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Vacation Marketing

Experience economy constructs as a framework for understanding wine tourism

Donna Quadri-Felitti and Ann Marie Fiore
Journal of Vacation Marketing 2012 18: 3
DOI: 10.1177/1356766711432222
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Article

Experience economy
constructs as a framework
for understanding wine
tourism

Journal of Vacation Marketing

18(1) 315
The Author(s) 2012
Reprints and permission:
sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/1356766711432222
jvm.sagepub.com

Donna Quadri-Felitti
New York University, USA

Ann Marie Fiore

Iowa State University, USA

Abstract
Global growth in wine tourism mirrors that of wine consumption and rural tourism. Existing research
reveals that wine tourists look for dining, shopping, and cultural and recreational activities along with
authentic (e.g. reflecting local elements, unique events) products and experiences. This suggests the
importance of hedonic and experiential consumption theories, which have been recently referenced
in wine tourism literature. The present study proposes utilization of pertinent constructs of the experience economy model to explain the experiential nature of wine tourism. Evidence from wine tourism
literature in support of this proposition is presented. This proposed framework advances the emergent
theory in experiential consumption and wine tourism with a comprehensive approach that may be
applied to wine tourism geographies in varying stages of development. Consequently, this examination
of these associations promises new theoretical directions for wine tourism and contemporary applications for managers.
Keywords
wine tourism, rural tourism, experience economy

Introduction
Growth in wine tourism, a single-attribute example of rural tourism, is a global phenomenon.
Wine tourism motivation involves seeking a particular cultural destination, site, or event related
to wine (Getz et al., 2008). The economic impact
of wine tourism is notable. In 2009, Australias
wine tourists spent AUD$7.1 billion on travel
(Tourism Research Australia, Department of
Resources, Energy, and Tourism, 2010), while
in California, wine regions hosted 20.7 million
tourists who spent US$2.1 billion in 2009
(California Wine Institute, 2011). In 2004, wine
tourism contributed US$75 million to the economy of Michigan (Wargenau and Che, 2006),
drove 800,000 visitors to North Carolina in
2005 (Evans et al., 2008), and was tied to 40%

of all hotel revenue in Walla Walla, Washington,

in 2007 (Storchmann, 2008).
The rising popularity of wine tourism
parallels the growth of rural tourism, which has
continuously evolved in Europe and North
America (Gartner, 2004; Page and Getz, 1997;
Sznajder et al., 2009; Timothy, 2005). During the
5 years between 2002 and 2007, income from
agritourism and recreation on farms in the United
States grew 55% (National Agricultural Statistics
Service, United States Department of Agriculture,

Corresponding author:
Donna Quadri-Felitti, New York University, Tisch Center for
Hospitality, Tourism, and Sports Management, 838 Broadway, NY 10014, USA
Email: quadri@nyu.edu

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Journal of Vacation Marketing 18(1)

Table 1. Percentage growth in household wine consumption

World
United States

20042005

20052006

20062007

20072008

3.7%
6.6%

4.7%
9.3%

10.8%
6.3%

6.0%
4.1%

Source: Euromonitor International, 2010.

2009). Meanwhile, escalation of wine consumption (see Table 1) has been steady at a 1% compound annual growth rate (CAGR) worldwide
since 2004. Despite the drop in wine sales during
the recent global recession, projections through
2014 indicate a global 2% CAGR, with North
America and Asia leading the growth (Euromonitor International, 2010). In the United States, consumption of table wine has reached 34% of the
legal population with domestic wine sales growing ahead of imported wine (Mintel, 2010).
According to the International Trade Association of the United States Department of Commerce, since 1999 the number of bonded
wineries in the United States rose to 81% totaling more than 5000 active wineries (Hodgen,
2008). Tourism linked to these wineries has
been estimated to employ nearly 50,000 people
in the United States, excluding wine production
and agricultural staff associated with vinification (MKF Research LLC, 2007).
International travel has mirrored the worldwide growth in wine consumption with international arrivals increasing by 3.8% annually
from 2000 to 2008 (United Nations World Tourism Organization, 2009). U.S. domestic travel
spending jumped 31.6% during the same period
(United States Travel Association, n.d.). The
search for wine destination experiences, which
marry the worlds interest in wine and travel, is
a contemporary tourism trend. Like its complement food tourism, wine tourism has been studied and characterized as a form of cultural
tourism and its subset, special-interest tourism
(Charters and Ali-Knight, 2002; Frochot, 2000).
Research about wine tourism has expanded over
the past 20 years with an emphasis on development and marketing in specific regions around
the world and on the nature of the wine tourist
(Carlsen and Charters, 2006; Mitchell and Hall,
2006). Recently, an increasing number of articles
have used theories of hedonic and experiential
consumer behavior to understand aspects of
wine tourism (Bruwer and Alant, 2009; Getz and
Carlsen, 2008; Williams, 2006), which suggests
the need for a more encompassing view of the
experiential nature of wine tourism.

The purpose of the present article is to

contextualize the current academic literature on
wine tourism using an experiential-based model,
the experience economy as proposed by Pine and
Gilmore (1999). This article provides an overview of research on wine tourists, outlines the
relevant constructs of the experience economy
model, and illustrates where wine tourism
research findings align with experience economy
constructs. By understanding the findings from
wine tourism research within an experience economy framework, destination managers and tourism
suppliers can better craft and communicate their
wine tourism offering to experience-seeking visitors. Because the nature of the winery visit varies
from region to region (Mitchell and Hall, 2006),
this study contributes a holistic framework upon
which future empirical wine tourism studies may
be developed across destinations.

The evolution of understanding the

wine tourist experience
A widely cited definition of wine tourism is
visitations to vineyards, wineries, wine festivals
and wine shows for which grape wine tasting
and/or experiencing the attributes of a grape
wine region are the prime motivation factors for
visitors (Hall et al., 2000: 3). Several broad
themes have emerged in the English language
academic literature on wine tourism: (1) development and promotion of regional wine destinations, (2) policy and environmental sustainability
of wine destinations, and (3) winery activities for
the public (i.e. tastings) to increase wine sales,
such as wine events (Carlsen, 2004; Mitchell
and Hall, 2006). The third theme encompasses
quantifying the motivations, satisfaction, and
spending of wine tourists (Mitchell et al., 2000;
Mitchell and Hall, 2006). Research about the
wine tourist is concentrated in three major areas:
(1) motivations and satisfaction of tourists visiting winery tasting rooms, commonly referred to
as the cellar door; (2) demographic or psychographic profiles of wine tourists; and (3) marketing to tourists through wine routes, festivals, and
events (Carlsen, 2004; Mitchell and Hall, 2006).

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Quadri-Felitti and Fiore

Studies about wine tourists have centered on

how to raise cellar door revenue or to understand
visitors as wine buyers to better promote product
sales (Alonso et al., 2007; Bruwer, 2004; Charters
et al., 2009; Dodd and Bigotte, 1997; Elder, 2001;
Lebkowski and Cole, 2005). Furthermore,
research has determined the attributes sought by
tourists and their behavioral intentions related to
wine sales (Bruwer, 2004; Dodd, 2000; Mitchell
et al., 2000). The relationship between consumers
travel and their involvement with wine and food
has demonstrated the strength of their dependence
(Getz and Brown, 2006; Getz and Carlsen, 2008;
Mitchell and Hall, 2003; Sparks, 2007).
A number of research studies have sought to
identify wine tourists by generating lifestyle segmentation typologies (Corigliano as cited in
Charters and Ali-Knight, 2002; Mitchell and
Hall, 2006; Williams and Dossa, 2003) and by
measuring their involvement or attachment to
wine and destinations (Getz and Brown, 2006;
Gross and Brown, 2006). These psychological
constructs have been linked to sensorial, hedonic, and experiential consumption (Charters,
2006; Galloway et al., 2008; Lofman, 1991), originating with wine enjoyment and broadening to
include the full range of winescape tourism
components. Visitor motivation research reveals
that wine tourists also seek shopping, dining, and
cultural and recreational outlets (Charters and AliKnight, 2002; Getz and Brown, 2006; Hashimoto
and Telfer, 2003; Roberts and Hall, 2004;
Tassiopoulos et al., 2004; Taylor et al., 2004).
Wine tourists want more from their wine destination experience than just to purchase wines. They
desire quality culinary offerings; attractions,
including cultural, recreational, and retail choices;
and a rural, wine region landscape to enjoy
(Brown et al., 2006; Bruwer and Alant, 2009;
Cohen and Ben-Nun, 2009; Dawson et al., 2011;
Getz and Brown, 2006; Getz et al., 2008; Park
et al., 2008). This intimates the interrelated activities within the overall wine tourism experience.
However, little wine tourism research addresses
this type of global approach. Research to date has
yet to take a holistic approach to understanding
the nature of the wine tourist experience (Beames,
2003; Colman, 2008).

Emergence of the hedonic and

experiential nature of wine tourism
Studies have applied various consumer behavior
models to overall tourist motivations, resulting in
copious theoretical frameworks and models both

competing with and complementing one another

(Holbrook, 2000; Huang and Hsu, 2009; Pizam
and Mansfeld, 1999). Rational, informationprocessing approaches, such as the Theory of
Planned Behavior (TPB), have been employed to
measure tourist utilitarian motivations and purchase intentions (Bamberg et al., 2003; Lam and
Hsu, 2004; March and Woodside, 2005), including
those of wine tourists (Barber et al., 2009; Sparks,
2007; Yuan and Jang, 2008). More recently, however, tourism and hospitality researchers have
employed emergent customer experience or hedonic consumption theories (e.g. Hall and Sharples,
2008; Knutson et al., 2006; McIntosh and Siggs,
2005; Williams, 2006). Hedonic consumption, in
contrast to utilitarian consumption, does not focus
on resolution of a need or problem; it focuses on
the intrinsic value of feelings, fun, and fantasy
fostered by the experience (Hirschman and
Holbrook, 1982; Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982).
The proliferation of literature on the hedonic
view of consumption signifies the relevance of
this theoretical framework to understanding the
experiences sought by customers (Holbrook and
Hirschman, 1982; Palmer, 2010; Pine and
Gilmore, 1999) in an ever increasingly competitive environment (Christensen, 2009). Wine
tourism researchers have begun to examine these
experiential concepts (Charters et al., 2009;
Galloway et al., 2008; Getz and Carlsen, 2008;
Pikkemaat et al., 2009). Whereas there is no single theory that defines the meaning and extent of
tourist experiences, a number of authors have
made attempts to formulate models by generalizing and aggregating information (Chhetri et al.,
2004: 34, as cited in Volo, 2009). The expanding
body of literature related to customer experience,
while still evolving, affords a logical connection
to wine tourism with its emphasis on senses, emotions, and enjoyment of pastoral settings (Bruwer
and Alant, 2009; Carmichael, 2005; Mitchell
et al., 2000; Peters, 1997; Williams, 2006). Wine
tourists seek an experience that is a complex
interaction of natural setting, wine, food, cultural,
and historical inputs and above all the people who
service them (Charters, 2006: 214).

Experience economy constructs

for conceptualizing the wine
tourism experience
The experience economy
The lay popularity of Pine and Gilmores (1999)
experience economy model has stood out among

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Journal of Vacation Marketing 18(1)

Figure 1. The 4Es of experience economy

Source: Pine & Gilmore, 1998, p. 102

the various applications of the experiential view

of consumer behavior. It described four stages of
economic progression from commodities to
goods to services and finally to experiences with
the last stage requiring businesses to create memorable experiences for customers. The model
delineated four realms of consumer experience:
educational, escapist, esthetic, and entertainment
experiences, which they have coined, the 4Es.
These experiences form permeable quadrants,
which reflect their position along two continua
of experience (see Figure 1). The horizontal continuum reflects consumer participation in creating the experience, either passive or active, and
the intersecting vertical continuum reflects an
absorption of or immersion in the destination
of the experience (Pine and Gilmore, 1998,
1999). The 4Es comprise the central foundation
of the experiential model of the experience
economy. Staging, another important element
in the experience economy, entails execution
of the 4Es in a comprehensive, thematic design
that strengthens the customers experience
(Pine and Gilmore, 1999).
Scant scholarly literature exists that has
examined the role of the 4Es (Hosany and
Witham, 2010; Oh et al., 2007; Stamboulis
and Skayannis, 2003) and staging (Hayes and
MacLeod, 2007; Morgan et al., 2009; Pikkemaat
et al., 2009; Pullman and Gross, 2004) in tourism
venues. Pine and Gilmore, themselves, have
depended on anecdotal support of the importance
of experience economy concepts to business success, including tourism venues. Building off such
evidence, they have developed a how-to guide
for hoteliers and restaurateurs on staging

experiences through operational design (Gilmore

and Pine, 2002). Moreover, we have found only
two scholarly articles that have applied the experience economy framework to wine tourism (i.e.
Ali-Knight and Carlsen, 2003; Pikkemaat et al.,
2009).
The concept of staging an integrated customer
experience has been utilized to evaluate tourism
products such as heritage trails (Hayes and
MacLeod, 2007) and special events (Pullman and
Gross, 2004). Conversely, scholars have discussed the difficulties of using stagings theatrical metaphors for managing a destination
(Morgan et al., 2009). Ali-Knight and Carlsen
(2003) called for wineries to pay more attention
to staging experiences a` la Pine and Gilmore
(1999) in their presentation to Australian wine
marketers. The article offered numerous examples associated with staging the experience
but fell short of aligning their suggested activities with the 4Es specifically (Ali-Knight and
Carlsen, 2003: 56). The authors called for the
need to empirically examine the role of staged
experiences in the tourism setting on wine
purchases rather than the tourism experience
(Ali-Knight and Carlsen, 2003: 6).
Pikkemaat et al. (2009) explored the experience economy concept of staging along the South
Tyrol wine trail. Part of the study surveyed visitor experience of the 4Es. Although the studys
survey instrument was not subjected to reliability
and or validity testing, it did attempt to use the
4Es to estimate visitor expectations and satisfaction. Results of the study, with a small (38 persons) sample, indicated that esthetic experience
was the most important expectation (Pikkemaat
et al., 2009: 248). Educational and escapist
experiences were noted to be the least important
on average. In line with the caveat regarding lack
of reliability and validity testing, individual
items in each dimension had widely different
results. For example, the entertainment item of
guided tour in vineyard with tasting (Pikkemaat
et al., 2009: 249) was reported to be important by
75% of the sample, whereas the entertainment
item of wine-themed events was reported to be
important by 40% of the sample. Items used to
measure the 4Es in this study may not have accurately captured the constructs. The escapist experience was measured with the item guided tours
through vineyard, and entertainment experience
was measured with a similar item of guided
wine tours in vineyards with tasting (Pikkemaat
et al., 2009: 249), which suggests a lack of discriminant validity between constructs.

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Quadri-Felitti and Fiore

Table 2. Indicators of the 4Es in literature on wine tourists

Article

Year

Alant and Bruwer

Ali-Knight and Charters
Ali-Knight and Carlsen
Alonso et al.
Axelsen and Swan
Bruwer and Alant
Beames
Brown and Getz
Carlsen
Carmichael
Charters and Ali-Knight
Charters
Charters and Pettigrew
Charters et al.
Cohen and Ben-Nun
Dodd and Bigotte
Frochot
Fountain and Charters
Galloway et al.
Getz and Brown
Getz and Carlsen
Johnson and Bruwer
Mitchell and Hall
Park et al.
Peters
Pikkemaat et al.
Sparks
Williams
Williams and Kelly
Yuan et al.

2004
2001
2003
2007
2010
2009
2003
2005
2004
2005
2000
2006
2005
2009
2009
1997
2000
2010
2008
2006
2008
2007
2006
2008
1997
2009
2007
2001
2001
2005

Entertainment

Education

Esthetics

Escapist

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X

Furthermore, the three items that measured

the esthetic dimension, well-tended wine bars
and shops, road signage and information, and
a wine-dominated landscape (Pikkemaat et al.,
2009: 248), may not fully capture the esthetic
dimension in the experience economy. These
may not accurately describe the wine country
environment that often includes many other
natural elements and manmade visual improvements (e.g. building architecture). This study
demonstrates both the necessity and challenges
of reliably operationalizing the 4Es in wine
tourism.
Although the following empirical research did
not look at wine tourism, it suggests the potential
applicability of the 4Es within a wine tourism
setting. Oh et al. (2007) operationalized the 4Es
by creating and testing a measurement scale in
a bed-and-breakfast experience setting. Adapting
the Oh et al. scale, Hosany and Witham (2010)
measured the 4Es in the cruise experience. The
results of both studies demonstrated the validity
of using the 4Es to explain tourist experiences.

X
X

Other scholars conceptualized technology as a

means for destination managers to interact with
tourists along the 4Es (Stamboulis and Skayannis,
2003). These studies, along with the fragmentary
evidence found in the current wine tourism literature, discussed in the following section strengthen
the call for wine tourism research to explore the
applicability of the 4E framework.
We posited that the 4Es are equally relevant to
and useful in conceptualizing the wine tourism
experience and that the current wine tourism literature provides evidence of the frameworks
value on the whole. Descriptions and motivating
factors culled from the existing wine tourism
research are cataloged according to the constructs of the 4E model. Table 2 inventories evidence of individual 4Es selected from the current
wine tourism literature. It suggests the need for a
more encompassing view of the experiential
nature of wine tourism.
Figure 2 provides a depiction of typical wine
tourist activities positioned within the model,
which demonstrates the suitability of this

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Journal of Vacation Marketing 18(1)







Entertainment

Educational

Tourists are engaged by performances.

Tourists enhance their knowledge or skills.

Cellar concerts, music in vineyard

Wine blending demonstration
Farm & food demonstrations
Museum & heritage site visits






Wine tastings & seminars

Culinary-wine pairing events
Home wine making seminars
Cooking & craft making classes

Esthetics

Escapist

Tourists are enriched by sensual environments.

Tourists become engrossed by participating in a

different time or place.







Consuming the winescape

Enjoying unique lodging (B&B) and wines
Driving rural roads lined with vin eyards
Art & craft fairs at wineries





Vineyard hiking, cycling tours

Hot air ballooning over vineyards
Vineyard tour by horse & carriage
Harvesting grapes, riding a grape picker

Figure 2. Typical wine tourist activities within the 4E model of the experience economy
Source: Adapted from Pine and Gilmore (1999).

framework in helping to understand the greater

wine tourism experience.

Education in wine tourism

Education is repeatedly identified as a motivator
of wine tourists (Ali-Knight and Charters, 2001;
Charters and Ali-Knight, 2000; Williams and
Kelly, 2001), which offers strong evidence that
this aspect of the 4E model is appropriate for
examining the wine tourism experience. Learning as a consumer motivation consistently materializes in the wine tourism consumer research
regardless of the demographics of gender, cohort
(e.g. Boomers, Generations X or Y), or life cycle
stage (Fountain and Charters, 2010; Getz and
Carlsen, 2008). Although learning was less
important to repeat visitors than first-time visitors to South African wineries, it remained one
of the top five motivating factors (Bruwer and
Alant, 2009). Personal development (i.e. enrichment as an aspect of personal growth) was one of
three key factors in the wine tourism experience
according to results of a national Australian
study (Sparks, 2007). Learning was an important
wine tourism inducement for visitors with higher
levels of sensation seeking (Galloway et al.,
2008). The wine tourism supply chain includes
accommodations and culinary, cultural, and
recreational activitiesall of which may offer
an educational component. The most common
educational activity is wine tasting, followed by
winefood pairing events at local restaurants.
Some wineries offer home winemaking seminars

and partner with chefs and farmers to offer culinary classes (see Figure 2). Festivals and galleries, whether retail or exhibition, serve as an
educational as well as an entertainment element
(Carlsen, 2004; Mitchell and Hall, 2006; Park
et al., 2008; Yuan et al., 2005).

Entertainment in wine tourism

As expressed by Pine and Gilmore (1999),
entertainment reflects the passive/absorption
dimension of the model wherein performers
engage a customers attention. Whereas agricultural and viticultural activities taking place at a
winery, farm, or vineyard may be viewed and
absorbed, cultural attractions and events that
contribute to wine destinations may also be a
considerable draw (Carmichael, 2005; Frochot,
2000; Williams and Kelly, 2001). The growth
in themed festivals centered on wine and food
(Carlsen, 2004; Hede, 2008) is noticeable (e.g.,
wine and jazz, art and wine). Wine festivals
and shows, central to the definition of wine
tourism, provide elements of the spectacular
(Axelsen and Swan, 2010: 437) to entertain
attendees. The connection of art, music, and
cultural heritage as entertainment within wine
destinations is well documented (Charters,
2006; Williams and Kelly, 2001; Yuan et al.,
2005). Wine is positioned as a luxury item that
includes a lifestyle inclusive of art and culture
(Charters, 2006), whereby being engaged by
performances (see Table 2) is woven into the
lifestyle of the community. Getz and Brown

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Quadri-Felitti and Fiore

(2006) proposed a model of wine tourism as the

crossroads of the destinations attributes, specifically the vineyards and wineries intersecting
with the overall culture as part of lots to see and
do crossing with entertainment elements offered
by unique accommodations, traditional wine
villages and numerous specialty shops (p.
156). Tours of vineyards and winemaking facilities with informative narrations is another example of both the educational and entertainment
dimensions as tourists learn about viticulture and
are engaged by the presenters. Getz and Carlsen
(2008) labeled the fun, informative aspects of
wine tourism as edutainment (p. 262), also a
term used by Pine and Gilmore (1999: 3132)
to describe the synthesis of the educational and
entertainment experiences in the experience
economy.

Esthetics in wine tourism

The esthetic experience entails immersion in a
sensual environment. The winescape reflects this
opportunity and has proven to be fundamental for
wine tourism (Alant and Bruwer, 2004; Bruwer
and Alant, 2009; Carmichael, 2005; Cohen and
Ben-Nun, 2009; Peters, 1997; Williams, 2001).
Views of the worlds wine regions are the subject
of countless coffee table picture books and are
illustrative of Urrys (1995) central tenet of the
tourists gaze: The gaze is directed [based on
esthetic judgments] to features of landscape and
townscape which separate them off from everyday (Urry, 1995: 132). Places are selected for
the pleasure and uniqueness they offer that differs from modern, everyday urban or suburban
life. Visitors driving rural roads lined with vineyards and orchards is a typical consumption
activity of excursionists spending a day in wine
country (Alant and Bruwer, 2004; Alonso et al.,
2007; Barber et al., 2008; Getz and Brown,
2006). Likewise, unique, well-appointed country inns and bed and breakfasts populate rural
tourist regions to accommodate the overnight
wine tourist.
Williams (2001) found a shift in wine region
advertising; more emphasis is being placed on
the esthetic dimension of the rural landscape.
In addition, some scholars argue that the evaluative consumption of wine, as it takes place in a
winerys tasting room, has much in common
with consuming music and art (Charters and Pettigrew, 2005). Although wine consumption as an
esthetic experience is arguable, enjoying and
purchasing wine have been identified as

contributing motivators to visit a particular

region (Brown and Getz, 2005; Charters et al.,
2009; Johnson and Bruwer, 2007; see Figure 2).

Escapism in wine tourism

Research about rural wine tourists motivations
supports both the esthetic and escapist principles within the model. The escapist experience
is highly immersive wherein consumers are
engrossed in a different time or place. While
tourists may gaze at the wine regions vineyard,
they may also immerse themselves by participating in wine country recreation, abundant in
the natural, rural setting of wine appellations.
Rural wine destinations provide ample sports,
recreation, and engaging activities in which the
tourist may be engrossed, including hot air balloon and helicopter rides. The participatory,
immersive activities of performing agricultural
or viticultural activities, such as taking part in
the harvesting or crushing of the grapes, are
applicable to this realm (see Figure 2). Such
activities are consistently rated as important
reasons for wine tourism (Fountain and Charters, 2010; Sparks, 2007). This escapist construct is substantiated in the wine tourism
literature with findings that confirm tourists
want more to do than just to visit wineries and
taste wine (Beames, 2003; Charters and AliKnight, 2002; Cohen and Ben-Nun, 2009).
Mitchell (2004) found that only 23% of New
Zealand winery visitors identified tasting and
buying wine as their main purpose for visiting the
destination (as cited in Mitchell and Hall, 2006).
Engaging the customer fully in greater novelty
and sensory activities has been successful in various winery settings (Ali-Knight and Carlsen,
2003; Thomas, 2009); the greater the number of
activities offered within the wine destination, the
greater the potential for customers to fully realize
the escapist dimension. In the experience economy, the wine tourist may not only gaze in delight
at the winescape but also be improved, amused,
and thoroughly absorbed in one holiday experience if all of the 4Es are present.

Augmenting the tourism experience with

authenticity
Authenticity engages tourists in staged experiences (MacCannell, 1999; Pine and Gilmore,
1999). Pine and Gilmore (1999) emphasized the
importance of authentically rendering the staged
experience (Gilmore and Pine, 2007). Authenticity

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10

Journal of Vacation Marketing 18(1)

has been a substantial topic of tourism research
(MacCannell, 1999; McKercher and duCros,
2002; Taylor, 2001; Wang, 1999), particularly as
an overall motivation of rural tourist, including
wine tourist. Tourists may employ several constructs of authenticity. Wang (1999) argues that the
tourist may search for originals (object-relate
authenticity), may project authenticity on toured
objects (constructive or symbolic authenticity),
and may experience authenticity through activities
(existential authenticity). Wine tourism includes
objects (e.g. wine) as well as the activities (e.g.
vineyard hikes), which are two paths to experiencing authenticity (Wang, 1999). Sims (2009)
linked tourists search for local foods and drinks
to a quest for authenticity in the face of the increasing commodification of culture (p. 325). Research
has identified the need for and encourages authentic wine region development (Williams, 2001).
Culinary and wine tourists may seek authenticity
by meeting the winemaker (Cambourne and
Macionis, 2000), enjoying extraordinary experiences (Ali-Knight and Carlsen, 2003), and savoring foods and wines that are unique to the
destination (Long, 2004; Sims, 2009). Service
satisfaction and the contributions of friendly service delivery in wineries have shown to be important to generating trust and believability, both
aspects of authenticity (Griffin and Loersch,
2007; ONeill and Palmer, 2004; Williams and
Dossa, 2003). Due to societys increasing alienation from nature, the search for authenticity has
been intensifying (Gilmore and Pine, 2007; MacCannell, 1999; Taylor, 2001; Wang, 1999). Subsequently, todays tourist seeks travel opportunities
such as the kind offered by rural wine tourism to
bridge this disconnect.

Implications and future research

A growing body of research has validated the relevance of the experiential view of consumer behavior to understanding wine tourism. Within this
experiential view, the experience economy has
recently emerged as a viable framework
for understanding how to enhance the wine tourism value chain, in both design and delivery
(Christensen, 2009; Zomerdijk and Voss, 2010).
Much research in this vein remains to be done. For
example, future research should examine how
various parts of the holistic wine tourism experience (i.e. accommodations, cultural attractions,
recreational activities, and winery offerings) contribute to the 4Es and whether all of the 4Es weigh
heavily in evaluation of this tourism experience.

In a rural tourism setting, Oh et al. (2007) found

that the 4Es were not of equal importance to tourists evaluations of the bed and breakfast experience. The same may be true of the wine tourism
experience, which would be valuable information
for rural, small business operators who must make
the best use of limited resources. Individual
operators could develop strategies to enhance the
appropriate combination of the 4Es lacking in
their business, such as an educational experience
(e.g. offering classes) and an entertainment experience (e.g. producing a dinner-theater). Including
more participant experiences, such as a cook-off
with local chefs using the regional wines, could
enhance the escapist experience. Opening the natural setting for visitor events such as concerts or
framing the view from within the tasting area
could strengthen visitors appreciation of the rural
esthetic experience while being entertained.
While the measurement scale developed by
Oh et al. (2007) was intended to be generic
enough to apply to other tourism settings, it was
tested in a single, stand-alone tourism setting of
bed and breakfast hotels. Hosany and Witham
(2010) measured the 4Es successfully using Oh
et al.s scale in the self-contained tourism experience of a cruise ship, but they did not delineate
the separate consumption experiences of lodging, attractions, and so forth. Measuring the
entire tourist experience presents several challenges. One challenge in this approach is in measuring each suppliers proportional contribution
to the visitors overall evaluation of the wine
tourism experience. For example, visitors may
experience all the 4Es at a winery but not at their
hotel. Moreover, tourists interface with various
combinations of suppliers, which calls for combining different sets of variables to determine
overall experience. For instance, many studies
have identified wine tourists as day excursionists
(Alant and Bruwer, 2004; Alonso et al., 2007;
Getz and Brown, 2006), which means lodging
would not contribute to overall tourist experience.
Last, in rural wine tourism, most suppliers have
small family-owned businesses (Haven-Tang and
Jones, 2010) run by individuals who are pressed
for time and who know little about experience
economy concepts, which may decrease desire
to participate in such research studies.
Research about how well a wine region delivers the various dimensions of the experience
economy paradigm (e.g. 4Es, authenticity) would
be beneficial to determining if suppliers characteristics emphasize the appropriate 4Es in their
communication and promotion mix to potential

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Quadri-Felitti and Fiore

11

visitors. For instance, if escapist experiences were

found to be important, they could be highlighted
through advertising and website photos, videos,
or narratives that underscore the immersive and
participatory nature of activities offered at recreational or cultural attractions. This could communicate to potential visitors the ultimate
experience, as defined by the experience economy model.
Whereas the wine tourism literature is mounting, there remains a knowledge gap between
what wine tourists want in their total wine destination experience and what tourism suppliers
deliver. Destination managers who understand
which components of the 4Es are missing in their
destination may more accurately adjust their
market strategies, incubate entrepreneurial enterprises needed, seek resources for missing elements, and encourage economic development
along the 4Es. Shared understanding of the visitor experience by suppliers engenders cooperation and alignment in rural tourism product
development (Boyne et al., 2003; Sparks and
Malady, 2006; Stewart et al., 2008). Little
empirical research to date has examined either
the individual suppliers or the whole of the wine
tourism product from the experience economy
perspective. This approach may be applied to
wine tourism products in both mature and emerging wine destinations and contribute to the strategic planning efforts of both wine destination
marketers as well as individual tourism operators
throughout rural wine tourism regions. Applicability across geographies and destination life
cycles establishes a stronger theoretical understanding of the wine tourism experience.
Testing the experience economy framework
using Oh et al.s (2007) proven quantitative scales
will solidify theory and contribute to a more rigorous body of knowledge. However, qualitative
research methods that triangulate the experiential
view of wine tourism would also advance the theoretical framework outlined in this study. This
framework provides the foundation upon which
research may be developed to expand the theoretical knowledge of the experience economy
within another destination-specific tourist experience and to investigate if the wine tourist experience may be realized and improved using the 4Es.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any
funding agency in the public, commercial, or
not-for-profit sectors.

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