' 113

in reduction of'

,
Fabric filter
continually cleaned, 5O
Fabric

iv

!4pes,.48

.G;1'd;4s
48

i+

gross heats

of'

115

fuel, heating "al"e of.=|][U*Q

precautjons for handliirg' lrv
Cta'itafio"al foree' particle removal-b)zJ'-9=*

Gas-.

r.u,.u!

auxiliar.v eqrripoent, 5 1
qlssning mechanisms,

;""*:r*#""

r-'l' /

cases' aixorPtio'1^of' 101-1u

adsomtion o{' 95-100

4rru

'
.

iesting,

54

E
E

II

z7 - . ,
Hair-gin
Hr"f;t; W"titi U S' Atomjc -Energv
cooler,

fi:*Silatt:tliiT
'Illgh" iust concentrations'

..
11

zz

components ct' 5r

Fabricmters,46-54 , ',
c

c*"'*;"fu*i*""],'*.":i;g'a7",i"".,

cleaned,
periodicaily
-fflter'systen,

52
J"ttl"i."a systems, 52
fan, 51
flltertg oed*r:n, 51

in, 82

tile port' 117

"tUituo"'
cleaning equipment, basib

6
G

eas burners' 117

L7,68-1o

i'tiIi*el

114

trpe,87
,two-stage,87 .. ofr carrier
_^- o1
-_:-_ gas,
21
El"cri"rl"pioperties
"'"I*".-,i,ilii*t, za 4r^rv' o ' -Enthalpy, ll4.
tube

'n

,,,i,'*".':?",'
tlecry, 40

^9L

93

;h"".y,88

&

pu,ro"frIo."

i',h11,,,., nr
selection,

or nbe-r size on' 44

*'u'
f*'":f*:il?1""
t",ti"g,

"f

87
o,':':t.::I-"::""*j5;

'10

,1x1xlx;llfr,
i";;;Jfr""t

comp-o-nents,

It*ffiiigr."::-'
power suPPlY',rw

mat'

ffi-'*iri*"'e7
ffi:"Tit?'' "
*""r,roi"ut

panel (see High ei'crency panel)

i'i *r".,tY';f
3e' 40

as,

electlicai components'
hislr voltage. or

6
6

baghouse' {9

;fi""ti"" eficiencv of, 86

n::'J';it-"iers, e3ae

:;:11#;;'"-,

-'iti"o--ou't-lnted
Filter resistance theory' 43
Filters' 16' 3e-61
deep bed' 39' 40' 44

applicafioas.

Commission' 45

I
T

INDEX

148

;m
ri

liigh-efi ciency panel Elters, 56-61

t!

-L-

aooliceiicns. 57
bi,:loeicaldeccntaminaiion, 60

Laboratory vs. field testing, 134

chara-cteristics, 59

L"pplu, C. E., 84, 65

ch.*icsl

Lanpruir, I.,

resisunce, 60

Lawler, C., BI
Lightoer, ]iI. W.,32
Liquid-gas ratio, lIl
Loading conieminani,.23
-_
Los Lielet County Air Pollution Control Disirict' 118
Low velocity filters, 57

costs of, 61

riesicn' 57

J*.lholdi"g

caPacitY, 8o

fire resistaoce, 60

moisture resistance' 60
pressure caPabiiities, 6O
ciroP, 53

applications, 87

grrncilie of cPeraticn, 57
sizes, 59
shapes, 59

capabilities,
temPerature capa]]ulues'

ihecrv,

S7

6O
w

ifish "oiia're electricei arecipitators' 8?

If,:tiaiiv of carrier gas, 21
Huater, D' L., 82
il"at""trl"r., isacive, reduction in emrssions of'

'

13

oer-formance e'zaiuaUon

in,

-\t)Ianhattan Proieci, 57
![anu-facnrrers
.{merican Air Filter Co.,72
;
Buell Engineering CorP', 88
Cambridge Filter Corporarion, 58- Carbon P-roducts Dv., Unioc Carbide Corp', 123
Centri-Spray CorP.' 11
Coppers Co., Inc., 88
Duccn Co., 76
Flanriers Filiers, Inc., 58
Hirt Combustion Engineers, 117
Jabez-Burns Div., BLaw-Knox Ca, 122
KoPPers CorPoration, 77
Maxon Premix Burner Co., 118
Vline SafetY APPliances Co., 19, 58
National Dust Collector Co., 73
Peabody Engineering Corporation, 73

112

1?,4

HygrosiopictY of ccntaminant, 25

-I-

Irnpingenent collectors, electrostatic attraction in, 65

wet" 72
62
lmoingement
' Biowuianscrubbers,
motion difiusion, 64
humidiffcation, 64

condensation, 64

Impingemeut seParator, 33-35, 3?

bafile type, 34

Prenco, lac., 123

Schmeig Industries,

conieal louver, 34

hc.' 72,17

Schutte Koerting CorPoration, 78

constructjoo,35
costs,35

Mat ilters, 39, 40

e"fficiencY of, 35

applications, 44
self-cleaning, 45
Vlechanical colfton equipment, application areas, 37
sPace requirements, G7

flat louver, M
jet VPe,35
power coDflrmotjon of, 35
reliabilitv of, 35
Incineration of gases, 112-124
performance eva.luation
safety features, 119

temperatue limitations, 37
types, 37

i", l.?4 ,,..

of soUd wastes, 139

i
of vapors, L72-124
wet collector, Performance in, 81
Indusirial Cas Cleaning institute, 132
Iaertial impaction, flltation bY, 13
Inertial oriffce scn:bbers, 62
Ingels, R. M,,81

-I Jet collector, 78

scrubbers, 62,76, 106

Mechanical collectors, -26-38

gravitY, 26

*.

inertial, 26

7 4, iSllechanica-l scrubbers, 62, 74

Mechanical wet collectors, 74, 77
lletal oxide t'umes, agglomeration of, ?
Muiticompartrnented baghouse ilter,. 49

- Vlechanical disintegrator,

-\i-

Nationai Association qf- !l'utu+l Q"$glty Companies, I14

^E.--)Iational gureau ot btaDdards, d(

Naiional Electrical Codq 134

Number of transfer r:nits, 1C8

wittr venturi eieCor, operating pai'ameters, 79

H. F., 41

Tohnstone.

-o-

O<ior, cofiee

roastirg,,l2O '

control by incineration, 112

Ko-ac-k, H. I., 64, 65

-K-

Kozeny-Carmen equation, 43.

Kraft mill odors, &sposal of, 12O

kraft

mi[

disposal

of,

120

reduction, performance evaluatron in, I23

Otiice ssubbers, 70, 71
vanable pressure &op' 14

i49

INDEX
Scn:bbers, L7,68-iB

-P-

chr*ber,

di'-eter'

orebsure ciroP, I11

P"o"l'-fflt.tt. high-eficiency (see High-Eficiency

as

for agglomeration,

dispersions, 3

rhape, 6
effeci on settling velocitY, 3
as factor in remova]. mei:hod, 24
size, ?5

dis'.ribution, 4
fr"tot rn removal metiod, 24
"s
2
sizinss.
of , 1 0
-Particle"s,' ccncentration
d"potiUoo in resPiatory tra9t, 4
ele-ctrostatic ProPerties

of, 10

air-borne' 8
Particulate materials, possibie shaPes -of
i'"^U"a, scrubber, performa-nce of, 66 !z'J
Performance evaluaiion in reduction ot odors'
124
oPacity,
of oh:me
of exPlosion hazard, l9A

oi

.-i.s"" :f :ercti'ze hydrocerbons' 194

factors, 132

.m"i"""y

I3I

calculation techniques' 130

tests, 130

elecficaj PreciPitation, 93
ffeid- 134
IaboiatorY vs. field, 134
pertinence to objective, 129

io*". "oor*Ption,
maintenance, 132

factors in' 152

utilities consumption, 132

saferY requiiements
Perry, John H', 108

for, 134

Phase, contaminani, 23
Pigford, Robert L.' 106

Seif-ind,rced spraY scrubbers, 70

Semrau, K- T., 65
Separators, imPingement, 33
Sha.ffer, N. R., 81
Sherwood, Thomas K., 106
Siiverman, Leslie, 44

Sioel"

.o*pr.t-ent

of,
Smauder, E. E.,81

Sludge, disPosal

SweeP e.ffect,

64

suoolv. electrical precipitation,

electrical 24

sonic, 24

-R-

ReactivitY of carrier gas, 21

6f goareminea! !4
Recirculating adsorbeut systeas, 9rr/
Re{ractories. in afterbr:mers, I18

from waste material!; I38

Tower height, 108

-'
o.rmber-of kander lidtq-}O8

packed, 101, 102

diameier of, il1
olate. 101, 103

--

- 1-:

Toicity of carrier gas, 1I

of contamilant, 24

Traos as seParators,28
8
i"ll ti.p" electrjcai precipitator,65
i*t"t"'"t coagulatior in wet csllector,
i.o-stag" electrical precipitaiors, 87

l-

-sSafefy requirerents for tes!!g: Jts

voes of eficiency, 13Q-To.gi.on, W. L.' 41

Properties of coataainant, 23

dD
t^

8l

uJ,lir.. in evaiuatin g coDtaminalt,sampie' 95

Tests, performance, Iaboratory vs' treto, r''+

i"ti

9O

Pressure of carrier gas, 20

!:.

6
6

_- *

Terminal setfung velocity, determiling' 24

Test codes, 131

('see Electrical pr ecip itation )

Pr;iriilil;;"rl"t i-"J (sea
Electrical precipitators )
i'il;il;
"i".ui"A

{,

&

-T-

t^..fotmroce evaluation, 124

i"t"rg"

e
e

--

in wet collectors, 65
^gglo*.ration
Sonic cleaning, 52
Sonic properties of carrier gas' 21
of contaminant, 24
SorbabilitY of contarnir:ant, 23
Soray ch"mbers, 68
Sorav sctobbers, seif-induced, 62
Spray towers, 68, 10I, 105
Stairmand, C. 1.,72
Stefan sweeP difiusion efiect, 64
Stefan's flow efiect, 65
Siokes' law, 29, {1' 36
Stds, I., 82
S;fd# acid plant, collector performance in,
Sullivan, R. R.,43

Po*er &us,rmption, dynamic precipitation' 36

-18

Smokeless flares, 120

bwer. 101' 103

fr

baghouse filter,

Soiubiliiy of contaminant, 23

Plate tvoe, electrical precipitator, 87

Flume'oPacitY, reduction iD, 112

::

137

Plate mlumns, 109

I.

G
G

:eabody, 66
ielf-induced sPraY, 70
ventr:ri, 62, i2,73, L05
wet, eficiencY orrles for, 69
wei imPingemeni, i2
Selechon of absorption equipment, 109
oarameters, eiecirical precipitators, 93

iooi"

testing, 129-135
of ibsorPtion sYstems, 100
codes, standard,

panel

factor in removal method, 24

1L

lmPingement. 62
iner-tiai orifice, 62
jei, 62, 16, 106
with velturi ejector, ?9
mecbanicai, 62,74
oriffce, 70, 72
variable Pressure droP, ?4

111

fllters )
densiUes
-Particle
-density

68

ryclonic, 62,70,

Packed bed filters, '19

Packed tower, i01, 102

G
G

Ulta filter constnrction,

58'

---:

'

UIha filters, 40

I
I

l
1

i50

I.\DEX

Underurriters' Laboratories, Inc., 1 18

Wet collector performance

U. S. Bureau of }{i:res, 114

Updegra-ff, L. -{., 82

Li. S. Atomic Eaergy Commission, 57

-v-

Vapor-Iiquid equilibrjtm daia,

in steel manufacfure.

and

su$:nc
,in

111

bufinq

3rinciinq .vheel el[1ue:rts, 33

limestone hln efiluents_ g3
sintecnq piants. g3
gb
-solubJe gases,

edvantages. 82

c]assifica=tiou, 62

iB,

B0

considerations, 76

dmadvantages, 62

-wWaste disposal regulation of,

equipment selectron, g0

137

191

,carrier gas flow rate, gZ

co_Ilect:on eiff cier.cy requrrement,
6T

mate:ial, coilected. &sposal of, 136

from,

comparison of collecror periormarce,

, 6g
disposal of collected maienaj,
6g
performancs daia, g0
rurbu_lenr, aggiomeration
mechanism, 6.1
coagulat:on in, 65
types and c-haractensUcs, 6g
chamber seubbers, 68

138
136

volume reducUou in, l3g

liquid, characterjstics, l3g

lVastes,

orjgins, 139

freabrent, I40

solid, lJ?

CyctoDes,

dewateriag, 13g
disposal of. 137-I39
incineratjon, 13g
orig:as, 137

reductjon for disposal, I3g

from.

Custs, &3

Ioundry cunolas, g3

,.

salvage

plrrt, Sl

"clC
sel_ecteC perfo.maace,
,,,
wet, colle.ctors, 17, 62-U dI
appucatron, g0
acid Eists, gs

cost,

cf,

139

u.ltimate disposa_l of, 13g

wet cell 'vashers, 106
Wet collecdon eqqipmen! cost
considerations, 76
wet collector, applicatjoni, current
trends. g2
:
condensation of
particies, 64-,
]lAuid
pedorrnzrnce, in boiler operatiou, g2

in incinelation, g1
in ma:rufacture of hydrofluoric
acidin open hearth furnace, St----

gP

wet. 70

cyclonic scn:bbers, 70, T1

impingement collectors, wet,
72- 73
packed rype, 73
jet scrubbers, 76, 7g
with venfuri eiector,_opgating parameters,
7g
mecjranical scrubbers, 74, 77 - orfice scrubbers, 70, 72'

.vanable pressure <irop, 74

self-induced ,p."y ,"*Eburi,
70
spray ctrambers, 6Il
towers, 6g
. variable pressure.iqertiai. 76 - .
,venturi scnrbbers, 72, 75
Weyerhaeuser Co.. I20

t/

'

\i

!
{
.i

I
I

--White, II- ]., eS

Wong, J. B.,

4J.

l
'tI
I
1

i
I

t.
t/
I

i*-

,r

'i

E2

aerosols, g3

power ccsts, 7-l

Viscosity of carrier gas,2I

salvage
sources

.,

ontimted,)

asphait planr dust- g3

Vapors, incrleration oi, 772-1.24

Variable eressure &cp orifce scrubbers. i-,1
Vadab.le pres.filre inetja.l wet ccilectors.' 7B
Venhrri scrubbers, 62.72,75, l1s
performance o1', 66

Iiquid burners.

(C

U. ,q. .{rrry Chemjca_i Co_rps DOp Smoke penekation

Air Resisrance Test, 57, 59

Vapor di-Fusion. 84

,j