Mobility Management

MSC
MSC
MSC
MSC
Submitted By:
Dennis G. Vaillancourt ****1736

150 Calais Street
Laguna Niguel, CA 92677-5424
Course:
EETS 8316, Fall 2003
Section:
401
Instructor:
Jila Seraj
Submittal Date:
November 27, 2003
PSTN
PSTN
Title:
Mobility Management Technologies
Course: EETS 8316
Date: 11/27/03
Instructor: Jila Seraj
Table of Contents
Table of Contents........................................................... 2
Abstract ........................................................................ 3
I Introduction.............................................................. 4
II Mobility Management 101 .......................................... 6
A.
Fundamentals........................................................................ 6
AII.1. Registration and Paging ................................................... 7
AII.2. Authentication ................................................................. 7
AII.3. Roaming.......................................................................... 7
AII.4. Radio Resource Management ........................................... 8
IIA.4.1. Handoff Criteria ......................................................... 8
IIA.4.2. Handoff Methods...................................................... 11
IIA.4.3. Handoff Scenarios.................................................... 12
B.
Requirements ...................................................................... 13
III Wireless Network Mobility Management Methods......... 15

A.
Mobility Management for 1G Wireless Networks.................... 16
AIII.1.
IS-41.......................................................................... 18
B.
Mobility Management for 2G Networks ................................. 20
BIII.1.
GSM ........................................................................... 21
BIII.2.
IS-54 and NA-TDMA (IS-136) ..................................... 25
BIII.3.
CDMA (IS-95A) ........................................................... 27
C.
Mobility Management for 2.5G Networks .............................. 30
CIII.1.
HSCSD ....................................................................... 30
CIII.2.
GPRS.......................................................................... 31
CIII.3.
IS-95B........................................................................ 34
D.
Mobility Management for 3G Networks ................................. 35
DIII.1.
EDGE.......................................................................... 35
DIII.2.
UMTS.......................................................................... 37
IV Mobility Management Scheme Comparison................. 40

V Mobility Management Trends .................................... 42
VI Conclusions ............................................................ 44
Bibliography ................................................................ 46
Glossary ................................................................... 47
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Abstract
Mobility Management is an integral function of Wireless Mobile
Networks. Mobility management influences the type and quality of
Wireless Mobile Network service offerings. Each generation of Wireless
Mobile Network has different mechanisms for Mobility Management.
The concepts of Mobility and Radio Resource management and
their requirements are defined. Network support of subscriber
mobility requires registration, authentication, paging, roaming, radio
resource management and excess channel capacity. Mobility
Management focuses on registration, authentication, paging and
roaming processes. Radio Resource Management focuses on the
networks ability to allocate radio access network resources. An
overview of mobility and radio resource management technologies
used by each generation of wireless networks up to 3G is reviewed and
compared. The 3GPP version of 3G, UMTS is reviewed and used as a
representative sample of 3G mobility and radio resource management.
Mobility Management transitioned from proprietary processes for
voice delivery services to open standards supporting voice and highspeed data delivery services. The most significant trends are
migration to global roaming, enhanced security, distribution of mobility
management between core network and radio access network and
optimal use of network resources for registration and paging.
Radio Resource Management transitioned from simplistic RSSI
switching criteria to switching based on sophisticated signal quality
assessments and assumption of some mobility management
responsibilities.
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Roaming support continuously improved and achieved global

capabilities. Although 3G data rates are improved, they are
conditional and not as good as WLANs. A need to interconnect 3G to
WLANs is surfacing. The ability to locate, authenticate and track 3G
subscribers in a WLAN is likely to be the next challenge for mobility
management. Eventually, 4G networks may ultimately resolve the
issue.
Introduction
Telephone service subscribers are a demanding group of
customers. Ubiquitous access, reliability, availability, scalability and

ease of use are expected attributes of telephone networks. The
continuous evolution of the telephone network satisfies these
requirements by varying degrees. Network technology, cost of service
and infrastructure establishment are the major impediments to
complete customer satisfaction.
Wireless mobile telephone networks or Public land mobile
networks (PLMNs) leverage the services provided by the public
switched telephone network (PSTN). PLMNs use the PSTN as a
backbone. PLMNs consist of network elements that provide the
infrastructure for wireless access, mobility management and external
network gateways.
A simple PLMN consists of base stations, mobile switching
service centers (MSC), Home Location Register (HLR), Visitor Location
Registers (VLR), Authentication Center (AUC) and an Equipment
Identification Register (EIR). Refer to figure 1.
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Figure 1 Simple PLMN 1

The base stations provide network access via a radio interface
for mobile subscribers. The MSC manages base stations, consults
PLMN databases to establish subscriber access rights, routes mobile
traffic and serves as a gateway to external networks. The HLR, VLR,
AUC and EIR are PLMN databases, which contain subscriber profiles,
location, encryption codes and equipment data.
Call establishment and connection maintenance are fundamental
services required by all telephone networks. A PSTN call process for
two authorized fixed location subscribers consists of call initiation
signaling, connection path establishment, alerting called party, call
acceptance and preservation of connection until end of session
Microsoft C lip Art, Microsoft Powe rPoint 2002
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signaling is detected. The PSTN uses the fixed location of the

subscriber to simplify network functions. Fixed subscriber location
simplifies authentication, call establishment and call preservation.
Although a PLMN call process must perform the same functions of a
PSTN, subscriber mobility significantly complicates network operations.
In order to provide PSTN services, PLMNs must implement
mobility management technologies. These technologies enable PLMNs
to establish and maintain calls to authorized mobile subscribers.
Mobility management uses the HLR, VLRs, MSCs and Base Stations.
The AUC and EIR servers verify subscribers and their equipment.
Mobility management technologies strongly influence call quality,
reliability and availability.
II
Mobility Management 101

Mobility management is the ability of a PLMN to orchestrate calls
for its subscribers and radio management maintains the call regardless
of the mobility of the subscribers. PLMNs must track and dynamically
route calls to its subscribers in a transparent fashion.
A.
Fundamentals
Locating, authenticating and tracking mobile subscribers are the
main functions of mobility management. PLMNs use a registration

process to report a mobile subscribers location. A paging process
notifies mobile subscribers about incoming calls. Authentication
establishes the mobile stations right to access network services.
Roaming allows authorized mobile subscribers to use networks other
than their home PLMN. Radio Resource Management (RRM) consists
of signal quality assessments, base station selection and switching.
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AII.1.
Date: 11/27/03
Registration and Paging
Registration updates the home PLMNs HLR and serving VLR

databases with location information for authorized mobile subscribers.
The network operator uses the mobile subscribers registration
information to optimize the delivery of services. Registration
frequency can streamline the paging process and minimize the size of
VLR databases.2
AII.2.
Authentication
Mobile stations registering in an unknown network invoke an

authentication process. The network solicits unique identifiers from
the mobile station and passes the information to the HLR. The HLR
processes the information with the AUC and the EIR. The mobile
stations subscription and equipment status is established and
provided to the network. If the status is valid, the network issues
encryption information and permits access. If the status is invalid, the
network denies access.
AII.3.
Roaming
Roaming is the ability to access services from a network other

than a home network. Registration, authentication and paging
processes must be capable of supporting subscribers in foreign
networks. Agreements between network operators are required as
well.
Goodman, David, J., W ire less Pe rsonal Communications Systems, Addison Wesle y
Longman inc.,1997, 55
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AII.4.
Date: 11/27/03
Radio Resource Management
The most vulnerable part of a PLMN is the signal quality between

an authorized mobile subscriber and its serving base station. Distance
between antennas and interference sources attenuate radio signals.
Frequency hopping and RF transmit power level controls mitigate
interference issues. Handoffs, base station resource switching,
mitigate distance related signal attenuation, traffic overloads and
persistent interference.
IIA.4.1.
Handoff Criteria
As a subscriber travels away from its base station, increasing

distance from the base station attenuates the radio signal.
Refer to
the sequence in figure 2.
BS C
Cell To wer
BSC
BSC
C ell Tower
C ell Tower
Figure 2 Signal Quality Behaviors 3

The reliable detection of this condition prior to a loss in
communications is crucial. The PLMN responds to deteriorating signal
strength by seeking an alternative base station with higher signal
strength. After selecting and reserving a new base station channel,
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the PLMN moves the call to the new base station and releases the
previous base station.4
Handoff processes rely upon Received Signal Strength Indicator
(RSSI) in dBm measurements, which describe received signal level
strength. The characteristics of base station and mobile handset
receivers are well known. As a result, it is possible to predict
performance ranges based on received signal levels. Three RSSI value
ranges are used. Extremely low values of RSSI (Typically less than 100dBm5) result in no or unstable communications, which indicates
that the mobile subscriber is outside the PLMNs coverage area or an
immediate base station resource switch is required. Low to moderate
values of RSSI (Typically -100 to -90 dBm6) allow communications
with mobile subscribers and indicate that a handoff to a new base
station with a RSSI value greater than the low to moderate range
should occur as soon as possible. Moderate to high values of RSSI
allow communications with the base station and indicate that the
current base station is acceptable. Extremely high values of RSSI at
the base station result in a mobile transmitter power reduction. Refer
to figure 3.
Rappaport, Theodore S., Wirele ss Communications Principles And Practice , Se cond

Edition, Prentice Hall PTR , 2002, 62-65
5
Ibid, 63
6
Ibid
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Marginal
Communications Quality
Base Station Switchover
Required As Soon As
Possible
Stable
Communications
Quality
Current Base
Station
Acceptable
No Communications or
Unstable Quality
Immediate Base Station
Switchover Required or
Move into coverage area
Min
Max
Figure 3 RSSI Range Descriptions

Accurate and reliable signal quality assessments between the
mobile station and its serving base station are crucial to the PLMNs
radio resource management. The PLMNs rapid execution of handoffs
depends on real time measurements.
The reference point of signal strength measurements is another
key parameter for radio resource management. The PLMN can use
measurements made at the base station, handset or both as a
reference for resource switching decisions.
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IIA.4.2.
Date: 11/27/03
Handoff Methods
There are several methods for handoffs and they are technology
dependent. A Hard Handoff refers to a Break before Make switching
action and it results in a brief disruption of service. Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA) and Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
systems use hard handoffs. A Soft Handoff refers to a Make before
Break switching action with no disruption of service. It uses multiple
network resources. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) systems use
soft handoffs.7 Refer to figure 4.
Figure 4 Handoff Methods 8

7
8
Ibid
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IIA.4.3.
Date: 11/27/03
Handoff Scenarios
The majority of handoffs support calls as mobiles traverse cell or

sector boundaries. Handoff processes are required for each of the
following scenarios.
1.)
Crossing cell boundaries within a MSCs service area

(Intra-MSC)
2.)
Crossing cell boundaries between MSCs (Inter-MSC)
3.)
Crossing cell boundaries between different network

operators (Roaming)
4.)
Crossing sector boundaries within a cell (Intra-cell)
5.)
Switching channels to circumvent persistent interference
Refer to figure 5.
MSC
MSC
MSC
MSC
Figure 5 Basic Handoff Scenarios 9
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B.
Date: 11/27/03
Requirements
Mobility management support in PLMNs requires a mobile
subscriber location & approval (registration, authentication and

paging), RRM, additional network capacity and Roaming. Refer to
figure 6.
Figure 6 Network Requirements for Mobility Management 10

Registration, paging, authentication, radio resource management
and roaming must be imperceptible to the subscriber. The following
events cause mobile subscriber registrations:11
1.)
Power cycling the mobile station On/Off
10

Se raj, Jila, Le cture 3 Mobility Management, Southe rn Me thodist Unive rsity EETS
8316 Fall 2003, 8
11
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2.)
Traversing predefined boundaries
3.)
Regular mobile subscriber location update intervals
4.)
Mobile subscriber call initiation
Although items 1, 2 and 4 are non-negotiable, the frequency of

mobile subscriber registration is adjustable. A high frequency of
registration reduces the paging area and burdens signaling resources
with registration messages. A low frequency of registration increases
paging areas and may burden signaling resources with paging
messages. Network operators must adjust the frequency of
registration in accordance with subscriber mobility statistics.
Authentication is necessary to prevent fraud. It ensures that
mobile stations are valid subscribers and it protects confidential
subscriber information with encryption methods.
Paging leverages the information provided by registration. Calls
terminating in the mobile network invoke paging. Pages are sent over
a control channel to the subscribers last known service area. If the
location information is accurate, the mobile subscriber receives the
page and responds. If the location information is inaccurate, broader
areas within the network are paged until the mobile subscriber is
found or the process times out.
Radio resource management is responsible for the selection of
optimum base stations prior to or during calls. Handoffs are the most
demanding task for radio resource management. Subscribers are
intolerant to dropped calls and unsuccessful handoffs result in dropped
calls.
As a result, handoffs have priority over new calls for base

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station resources, consume multiple network resources and place real

time implementation demands on the PLMN.12
Roaming is a major requirement for mobility management and
depends on network operator contracts and compatibility between
network technologies. Networks without roaming support limit their
users to the home network or force customers to subscribe to multiple
networks as depicted in figure 6.
PLMNs must satisfy the following criteria to support mobility
management:
1.)
Implementation of efficient registration, authentication

and paging methods, which minimize signaling channel
traffic and support roaming
2.)
Cell planning that minimizes the need for handoffs and

provides a 2% overall blocking probability.
3.)
Minimize the number of handoff requests by using

queuing and cell hierarchies.
III Wireless Network Mobility Management

Methods
Generation numbers describe categories of wireless networks.
Each generation resolves the issues encountered by its predecessor
and introduces new technologies. The ultimate objective of this
evolutionary process is to elevate the performance of a wireless
network to that of its wireline counterpart. Ideally, subscriber mobility
should not affect quality of service.
12

Edition, Prentice Hall PTR , 2002, 65
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A.
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Mobility Management for 1G Wireless Networks

The first generation technologies were limited capacity analog
wireless networks with Frequency Modulation (FM) and Frequency

Division Multiple Access (FDMA). First Generation networks provided
voice delivery services with in-band signaling. Advanced Mobile Phone
Service (AMPS), Narrow band AMPS (NAMPS), Nordic Mobile Telephone
(NMT), Total Access Communication System (TACS), C-450 and R2000 were implementations of First Generation networks.13
First Generation networks supported mobile subscriber
registration, authentication, paging, conditional roaming and RRM.
The Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO) provided all mobility
management operations.
In-band control channels sent registration, authentication and
paging messages, which provided some flexibility for the operator, but
limited their frequency. The authentication process was simplistic and
a weakness. Eavesdropping was possible. Registration occurred at
power on and at a rate designated by the network for idle mobile
stations. Paging methods were proprietary and could employ user
mobility patterns. 14 Roaming was conditional and complex. RRM
used base station measurements for the RSSI levels of all active
mobile stations within their cell and a separate locating receiver to
measure the RSSI levels of active mobile stations in neighboring cells.
13
Goodman, David J., W ire less Pe rsonal Communications Systems, Addison Wesle y
Longman, Inc., 1997, 24-25
14
Ibid, 89, 112 -114
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The MTSO requested all RSSI measurements and executed hard

handoffs.15
After the RSSI handoff criteria occur, the typical execution time
for a handoff is approximately 10 seconds. If a subscriber traveled
across cell boundaries in less than 10 seconds, the First Generation
network could not support the call. Umbrella cells reduced handoffs
caused by high-speed mobiles. An umbrella cell was a large cell,
which enveloped several smaller cells. The MTSO determined mobile
velocity by the RSSI rate of change and handed off high speed mobiles
to the larger umbrella cell. 16
NMT, TACS, R-2000 and C-450 were European versions of First
Generation networks and ubiquitous within their country of origin,
which facilitated roaming within each country, but not between
countries. By contrast, the largest deployment of First Generation
networks, AMPS and NAMPS, impeded roaming in North America due
to licensing issues and an inadequate specification. The AMPS
specification allowed operators to use proprietary signaling protocols
between network elements. Licensing structures created more than
700 service areas across the United States. Duopolies supported each
service area.17 An AMPS network supports 416 pairs of forward and
reverse channels.18
15
Rappaport, Theodore S., W ire less Communications Principles And Practice , Se cond
16
Ibid, 66 - 67
17
Longman, Inc., 1997, 24
18
Ibid, 80
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Although limited in capability, first generation networks

successfully realized fundamental wireless network concepts and
created a large market demand.
AIII.1.
IS-41
Roaming issues with AMPS and NAMPS networks were largely

resolved with the implementation of Interim Standard (IS) 41. IS 41
standardized the interface between AMPS networks and interfaces
within the network between individual network elements as well. The
application layer complied with the SS7 protocol and layers 1 to 3
complied with X.25 or SS7 protocols.19 IS 41 leveraged concepts from
the European Global System for Mobile communication (GSM)
standard, which is a Second Generation network standard.20
IS 41 defines three handoff protocols as Handoff Forward,
Handoff Back or Handoff to a Third. The term MSC replaced MTSO. A
Handoff Forward describes the call transfer procedure between an
active cell and one of its neighbors. A Handoff Back procedure
describes the call transfer procedure between an active cell and the
previous active cell. A Handoff to a Third procedure describes the call
transfer procedure between an active cell and one of its neighbors.21
Refer to figure 7.
19
20
21
Ibid, 131
Ibid, 127
Ibid, 141
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Figure 7 Inter-system Handoff Forward 2223

MSCs play different roles in each of the protocols such as
Anchor, Serving, Candidate or Target MSC.24 The Anchor MSC is the
first MSC involved in a call setup with the PSTN and holds its position
in the routing path for the duration of the call. The Serving MSC
connects to the mobile subscriber via one of its base stations. Serving
MSCs solicit RSSI levels from the surrounding or Candidate MSCs. If
the RSSI level handoff criteria is satisfied, a Candidate MSC graduates
to Target MSC status. The Serving MSC hands off the call to the
22

Longman, Inc., 1997, 142-143, figure s 4.8 4.10
24
Ibid, 141
23
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25
Target MSC and converts it into the new Serving MSC.
Refer to
figure 8.
L ow RSSI
Best RSSI
Best RSSI
L ow RSSI
L ow RSSI
Best RSSI
Figure 8 MSC Functional Roles 26
B.
Mobility Management for 2G Networks

Second Generation wireless networks introduced digital
technologies, which significantly improved performance, capacity and

services. Voice delivery services continued to be the focus.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) a.k.a. IS-95, Global
System for Mobile communications (GSM) and North American Time
Division Multiple Access (NA-TDMA) a.k.a. IS-136 are the three
technologies used to realize 2G networks. GSM was the first 2G
25
26
Ibid, 141-147
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technology developed and deployed internationally. CDMA and NATDMA were deployed in the United States.
A great debate over architecture hampered the introduction of
digital technology in 2G wireless networks. The technology chosen to
implement a 2G wireless network affects mobility. Roaming is
extremely limited between networks with different technologies. At
present, GSM has the largest installed base and offers roaming
subscribers the best option. CDMA is second and NA TDMA is
transitioning to GSM.
BIII.1.
GSM
GSM is an exceptionally well-crafted standard. It has a

sophisticated global addressing scheme, aggregates cells for location
description, key based authentication, temporary identifiers and
provisions for global GSM network roaming. The PLMN uses
subsystems and a new hierarchal network element (BSC) expedites
the processing of handoffs or handovers. Network elements use
standard interfaces and use Mobile Application Part (MAP). MAP is a
GSM specific extension to the SS7 protocol. Radio resources
management uses Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO) for hard handover
management, which uses RSSI measurements from mobile stations.
A GSM network has Base Station (BSS), Network Switching
(NSS) and Operation & Maintenance (OMSS) subsystems. Refer to
figure 9.
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Figure 9 Typical GSM PLMN 27
28
The network architecture and signaling protocols satisfy the

needs of mobility management. Figure 10 depicts a GSM PLMN with
signaling protocol stacks.
Connection Management
CM
CM
Mobility Management
Layer
2
LAPDm
La yer
1
RR
TDMA
FDMA
BSTM
BSTM
LAPDm LAPD
LAPD
G.703
G.705
G.732
G.703
G.705
G.732
TDMA
FDMA
Um
Abis
MAP
MAP
TCAP
BSSMAP
RR
RR
TCAP
SCCP
SCCP
SCCP
SCCP
MTP
MTP
MTP
MTP
DTAP
Radio Resource
Management
BSSMAP
MM
DTAP
Layer
3
MM
B, C
Figure 10 GSM signaling protocol stacks 29
30
27

Edition, Prentice Hall PTR , 2002, 552, Figure 11.5
28
29
Ibid
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Layer 3 provides Radio Resource (RR), Mobility Management

(MM), and Connection Management (CM) functions. RR manages all
air interface procedures such as frequency selection, cell choice,
handovers, signal quality assessments, channel assignment requests
and encryption/decryption synchronization. MM is responsible for
issuing TMSIs, finding the mobile station, tracking the mobile station,
IMSI attach/detach, mobile station recognition, subscription
verification and protecting subscriber identity. CM is responsible for
call setup and termination.31
Registration and paging processes benefit from well-defined
service areas, which have internationally unique designations. Cells
are grouped together to form Location Areas and are represented by
Location Area Indicators (LAI). LAIs are globally unique and include
country, mobile network and location area codes. All individual cells
have global identifiers, which specify their LAI and Cell Identifier
(CI). 32
Authentication is sophisticated and uses the A3 algorithm. Every
new GSM subscriber receives a Subscription Authentication Key (Ki)
with the International Mobile Subscriber Identifier (IMSI). The Ki is
confidential and secure. It is stored on the SIM and in the AUC.
During Authentication, the network issues a Random Number (RAND).
Both the mobile station and the network derive a Signature Response
(SRES) from a calculation with the Ki and the RAND. The mobile
station transmits its SRES to the network for comparison with the
30
Ebe rspache r, Jorg e t al, GSM Switching Se rvices and Protocols, Se cond edition,
John Wile y & Sons, Ltd, 2001, 135, figure 7.11 and 141, figure 7.13
31
Ibid 137,138
32
Ibid, 33-35
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AUCs calculated value of SRES. If they match, the mobile station

receives network access and encryption information. If they do not
match, the network denies access.33
Unlike AMPS, registration is the responsibility of the mobile
station. 34 A mobile subscriber registers with the network for the
following reasons:
1.)
Power cycling the mobile On/Off
2.)
Entering a new LAI
3.)
Cyclic location updates.
4.)
Mobile call initiation
The paging process directly benefits from the efficient

registration process. Operators can page a specific cell, location area,
groups of location areas or the entire network. Typically, paging
occurs in the smallest area of the last known mobile subscriber
location. The paging process continues with larger areas until
successful or the system times out.
GSM networks use temporary numbers and identifiers such as
Mobile Routing Subscriber Number (MRSN) and Temporary Mobile
Subscriber Identity (TMSI). Temporary numbers reduce the size of
serving area databases, facilitate roaming and provide additional
security.
GSM utilizes hierarchal switching. The MSCs route traffic to
BSCs, which route traffic to a specific base station. The BSC and its
33
34
Ibid, 120
Ibid, 76
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base stations form a Base Station Subsystem (BSS). The BSC

manages handovers within their respective BSS without MSC
intervention, which expedites the handover process.
All handovers are hard. GSM networks cannot handover
between analog and digital systems. GSM networks support Intracell
and Intercell handovers within a common PLMN. Handovers between
two different GSM PLMNs are not possible. Handovers occur due to
the following reasons:35
1.)
Signal quality between the mobile station and the base

station deteriorates indicated by excessive errors or
low values of RSSI.
2.)
Distance between the mobile station and the base

station exceeds a predetermined limit
3.)
Cell traffic load management
4.)
Maintenance
The wealth of standardization at every level in the architecture

expedites information transfer between network elements. Network
decision execution times are 5 to 10 times faster than AMPS for
handovers.36 The network architecture is an excellent implementation
of 2G concepts and a foundation for future generations.
BIII.2.
IS-54 and NA-TDMA (IS-136)
Cellular System Dual Mode Subscriber Equipment (IS-54) can

coexist with AMPS technology and allow operators to introduce digital
35
Ibid, 194
36
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technology incrementally. The bandwidth requirement for an IS-54

signal is the same as an AMPS signal. The network supported analog
or digital mobile stations. IS-54 leveraged the GSM standard,
employed associated control channels, mobile assisted handoffs, and
encrypted authentication processes. The digital technology offered
1248 full rate physical channels, which is three times more than
AMPS.37
The incorporation of a Digital Control Channel and Sleep Mode
into the IS-54 specification created NA-TDMA (IS-136). IS-136
encourages the proliferation of all digital mobile stations. The
influence of the GSM standard is evident in the registration,
authentication, paging and radio resource management processes. IS136 employs IS-41C and supports roaming.38
Radio resource management depends on signal quality
measurements made by each mobile station. The mobile station
determines the bit error rate and RSSI level for the active channel.
The network requests that the mobile station measure the RSSI levels
of six to twelve surrounding channels. The mobile station transmits
one RSSI measurement every 240mSec. Based on twelve
measurements, the process repeats every 480mSec to 980msec. The
aforementioned MAHO process provides true signal quality
information, offloads the MSC and augments base station RSSI
measurements.39
37
Longman, Inc., 1997, 154 -155, 163
38
Ibid, 150
39
Ibid 198,199
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NA-TDMA networks use Mobile Assisted Channel Allocation

(MACA). The network identifies idle channels. In the absence of BCCH
traffic, mobile stations scan and measure, RSSI values of the
designated idle channels. The network uses the RSSI values for call
setup.40
NA-TDMA supports Intra-MSC and Inter-MSC handoffs. Four
additional handoff variations can occur such as analog-to-analog,
analog to digital, digital to analog and digital-to-digital.41
NA-TDMA is transitioning to GSM.
BIII.3.
CDMA (IS-95A)
CDMA (IS-95A) networks improve spectral efficiency, increase

capacity and provide a dual mode system. Despite dual mode support,
bandwidth requirements complicated AMPS upgrades to CDMA. The
network supports registration, authentication, paging, radio resource
management and roaming. 42 IS-95 introduced several new concepts
such as code division multiple access, soft handoff with synchronized
base stations and mobile initiated handoffs.43 An IS 41C protocol
stack is used for communications between network elements.
Registration occurred because of the following events:44
40
41
42
43
44
1.)
Power cycling the mobile station On or Off
2.)
Expiration of a timer for registration
Ibid, 199, 200

Ibid, 198
Ibid 226
Ibid, 205, 246-251
Ibid, 252
Page 27 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
3.)
Date: 11/27/03
Distance between the serving base station and its

predecessor exceeds a system limit.
4.)
Mobile station travels to a new registration zone.
Authentication uses the same process as NA-TDMA plus a unique

privacy process, which involves the logical combination of private long
code mask and the long code.45
Each CDMA carrier contains up to seven paging channels. A
163.84-second paging time slot with 2048 paging channel time slots
conserves battery life. Based on its MIN and ESN, each mobile station
is assigned a specific portion of the overall paging time slot. Idle
mobile stations in the sleep mode wake up to scan their section of the
overall paging time slot, which conserves battery power.46
Mobile stations have more responsibility in CDMAs RRM. The
mobile stations make signal quality assessments (MAHO) and notify
the network that a handoff is required. Based on pilot channel RSSI
measurements using the searching correlator, the mobile station
divides all base stations into four lists such as Active, Neighbor,
Candidate and Remaining categories. Active base stations are in use
with traffic. Candidate base stations have the next best signal quality
and are available for use. Neighbor base stations are close by and
may become available for handoff. Remaining base stations are base
stations excluded from the previous lists. Ultimately, the MSC makes
the final handoff determination.47
45
46
47
Ibid, 252
Ibid, 228
Ibid, 246 - 249
Page 28 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
Date: 11/27/03
If the active base stations RSSI falls to a certain threshold, the

system will instruct the mobile station to add base stations from the
candidate list to the active list, which connects multiple base stations
to the mobile station. Although two base stations are typically used,
six are theoretically possible. This is a soft handoff or a make before
break switch. The mobile station maintains these connections until
one of the active base stations RSSI measurement falls below a
threshold. The system removes the base station from the active list
and reassigns it. The system supports digital to analog and hard
handoffs as well.48 Figure 11 depicts a typical CDMA PLMN.
Figure 11 CDMA PLMN49
48
49
Ibid
Ibid, 205, figure 6.1
Page 29 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
C.
Date: 11/27/03
Mobility Management for 2.5G Networks

Second Generation wireless networks continued to focus
primarily on voice delivery services. The demand for data delivery

services was growing rapidly and third generation networks were not
available. As a result, an interim generation of wireless networks was
born. High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD), General Packet
Radio Service (GPRS) and IS-95B were the new network standards
and referred to as 2.5 G networks. HSCSD and GPRS used GSM and
IS-95B used CDMA.
CIII.1.
HSCSD
HSCSD networks are GSM networks, which offer subscribers

multiple slots for data traffic. Mobile stations could use up to eight
time slots, which would theoretically create an 115.2kbit/s channel.
Core network and A interface restrictions limited the achievable data
rate to 64kbit/s. Transparent and non-transparent data transmission
modes were supported. Transparent mode employed splitter/combiner
elements external to the GSM core network, which numbered data
frames to preserve order of transmission over the GSM system. Nontransparent mode modified protocols, which transferred the slot
grouping function to the GSM core network. HSCSD is not an efficient
conveyance for bursty data traffic and as a result is expensive. Its
main advantage was increased channel data rates over existing GSM
networks with minimal impact on the core network.50
50
Halonen, Timo e t al, GSM, GPR S and EDGE Pe rformance Evolution Towards
3G/UMTS, John W ile y & Sons, Ltd, 2002, 12 - 13
Page 30 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
CIII.2.
Date: 11/27/03
GPRS
GPRS integrates a core packet data-switching network with a

conventional GSM network. The result is a network that handles voice
delivery over the GSM network and data packets over the new packet
data network. The GSM or circuit switched network has priority over
the GPRS network. As a result, GPRS networks cannot guarantee
throughput rates and handovers are determined by the GSM
network.51 It is an economical and efficient combination. Refer to
figure 12.
InterInterPLMN
PLMN
Backbone
Backbone
IP Based
IP Based
Intra-PLMN
Intra-PLMN
Backbon e
Backbon e
Figure 12 Typical GPRS Network 52
53
51
Kaaranen, He ikki e t al, UMTS Ne tworks Archite cture , Mobility and Se rvice s, John
W ile y & Sons, Ltd, 2001, 19
52
3G/UMTS, John W ile y & Sons, Ltd, 2002, 17, figure 1.6
53
Page 31 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
Date: 11/27/03
The Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) and the Gateway GPRS
Support Node (GGSN) are new network elements. The SGSN routes
all mobile station packet traffic, performs logical link management,
supports the mobile station attach /detach process and authenticates
mobile stations. Subscriber profiles and location information is stored
in the SGSNs location register. SGSNs serve a group of cells, Routing
Area, within a location area. The GGSN is a protocol converter and it
interfaces the GPRS network to external packet data networks. It
transforms GPRS traffic to the packet data format of the external
network, readdresses, and routes external packets terminating in the
GPRS network to the appropriate SGSN. Figure 13 depicts the GPRS
signaling protocol stack.54
Um
Gb
GMM/SM
GMM/SM
LLC
LLC
Relay
RLC
RLC
BSSGP
BSSGP
MAC
MAC
Netwo rk
Services
Network
Services
GSM RF
GSM RF Phy. layer
Phy. layer
Figure 13 GPRS signaling protocol stack 55
56
54
John Wile y & Sons, Ltd, 2001, 242 -243
55
3G/UMTS, John W ile y & Sons, Ltd, 2002, 24, figure 1.11
56
Page 32 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
Date: 11/27/03
GPRS Mobility Management (GMM) and Session Management

(SM) perform security processes, GPRS Attach / Detach procedures,
routing area updates and protocol data packet context activation.57
Three classes of mobile terminals are possible with GPRS. Class
A devices support concurrent use of both GSM and GPRS services.
Class B devices can be used with GSM or GPRS services. Class C
devices are limited to one type of service either GSM or GPRS.58
Mobility management for voice delivery services is the same as
in GSM. Data packet services use the GPRS three state mobility
management model. Refer to figure 14.
GPRS Attach
GPRS Detach
Standby
Timeout
Ready Timeout or
Mandatory Standby
Packet
Transmissions
Mobile Stations
Mobil ity Management
State Model
Figure 14 GPRS MM state model 59

57
John Wile y & Sons, Ltd, 2001,256, figure 11.11, 256, figure 11.12
58
3G/UMTS, John W ile y & Sons, Ltd, 2002, 19
59
Ibid, 28, figure 1.14
Page 33 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
Date: 11/27/03
GPRS implements mobility management with Idle, Ready and

Standby states. The Idle state indicates that the GPRS network is not
aware of the mobile terminal. The Standby state indicates that the
GPRS network knows the subscriber and its routing area. The Ready
state indicates that GPRS network knows the subscriber, its cell
location and is exchanging packets at will.60
Attach /Detach processes register and deregister mobile
terminals with the GPRS network. A successful attachment to the
GPRS network transitions a mobile station from the Idle state to the
Ready state. If the mobile terminal is inactive too long, it transitions
from a Ready state to a Standby state. If the mobile terminal is in
Standby too long, it transitions from a Standby state to an Idle
state 61
CIII.3.
IS-95B
IS-95B networks are CDMA networks, which offer subscribers

multiple slots for data traffic. Mobile stations can achieve 64kbit/s
channel. IS-95B improved power control and hard / soft handoff
execution. IS-95B is not an efficient conveyance for bursty data
traffic. Its main advantage is increased channel data rates over
existing CDMA networks with minimal impact on the core network.62
60
Ibid, 29
Ibid
62
Bird, Eric, Trigg, A., Le cture 12 EIA/TIA 95, Southe rn Me thodist Unive rsity EETS
8306 Fall 2003, Re v. A, 32
61
Page 34 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
D.
Date: 11/27/03
Mobility Management for 3G Networks

An ITU specification, International Mobile Telecommunications
2000 (IMT-2000) provides the guidelines for third generation

networks. A technology debate divided the technology development
effort and caused the formation of two partnership projects. ARIB,
CCSA, ETSI, T1, TTA, and TTC are organizational partners for the Third
Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), which focus on a 3G network
implementation using GSM as a basis.63 ARIB, CCSA, TIA, TTA, and
TTC are organizational partners for the Third Generation Partnership
Project (3GPP), which focus on a 3G network implementation using
ANSI/TIA/EIA-41 as a basis.64
At present, three technologies are available for third generation
networks. Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution (EDGE) is a
convergence technology providing GSM and TDMA operators a
migration path to 3G, Universal Mobile Telephone System (UMTS).
UMTS using Wideband CDMA (WCDMA) and CDMA-2000 are true 3G
technologies and promoted by the 3GPP and 3GPP2 respectively.
DIII.1.
EDGE
EDGE is an incremental improvement to GPRS/GSM networks. It

employs an 8-PSK modulation, which can theoretically triple the GPRS
data rate under optimum conditions such as close proximity to the
base station. A fully capable EDGE network would increase the
63
About 3GPP, Located online at http://www.3gpp.org/About/about.htm

3GPP2 Background, Locate d online at
http://www.3gpp2.org/Public_htm l/Misc/AboutHome .cfm
64
Page 35 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
Date: 11/27/03
number of cells. The voice delivery services are the same as in GSM.
EDGE does not fully satisfy the UMTS requirements.65
The key contributions of EDGE technology are its increased data
rates, new radio access network element and the Network Assisted
Cell Change (NACC).66 If the high-speed market does not develop, it
is a viable alternative for operators.
65
66
3G/UMTS, John W ile y & Sons, Ltd, 2002, 62
Page 36 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
DIII.2.
Date: 11/27/03
UMTS
UMTS networks leverage GSM and EDGE networks. The result is

a network that delivers high bit rates, circuit & packet switched
services, Quality of Service (QOS) and compatibility to previous 2G
and 2.5G technologies. An all IP UMTS network is depicted in figure
15.
Figure 15 All IP 3GPP R5 Scheme67
68
The GSM/EDGE Radio Access Network (GERAN) element provides

radio interface compatibility between the UMTS core network and
GSM/EDGE mobile stations. The Universal Terrestrial Radio Access
Network (UTRAN) provides WCDMA radio access. The Home
Subscriber Server (HSS) is the HLR. Although UMTS networks are
67

W ile y & Sons, Ltd, 2001, 24, Figure 2.10
68
Page 37 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
Date: 11/27/03
transitioning to an all IP solution, initial implementations contain

discrete circuit switched networks within the UMTS core network. The
packet switching elements share the same names as their 2.5G
predecessors. However, the UTRAN and the SGSN share mobility
management responsibilities. As a result, the UMTS SGSN requires 2G
and 3G functionality.69
Registration, authentication and paging activities are determined
by mobility management states. Two different three state models are
used for circuit and packet switched mobility management. Circuit
switched mobility management uses MM-Idle, MM-Connected and MMDetached states. Packet switched mobility management uses PMMIdle, PMM-Connected and PMM-Detached states. The mobility
management states are indicators of mobile station location resolution.
Refer to figures 16 and 17.70
Call Initiation
or
Location Update
IMSI A ttach
or
Location Update
Call C omplete
IMSI Detach
Figure 16 UMTS Circuit Switched MM States 71

69
Ibid, 112
Ibid, 113-115
71
Kaaranen, Heikk i e t al, UMTS Ne tworks Archite cture , Mobility and Se rvices, John
W ile y & Sons, Ltd, 2001, 114, Figure 5.12
70
Page 38 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
Date: 11/27/03
Packet Signaling
Connection Setup
Packe t Signaling
Connection Release
Packe t IMSI Detach
or
Packet IMSI Attach Rejection
or
RA Update Rejection
Packet IMSI Attach

or
R A Update with Packet
Switch Signaling Connection
Setup
Figure 17 UMTS Circuit Switched MM States 72

Four mobile station location descriptors such as discrete cell,
UTRAN Routing Areas (URA), Routing Areas (RA) and Location Areas
(LA) optimize registration and paging processes. The URA is new and
reflects the UTRANs involvement in mobility management.73
Authentication for UMTS networks is more complex than in prior
generations. The most important aspects are the use of temporary
identities similar to GSM, mutual authentication of the mobile station
and the network, radio access network encryption and security
measures for UTRAN signaling integrity.74
All the compatibility requirements between UMTS and 2G/2.5G
networks remove technology as an obstacle to roaming. Operator
contracts and legacy network support are the most significant issues.
72
73
74
Ibid, 114, Figure 5.12

Ibid, 112
Ibid, 184
Page 39 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
Date: 11/27/03
Radio resource management has quite a diverse offering. Refer

to table 1.
IV Mobility Management Scheme Comparison
Table 1
Mobility Management
Network
Registration
Type
& Paging
AUC
Roaming
Areas
Single Cell &
1G
A MPS
Proprietary Cell
Groups
2G
GSM
NA -
2G
TDMA
MS Only
Simple
Conditional
MIN &
Difficult
ESN
Global Single
MS Only
Cell & Location
3 keys
A reas (LAI)
A 3 A lgor.
Single Cell &

Location A reas
75
(LA I)
IS54,
CA VE76
Good
between
GSM
Operators
Radio Resource
Management
Handoff
Types
Network Controlled, Hard,

Intra-MSC,
Inter-MSC IS41
Network Controlled, MA HO,

Hard, Intra- BSC,
Intra-MSC & Inter-MSC
Conditional
Hard, Intra-MSC &

Inter-MSC IS41
75
Longman, Inc., 1997, 201
76
Ibid, 194
Page 40 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
Table 1
Date: 11/27/03
Radio Resource
Mobility Management
Continued
Management
Registration
Network
Type
& Paging
AUC
Handoff
Roaming
Types
Areas
MS Only
CDMA
Based on
Mobile Initiated, Network
2G
One
Single Cell &
Long
Conditional
Controlled, Soft, Hard &
2.5G
IS95
zone
Code
A NSI 41
HO to A nalog
A &B
Masks,
A NSI 41 compliant
CA VE
Global Single
2.5G
GPRS
Good
Cell, Location
MS Only
between
A reas (LAI),
3 keys
GSM
Routing A reas
A 3 A lgor.
Operators,
(RAI)
3G
UMTS
SIM
Global Single
MS &
Cell, Location
Network
A reas (LAI),
Private
Routing A reas
Master
(RAI) & UTRA N
Key
Routing A rea
algor.

Hard,
Intra- BSC, Intra-MSC &
Inter-MSC
NEHO, MEHO, Hard, Soft,
A lmost
Everywhere
SIM
and Softer
Intra- BS, Inter-BS, IntraMSC, Inter-RNC, InterSGSN & Inter-Sys.
Inter-MSC77
77
Kaaranen, Heikk i e t al, UMTS Ne tworks Archite cture , Mobility and Se rvices, John
Page 41 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
Date: 11/27/03
Mobility Management Trends

Initially, mobility management was simplistic and proprietary.
Networks established a mobile station registration rate. Authentication

processes were vulnerable to eavesdropping, which provided an
opportunity for fraud. Paging used cell identifiers and customized
searching areas. Roaming was complex and limited. Mobile
customers mitigated roaming limitations with multiple subscriptions.
Radio resource management depended on signal strength
measurements from base stations. Networks used hard handoffs and
supported voice delivery services only.
Second generation networks introduced digital technology and
used open standards for network element interfaces. The use of open
standards provided a foundation for data delivery services and
improved mobility and radio resource management. 2G networks
defined location areas and used proactive registration criteria, which
improved the paging process. Authentication processes used public
and private key methods such as A3 and CAVE, which greatly reduced
fraud. Temporary identifiers improved network security. Globally
unique location identifiers and the use of open standards improved
roaming. Radio resource management introduced soft handoffs and
defined more handoff scenarios. Handoff execution times improved by
a factor of 5.
2.5G networks provided voice and data services. Voice services
had priority over data. The voice delivery network uses a 2G mobility
management process and the data delivery network uses a packet
mobility management 2.5G process based on states. 2.5G networks
Page 42 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
Date: 11/27/03
defined Routing Areas (RA), which is a subset of a location area. RA

improved the registration and paging processes for data subscribers.
Authentication was similar to 2G systems. Data subscribers
complicated roaming by introducing more access networks. Radio
resource management became more complex. Subscriber equipment
classification determined service access such as concurrent use of
voice and data, switched use of voice and data and exclusive use of
one service. The goal was to minimize handoff disruption for voice
services and zero packet loss for data services.
3G networks make QOS commitments for all services and
maximize compatibility with 2G and 2.5G technologies. The 3G
architecture migrates to an all IP solution, which eventually eliminates
the circuit switched network. Registration and paging benefit from the
definition of UTRAN Routing Areas (URA), which is a subset of RAs.
Authentication becomes mutual. Mobile stations authenticate the
network and the network authenticates the mobile station. Roaming
benefits from all the architectural compatibilities and becomes global.
Radio resource management implements a broad range of handoffs
and supports most mobility issues.
Page 43 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
Date: 11/27/03
VI Conclusions
Mobility management started out as a single process. The
presence of circuit and packet switched networks divided mobility
management into two processes. The evolution of wireless networks
to all IP solutions will most probably consolidate it back to one
process.
The most interesting change is location information resolution
based on network activities. Initially, networks attempted to locate
subscribers at the cell level as often as possible to optimize paging.
Mobility management states are associated with several levels of
location information. This approach improved network performance
and efficiently supported capacity increases.
Authentication and security processes emerged into effective
fraud deterrents. The processes viewed a fraudulent mobile station as
the only significant threat focused exclusively on the verification of the
mobile station. The use of IP networks changed the threat perception
to include the network. Network and mobile station authentication are
now required.
Roaming emerged into a global and transparent feature.
Customers become aware of it on their mobile station display and on
their bill. Exclusive of 3G, roaming issues are legacy network support
and introduction of new data networks such as WLAN.
Radio resource management is poetry in motion. It services
virtually all handoff scenarios. Handoff execution times improved from
Page 44 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
Date: 11/27/03
10 seconds to hundreds of milliseconds. PLMN cell planning minimizes

handoffs to mitigate capacity limits, which offloads radio resource
management. Strategies use macro and micro-cells, which allows the
network to adjust to mobile station velocity.
Wireless networks achieved remarkable performance levels.
Although 3G networks promise 4Mbit/s data rates, their actual
performance is substantially less. Mobility and radio resource
management is adequate for current performance levels. Network
improvements leading to rich multimedia services such as full motion
video will provide the next set of challenges.
Page 45 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
Date: 11/27/03
Bibliography
1. Goodman, David J., Wireless Personal Communications Systems,
Addison Wesley Longman, Inc., 1997
2. Rappaport, Theodore S., Wireless Communications Principles
And Practice, Second Edition, Prentice Hall PTR, 2002
3. Kaaranen, Heikki et al, UMTS Networks Architecture, Mobility
and Services, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2001
4. Halonen, Timo et al, GSM, GPRS and EDGE Performance
Evolution Towards 3G/UMTS, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2002
5. Eberspacher, Jorg et al, GSM Switching Services and Protocols,
Second edition, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2001
6. Microsoft Clip Art, Microsoft PowerPoint 2002
7. CDMA Development Group, located on line at
http://www.cdg.org
8. 3GPP, located on line at http://www.3GPP.org
9. 3GPP2, located on line at http://www.3GPP2.org
10. Seraj, Jila, Lecture 3 Mobility Management, Southern Methodist
University EETS 8316 Fall 2003, 8
Page 46 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
Glossary 78
Date: 11/27/03
79 80
1G
First Generation Wireless Network
2G
Second Generation Wireless

Network
2.5G
Interim Generation Wireless

Network between 2G & 3G
3G
Third Generation Wireless Network
3GPP
Third Generation Partnership

Project
3GPP2
Third Generation Partnership

Project 2
A3
Encryption algorithm
AMPS
Advanced Mobile Phone Service
ARIB
Association of Radio Industries

and Business
AUC
Authentication center
BS
Base Station
BSS
Base Station Subsystem
BSSAP
Base Station Subsystem

Application Part
CAVE
Cellular Authentication and Voice

Encryption
CCSA
China Communications Standards
78
W ile y & Sons, Ltd, 2001, xiii - xx iv
79
Longman, Inc., 1997, 383 - 387
80
Tele communications standards Links, locate d on line at
http://www.3gpp2.org/Public_htm l/Misc/Re latedHome.cfm
Page 47 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
Date: 11/27/03
Association
CDMA
Code Division Multiple Access
CDMA 2000
3G CDMA network
CDMA One
2 and 2.5G CDMA networks
CM
Connection Management
EDGE
Enhanced Data rates for Global

Evolution
EIR
Equipment Identity Register
ETSI
European Telecommunications
Standards Institute
FDMA
Frequency Division Multiple Access
GERAN
GSM/EDGE Radio Access Network
GGSN
Gateway GPRS Support Node
GPRS
General Packet Radio Service
GPS
Global Positioning System
HLR
Home Location Register
IP
Internet Protocol
LAI
Location Area Identifier
MAHO
Mobile Assisted Handoff
MAP
Mobile Application Part
MEHO
Mobile Evaluated Handoff
MM
Mobility Management
MSC
Mobiles switching Center
NACC
Network Assisted Cell Change
NEHO
Network Evaluated Handoff
PMM
Packet Mobility Management
PSTN
Public Switching Telephone

Network
Page 48 of 49
Title:
Course: EETS 8316
Date: 11/27/03
PLMN
Public Land Mobile Network
RAI
Routing Area Identifier
RLC
Radio Link Control
RNC
Radio Network Controller
RR
Radio Resource
SGSN
Serving GPRS Support Node
T1
Telecommunications Standards
Committee
TDMA
Time Division Multiple Access
TIA
Telecommunication Industry
Association
TTA
Telecommunication Technology
Association
TTC
Telecommunication Technology
Committee
UMTS
Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System
URA
UTRAN Registration Area
UTRAN
Universal Terrestrial Radio Access

Network
VLR
Visiting Location Register
X.25
ITU-T Protocol for packet Switched

Networks
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MSC

Dennis G. Vaillancourt ****1736

EETS 8316, Fall 2003

November 27, 2003

III Wireless Network Mobility Management Methods......... 15

IV Mobility Management Scheme Comparison................. 40

Roaming support continuously improved and achieved global

customers. Ubiquitous access, reliability, availability, scalability and

Figure 1 Simple PLMN 1

Microsoft C lip Art, Microsoft Powe rPoint 2002

signaling is detected. The PSTN uses the fixed location of the