Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Artificial Ballast
Supported by
Expte: P-7/08
Research consortium
Research project
Artificial Ballast
Supported by
Expte: P-7/08
Research consortium
Research consortium:
Publisher:
Spanish Railways Foundation
Calle Santa Isabel, 44
28012 Madrid www.ffe.es
Preparation:
Artificial Ballast Research Consortium
- Fundacin Caminos de Hierro (FCH)
- Polytechnic University of Madrid (UPM)
- INGECIBER, S.A.
- Cement Manufacturers Group of Spain and the Spanish Institute of Cement and its
Applications (OFICEMEN / ACE)
- Spanish Railways Foundation (FFE)
Design, layout and graphic production:
Vibra Diseo S.L. - www.vibraestudio.com
INGECIBER, S.A.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
0. Executive summary of the project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1. Definition of the mechanical, geometric and functional properties of artificial ballast.
Application of behaviour prediction or modelling tools (SP1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2. Research related to applicable materials in artificial ballast production (SP2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3. SW tool development for mechanical analysis of granular media (SP3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4. Research into applicable prefabrication techniques (SP4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5. Dissemination and internationalization (SP5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
sleepers).
This improvement logic leads us to consider ballast as the next material liable to be tackled from
the point of view of design and industrial production, and within the general trend in the field of
civil engineering and building towards replacing natural materials with higher performance artificial
materials.
The artificial ballast solution is an innovative alternative that lies between a natural ballasted track
and a slab track, enhancing the qualities of the ballast (granular media) and the slab track (controlled
design and material). Until the implementation of this project, this intermediate solution had not
been raised or researched: this first technical feasibility study marks the beginning of a new approach
to railway infrastructure design, with possible medium or long term application, but whose potential
benefits justify it being addressed at any early stage.
The project is therefore aimed at the study of a new artificial granular material, applicable in
railway infrastructure and that could replace natural ballast and improve the functional properties of
this settlement layer without losing its advantages as a geometric adjustment layer. This project has
had the character of a technical feasibility study and initial research. It has tackled the studies and lines
of research needed to develop the new material, directed from the current state of knowledge and
technique towards the definition of a material with suitable properties, whose production is feasible at
an industrial level, with minimum cost and compatible with a medium-term application as an improved
alternative to natural ballast railway lines.
The project has had to address the study of new material from very different angles and fields of
knowledge, which has made it essential to have a consortium with complementary members and
multidisciplinary teams.
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
important effort has been made in this project to identify the mechanical properties of the rocks used
in the production of ballast and their extension to high-strength micro-concrete and mortars, leading
to characterization tests not commonly performed on rocks or mortars. This is why a full series has been
defined and developed, comprising rocks from three reference quarries, and which has been extended in
the case of hardness tests to ten other quarries, considering six mortars that have been collected as basic
artificial ballast material or as comparison material. This test series has been established by rigorously
respecting the parallelism in the evaluation of rocks and mortar, and establishing a crossover test
method for chaotic geometries and ordered geometries in the case of the Los Angeles test. In evaluating
the surface hardness, a new testing protocol (nonexistent in regulations) has been established and, to
evaluate burst strength in contacts between grains, the Vertex Burst Test (VBT) has been created.
The results of mechanical parameter characterization have covered simple compressive strength,
tensile strength and flexural strength, fracture energy, surface hardness, the Los Angeles coefficient and
the new Vertex burst test.
The choice of high-strength mortars as pilot material for artificial ballast has finally been confirmed
as a sound choice. In fact:
A minimum permitted characteristic resistance, Rck, of 90 MPa has been established and justified
from the artificial material, a strength that has been achieved by mortars formulated and tested in
this Project.
The fracture energy G of the high-strength mortars proposed is slightly lower than that in the rocks
analyzed, but shows a G/Rck ratio that is clearly favourable in the case of mortars.
Surface hardness Hv of high strength mortars has proved much higher than expected from
bibliographic data and has even been found to be improvable with surface hardening processes
such as carbonation, allowing Hv values of 130 kg/mm2 to be achieved, which are comparable to
the lowest Hv values obtained for ballast quarry rocks.
The Los Angeles tests have made it possible to estimate LA values in ballast produced with high
strength mortars: for mortars with nano-silica an LA of around 16 is obtained, i.e., at the LA value
limit for conventional lines in Spain.
Therefore, and despite being an objective judged as difficult to attain at the start of the Project, it
has been possible to achieve the aim of obtaining and testing high strength mortars that, like artificial
stone, are at the threshold quantified and justified in this project for application in the production of
11
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
We have innovated in the characterization of both rocks and mortar and new surface hardness
testing protocols, as well as a new Vertex Burst Test (VBT) which has given encouraging results and an
acceptable correlation with LA coefficient values.
It seems very appropriate to increase our knowledge about natural ballast in all aspects, but it seems
especially urgent to make progress on the experimental side: it is possible to obtain more data about
current tests (grading after the LA test) and it is possible, at reasonable cost, to increase the frequency of
certain tests (Franklin strength tests), and to extend monitoring with simple (surface hardness) and more
complex tests (compression, flexural, fracture, vertex), even though the latter involve the very hard work
of producing prismatic test pieces of healthy rock from ballast quarries.
In addition, simulations of artificial ballast behaviour performed with a DEM (Discrete Element
Method) programme have made it possible to evaluate the influence of parameters defining the
geometry of artificial granular media:
Grading envelope variations introduced in the simulations do not give clear or conclusive results
as distortions are introduced by the random generation of granular media. However it does seem
that by restricting the grading envelope (in this case eliminating particles of under 40 mm with
respect to a natural ballast envelope) does not worsen the performance of the ballast, something
that would be favourable for the production of artificial ballast.
It has been shown that the behaviour of the ballast is especially sensitive to degraded track
situations (bad sleeper support), which suggests that the design of the new material should take
into account stresses in this situation.
Increasing the friction coefficient between the particles improves the performance of artificial
ballast, but this is especially important in degraded situations, which is very encouraging for the
development of a new material with an improved friction coefficient between particles since
it ensures a substantial increase in ballast strength against the phenomenon of accelerated
degradation.
It is possible to achieve reductions in track geometry maintenance costs with the new material,
since design of an artificial ballast with a high friction angle is possible and makes it possible to reduce
deformation under load cycles, significantly delaying degradation processes and, therefore, reducing the
need for intervention.
Furthermore, analysis of the state of the art in knowledge regarding natural ballast has made
it possible, as will be seen in future research proposals, to make advances in knowledge about this
material, as well as deducing certain limitations and, therefore, opportunities to improve knowledge and
characterization.
The Vertex Burst Test invites us to extend the search for new characterization tests to allow better
predictions regarding granular media behaviour and to define contact parameters between particles in
the simulation programmes.
The DEM simulations will be a key instrument in testing the geometries of artificial granular media.
However, simulations in this Project have shown that these types of simulations require exceptional
computing power, which should be considered in future work: simulation tools will be the basis of the
initial geometric design of granular media.
Although the results regarding material (high strength mortars) are extremely encouraging, this line
of research should continue by seeking higher strength but, above all, higher surface hardness.
The results of the Project indicate that artificial ballast can help railway infrastructure with lower
life cycle costs in the medium or long term, but the ability to direct its design could make it an option
in those cases where rigid types like the slab track are not applicable, and where particularly severe
conditions have to be faced (very high risk of ballast pollution, extreme weather conditions, exceptional
traffic loads, etc).
12
13
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
14
15
1. Definition of the mechanical, geometric and functional properties of artificial ballast. Application of behaviour prediction or modelling tools (SP1)
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
generation of actual ballast particles through digitization, thereby creating grain libraries. In this
project, and faced with the wide range of possibilities open, we opted for SP3 modelling, using spherical
or ellipsoidal type geometries and with sizes adjusted to grading envelopes close to those in natural
ballast.
b) Functional and mechanical requirements.
With relation to the functional requirements of the new material, the stresses to which the ballast is
subjected have been evaluated. Studies that consider the ballast as a continuous medium allow stresses
beneath sleepers to be estimated at between 150 kPa and 300 kPa in normal situations (good sleeper
support and axle loads of about 200 kN without any exceptional dynamic loads) as against the maximum
limit values of 500 kPa admitted. Studies carried out estimate that the actual contact surface between
the ballast and the sleeper is between 2% and 8%, resulting in contact stresses of about 15 MPa, an order
of magnitude below the compressive strength of rocks used in ballast. However, stress levels much closer
to breaking stress can be deduced by considering contact levels that are consistent with the grading of the
ballast. The stresses in degraded situations (lack of sleeper support) or when tamping will in any case be
much higher, even though they are respectively associated with small or very small numbers of load cycles.
As for the mechanical requirements of the material, identification of the minimum properties required
has been approached the natural way, meaning by identification of the mechanical properties of the
healthy rocks used for ballast production and considering that these properties are those that shall be
met by the artificial material.
A particularly important effort has been made in this Subproject to identify the mechanical properties
of the rocks used in the production of ballast and their extension to high-strength micro-concrete and
mortars, leading to characterization tests not commonly performed on rocks or mortars. This is why a full
test series has been defined and developed in this work, carried out in SP2 and comprising rocks from
three reference quarries, and which has been extended in the case of hardness tests to ten other quarries,
considering six mortars that have been collected as basic artificial ballast material or as comparison
material. This test series has been established by rigorously respecting the parallelism in the evaluation of
rocks and mortar, and establishing a crossovertest method for chaotic geometries and ordered geometries
in the case of the Los Angeles test. In evaluating the surface hardness, a new testing protocol (nonexistent
in regulations) has been established and, to evaluate burst strength in contacts between grains, the Vertex
Burst Test (VBT) has been created.
The mechanical parameters analyzed, and for which results were obtained, are as follows:
17
1. Definition of the mechanical, geometric and functional properties of artificial ballast. Application of behaviour prediction or modelling tools (SP1)
18
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
1.1. State of the art in required properties and natural ballast behaviour
This task has been subdivided into three parts:
A first part devoted to analysis of ballast behaviour as part of the railway infrastructure and
behaviour models for ballast as granular media.
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1. Definition of the mechanical, geometric and functional properties of artificial ballast. Application of behaviour prediction or modelling tools (SP1)
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
A stabilization phase either through the action of stabilizing machines (or, alternatively, by a set
number of axles or TBR passing at low speeds).
The first part involved a comprehensive compilation of existing studies regarding the mechanical
behaviour of the infrastructure and its degradation, with special emphasis on the behaviour of the ballast
layer.
A consolidation phase in which, after being mechanically stabilized, it is subjected to the first
passing traffic, usually with certain restrictions too (or, in the absence of mechanical stabilization,
as the last stabilization stage due to passing traffic).
It was found that the current direction of research into railway ballast clearly leans towards the use
of discrete models (DEM), which do however require a huge computing capacity. Within the discrete
element method there are two very different approaches, the most classical and widespread one being
A normal service phase in which the ballast performs its function under traffic loads on lines with
normal maintenance conditions.
An end of life phase in which ballast performance gets worse through loss of roughness,
contamination, broken grains, environmental factors, etc.
Although it depends on the authors, the different phases can be associated with traffic levels in axle
loads or gross tons (20t/axle can be estimated). Stabilization may be mechanical or associated with
50,000 axles passing, consolidation may be associated with between 20,000 and 50,000 axles passing,
and the normal service phase with up to 15-30 million axles.
Figure 1 Grain system with Structure Rigide Localise or privileged force paths on the grain layer.
Source Saussine
Furthermore, it has been found that ballast behaviour can be studied in very different load situations.
While the behaviour under traffic loads in a normal situation is the general trend, it seems necessary to
study the degradation of ballast under different stresses:
Under traffic loads in reference situations (good sleeper support, no exceptional dynamic
overloads).
Under traffic loads in degraded situations (decreased sleeper support, loose sleepers, exceptional
dynamic overloads).
Under tamping operations.
Stresses under traffic loads in reference situations are the most moderate but amount to tens of
millions of cycles. Degraded situation stresses should have a much lower number of cycles (one or two
orders of magnitude), but the stresses to which the ballast may be subjected, especially in the case
of unsupported sleepers, can be very high. In the tamping case, even if we are dealing (in successive
tamping operations) with very few load cycles, the stresses are most probably the highest: the aggressive
nature of tamping is evident in practice in the low number of times it can be applied on ballast.
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1. Definition of the mechanical, geometric and functional properties of artificial ballast. Application of behaviour prediction or modelling tools (SP1)
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
The studies found in the bibliography consider natural ballast to be a starting point and do not
therefore consider optimization of natural ballast fatigue behaviour, although they do consider grading
envelope adjustments and suggest that the stability of the system will be greater with the increased
interlocking between the particles or the internal friction of the granular system, without addressing the
problem that this increase would hinder the tamping of the latter, or at least increase the risk of ballast
degradation in tamping operations.
The grading envelope as a defining element of granular media in the case of random and chaotic
geometry of grains, such as natural ballast, as indicators of possible artificial ballast grain
distributions according to the size of circumscribed spheres.
Alternatives in the form of obtaining or making particles as the conditioning element for a possible
grain shape, taking into account the most likely nature of the basic material (high resistance
mortars).
In the second part of this work devoted to the State of the Art, the regulations affecting ballast were
reviewed, both Spanish and European regulations, with some reference to regulations in other countries.
A feature of this analysis is the limited characterization of the mechanical properties of rocks used for
ballast, making it necessary in the SP1-3 work for this project to analyse other applicable regulations
and tests.
Existing data in the bibliography were collected in the third and final part of this work with relation
to the mechanical properties of rocks used for ballast. Despite the enormous variation in data and the
very specific nature of the rock tests, this work was necessary in a first approach to the mechanical
requirements of the new material that arise in the SP1-3 work area.
Ballast A (NRV)
Ballast A (NRV)
Sieve (mm)
1. Definition of the mechanical, geometric and functional properties of artificial ballast. Application of behaviour prediction or modelling tools (SP1)
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
dynamic load phenomena, these values being lower than the stresses considered to be the maximum
limit by several authors for ballast and varying between 400 kPa (Lpez Pita) and 500 kPa (Esveld). On
the other hand, and for contact between the lower sleeper side and the ballast layer, there are studies
that have evaluated the actual surface contact between the edges of the ballast particles and the
concrete surface of the sleeper, this surface area varying between 2% and 8% for the most commonly
used sleepers. This would lead to relatively low stresses in contact (15 MPa), an order of magnitude lower
than the compressive strength of the rocks used for ballast (Spanish regulations establish a minimum
strength of 120 MPa for the approval of a quarry). Stress levels more consistent with breaking stresses are
obtained by considering few contacts per grain of ballast and millimetre-contact surfaces.
The various models of ballast analysis, such as the discrete method, do not give contact stress values,
but rather forces between particles, although they are generally insignificant, since they are generally
models based on simplified geometries.
Stresses under traffic loads in reference situations might be moderate but amount to tens of millions
of cycles, while the stresses in degraded situations (lack of sleeper support) are much higher, but with
a necessarily low number of cycles (one or two orders of magnitude) due to maintenance work, and
stresses in the case of tamping represent, in successive tamping operations, very few load cycles but with
stresses that are probably higher, justifying the number of tamping operations to which the ballast can
be subjected to being limited to 5-10 times.
Research into the artificial material that should form the basis of artificial ballast can be based on two
different approaches that are described below:
a) The natural route, meaning the identification of mechanical behaviour parameters in healthy
rocks that is used to produce the ballast. These parameters, in a first approach, shall be the
minimum that the future artificial material will be required to fulfil, initially ignoring if these
mechanical properties are all necessary or whether some are intrinsic to the natural material but
not necessary for correct behaviour of a ballast layer.
b) The analytical route, which means correct interpretation of these resistant parameters in the
behaviour of the ballast. In this sense it would be necessary to:
Distinguish the minimum levels from the analysis of the rocks that should be respected.
Distinguish the minimum levels from the analysis of the rocks which are intrinsic properties of
the rock and which may be reduced.
25
1. Definition of the mechanical, geometric and functional properties of artificial ballast. Application of behaviour prediction or modelling tools (SP1)
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
Distinguish those properties that, in a particular way, should be enhanced, i.e. whose
improvement has a substantial impact on improving the behaviour of the ballast.
There has been a significant effort made in the SP1-3 work area in defining the mechanical and
functional requirements of the artificial material and, particularly, in establishing the mechanical
properties required of the basic material in the future artificial ballast, in accordance with the natural
route mentioned above.
The identification of the mechanical properties of the rocks used in ballast production is not very
precise. An effort has been made in this respect to analyse the tests currently defined for rocks and to seek
available values in the bibliography, which are by nature very dispersed.
Having focused the project, for obvious economic reasons, on defining alternatives in micro-concretes
and high strength mortars with cement bases and various additives, advances in defining the mechanical
properties of concrete mortars have been taken into account, especially with regards to fracture energy.
As a necessary complement, and because of the limited scope of the standard tests for concrete, it
has been necessary to analyze the techniques currently used in characterizing the properties of structural
ceramic materials, both in improving the toughness or fracture energy characterization and in the
application of indentation techniques in the evaluation of surface hardness.
This work has involved extensive analysis of the mechanical properties of ballast rocks from Spanish
quarries by using the results of control tests at these quarries, and which have been a source of invaluable
information and for which the authors of this research are very grateful to ADIF.
However, natural ballast regulations in general and Spanish ones in particular establish very limited
structural characterization of the material: the compressive strength of the rock and the behaviour of the
granular media as a result of crushing and sieving in the LA test.
26
Difficulties in the
production of more than
250 prismatic or cubic test specimens of rocks from the three reference quarries have exceeded all expectations.
Figure 3 Analysis of the relationship between the LA coefficient and the different ballast parameter characterization tests
It does therefore involve, in terms of materials science, a very limited definition, particularly when
bearing in mind that the Los Angeles is an empirical test, with complex impact and wear phenomena and
that, as seen in this work, not only depends on the basic material, but very substantially on the geometry
of the granular media.
H: Surface hardness
This is the reason why a full and complex test series has been defined, implemented in SP2, comprising
rocks from three reference quarries, and which has been extended in the case of hardness tests to ten
other quarries, considering six mortars that have been collected as basic artificial ballast material or as
comparison material. This test series has been established by rigorously respecting the parallelism in the
LA: LA test.
VBT: Vertex Burst Test.
The compressive strength of the artificial material should be set at a minimum of 120 MPa. This is a minimal
regulatory level but is also the value which is obtained from an exponential fit of LA values based on the
27
1. Definition of the mechanical, geometric and functional properties of artificial ballast. Application of behaviour prediction or modelling tools (SP1)
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
Figure 5 Los Angeles (LA) test results compared with compressive strength results (Rc)
Figure 4 Analysis of the relationship between the LA coefficient and the shape index in one of the reference quarries studied
average quarry strength through the Franklin test for LA=14, Rc,m (F)= (69/LA)3. This strength can
result in a lower Rck of around 90 MPa for the following reasons:
- Because it was found that the average strength values obtained through the Franklin are higher
than those obtained by unconfined compression (10 to 15%), and that characteristic strength
values obtained by unconfined compression can be as much as 20%-30% lower than the average
strength values through the Franklin.
- Because it has been shown that with a controlled geometry, no acicular or flaky elements would
exist (SI = 0), which allows us to forecast an improved LA granular media value that can be
estimated at 6%.
The tensile strength levels obtained for rocks are very high but not very representative due to tests
being carried out on completely healthy specimens of rock and discarding fissured rocks. They are
not therefore comparable with the mortar results showing an acceptable tensile strength and above
28
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1. Definition of the mechanical, geometric and functional properties of artificial ballast. Application of behaviour prediction or modelling tools (SP1)
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
Figure 6 Rock specimens in 4 cm edge cubes for LA test with ordered geometry
And finally, the new Vertex Burst Test has yielded some encouraging results: despite the variation
found in the F-d curves obtained and in spite of many more test results being necessary to confirm
its validity. However, by standardizing the VBT curves and the integral as a fracture energy indicator
G (VBT), it has been possible to obtain results with a very reasonable correlation between G (VBT)
and the LA coefficient, which could allow us to complete the limited approach necessary in the LA
test.
The LA test is widely accepted as a test for assessing the adequacy of natural ballast to withstand
stresses from low traffic loads and those arising from installation and maintenance operations (tamping
and stabilization).
The LA test is a widespread test of recognized and undoubted usefulness due to its robustness and
simple implementation. But it cannot be regarded as an accelerated reproduction of the damage that
ballast in service will suffer and is a test with some limitations:
The test involves a series of complex friction and impact phenomena that are very hard to associate
with usual mechanical parameters in materials science.
The test is very sensitive to geometry and the state of the material (micro-fissures) but these factors
cannot be quantified in the test result.
It can be hazardous to make assumptions.
30
Figure 7 Vertex Burst Test. F-d graph and correlation of fracture energy with LA
It seems very appropriate to supplement the test with an evaluation of the grain size after the test so
as to evaluate the fissures or micro-fissures in the ballast grains.
1. Definition of the mechanical, geometric and functional properties of artificial ballast. Application of behaviour prediction or modelling tools (SP1)
Establishing the criteria to be used in developing models for simulation of behaviour and the criteria
for calibrating these models.
Defining the simulation programme followed in SP3.
Compiling the results of the simulations and their subsequent analysis.
The reference simulation S (0) was performed with a typical natural ballast, with flexible modules
and density defined for an average and representative rock, with grain size according to the regulatory
grading envelope and a friction coefficient of = 30 .
The simulations extended to one million load cycles that, as confirmed, were sufficiently numerous
to appreciate the fatigue behaviour.
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
REMARKS
GEOMETRY
A circular function, zero peak load was introduced, with peaks every 4.24 m at 300 km/h, which is
the equivalent of a system with an excitation frequency of 20 Hz. This frequency was admitted because
it optimized the processing time and through it being far from the resonant frequencies observed on
the track (30-40 Hz).
% that passes
The aim of the simulation programme, based on the reference simulation with conventional natural
ballast, was to test the effects on behaviour and leading to modification or variation:
% that passes
Upper Curve
% that passes
Lower Curve
Trend. Interp.
Interp.
Uniform Artificial
Graded Artificial
32
GRADING
STATE
The defining of the model parameters is outlined in SP3. The validity of these parameters were
confirmed by checking that the model results are consistent with experimental data and with the results
of models already validated and calibrated. This check was carried out for reference simulation case S
(0) and is based on the correlation of model results with deformation found experimentally, both elastic
deformation during one cycle, and plastic deformation during a high number of cycles load.
COEFF.
Reference
Geometry variation
Geometry variation
Geometry variation
New Geometry ref.
Artificial material
MA with variation
MA with variation
MA with CG variation
MA with CG variation
New Geometry ref.
Artificial material
MA with variation
MA with variation
MA with CG variation
MA with CG variation
The simulation of 106 load cycles with three sleepers and out of phase loads required 15 days of
processing, making this simulation unfeasible for a reasonably broad programme of simulations and
justified the change to a reduced model with one single sleeper: simulations with one single sleeper
were found to be consistent with those carried out with three sleepers.
MATERIAL
Sieve (mm)
It is generally possible
to distinguish two phases in
fatigue curves. A first phase
with very varied curves, and
corresponding to a ballast
stabilization in the form of
accelerated growth of ballast
layer deformation under the
first thousand load cycles, and
a second phase with a clear
trend in which the ballast
settlements show logarithmic
growth.
33
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
1. Definition of the mechanical, geometric and functional properties of artificial ballast. Application of behaviour prediction or modelling tools (SP1)
Settlements (mm)
Cycles
Despite the variable behaviour, the first stabilization phase shows the actual phenomenon of
railway infrastructure stabilization which occurs with the first 100,000 to 200,000 gross tons of traffic,
corresponding to about 5,000-10,000 load cycles.
Results were parameterized by defining a settlement law:
Grading envelope variations introduced in the simulations do not give clear or conclusive results
as distortions are introduced by the random generation of granular media. However it does seem
that restricting the grading envelope (in this case eliminating particles of fewer than 40 mm with
respect to a natural ballast envelope) does not worsen the performance of the ballast, something
that would be favourable for the production of artificial ballast.
From these conclusions, it should also be noted that since the ballast performance worsens
substantially in degraded situations, the design of the new material should pay close attention to this
load situation, or others like tamping.
Increasing the friction coefficient of between particles substantially improves artificial ballast
performance in degraded situations, which is very encouraging for the development of a new material
with an improved friction coefficient between particles.
Ne being the number of stabilization cycles and being the parameter that defines the asymptotic
branch of settlement. It should be understood that the ballast performance improves, in identical load
conditions and states, if there is reduced permanent deformation in a large number of load cycles and,
therefore, if the value of increases. The value of may be regarded as being inversely proportional to
the settlement maintenance coefficient k in appendix 1 of the UIC 719, and which is expressed as the
ratio between the number of levelling operations necessary to maintain the track and the number of
operations considered as the reference level.
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35
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
37
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
Given the limitations established in the maximum aggregate size, the first point compared between
mortars and micro-concretes was the mechanical behaviour.
A comprehensive series of mortars and concretes was prepared with different types and different
proportions of additives. Micro-concretes were prepared from sieving the aggregate to a maximum size of 8
mm and self-compacting concretes with different additives were studied.
All samples underwent both mechanical and micro-structural tests. We needed to determine both the
influence of aggregate size on the mechanical properties and, secondly, the influence of the additive on
both the interface and the characteristics of the gel formed.
Formula
Density
(g/cm3)
Molar volume
(cm3/mole)
Heat of formation
(kJ/mole)
Tricalcium silicate
C3S
3.21
71.00
-2927.82
Bicalcium silicate
C2S
3.28
52.00
-2311.60
Tricalcium aluminate
C3A
3.03
89.10
-3587.80
Tricalcium aluminoferrite
C4AF
3.73
128.00
-5090.30
Gypsum
CSH2
2.32
74.20
-2022.60
2.1.1. Materials
C1.7SH4
2.12
108.00
-3283.00
2.1.1.1. Aggregates
Calcium hydroxide
CH
2.24
33.10
-986.10
2.1.1.1.1. Sand
Ettringite
1.70
735.00
-17539.00
Monosulfate
C6AS3H32
C4ASH12
1.99
313.00
-8778.00
Hydrogranate
C3AH6
2.52
150.00
-5548.00
Ferric hydroxide
FH3
3.00
69.80
-823.90
Component
Having compared the mechanical behaviour of mortars and concretes prepared with limitations, we
looked at the possibility of achieving adequate behaviour values with respect to the behaviour requested,
based only on mortars. If we achieved the expected results we would be on the safe side, because the
increased aggregate size would reduce the interface and increase surface strength.
Figure 11 Sand grading curve
38
39
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
SiO2
19,20
Al2O3
6,07
Fe2O3
1,70
CaO
63,41
MgO
2,56
SO3
Dross
Fly Ash
Norwegian silica
fume
SiO2
37
55.1
90 min.-100 max.
Al2O3
11,84
30
0,6
5,8
3,38
Fe2O3
CaO
43,5
3,0
K2O
0,82
MgO
6,35
1,6
Na2O
0,33
SO3
0,3
2,09
K2O
Na2O
Cl-
0,0
0,45
ClTiO2
Fire Loss
LOI
TiO2
Table 3 Cementitious properties
40
Table 4
Composition of
traditional additives
Fire Loss
LOI
Spanish silica
fume
0,18
0,01
0,43
0,002
1,42
0,2
41
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
2.1.1.3.2. Nano-silica
Levasil 200/40% distributed by Obermeier.
Water
Cement
Cv
Gravel
Sand
Sp2
Mv
11.4
22
3.4
39
39
0.5
0.05
Property
Table 6 Dosage in kg of HAC2 with 15% content in fly ash cement weight
Content (%)
40.54
Density (g/cm3)
1.295
PH 20C
10.3
205
Viscosity(mpas)
9.21
2.1.2.2. Mortars
N
Name
a/c (%)
Water (g
Cement (g)
Sand (g)
Additive (g)
M1
M10
MB
NO ADDITIVE
0.5
225
450
1350
M2
M3
0.5
225
360
1350
90
M12
M2
5% Micro-silica
0.5
225
450
1327.5
22.5
The micro-silica used complies with standard UNE -83-460 and is distributed by Ferroatlantica S.L.
M13
M1c
5% Nano silica
0.5
225
450
1327.5
22.5
M20
M1C*
5% Nano-silica
0.38
161
450
1350
22.5
2.1.1.3.3. Micro-silica
Loss on
ignition
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
SO3
K2O
Na2O
Cl-
85
1.5
0.1
Table 5 Micro-silica
Part of the material characterization to be performed involved a comparison of the properties obtained
with natural rocks in nature, as it involved finding an artificial material to simulate the behaviour of a
natural stone such as ballast. In this respect, we selected quarries distributed throughout Spain.
We selected three types of rock for the experimental series. The rocks selected were granite from
the La Curva quarry that was selected as the comparison quarry. A high quality rock of corneal nature
(Aldeavieja Quarry), and a very high quality ophitic rock taken from the San Felices quarry.
Table 7 (see next page) shows the values obtained for the compressive and tensile strength of the
mortars tested in MPa, at characteristic ages.
2.1.2. Materials
2.1.2.1. HAC2
42
43
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
Natural Rocks
Artificial Specimen
7 days
Test
R1c
R1c
R2
R3
M1c
M1c
M1c
M1c
M2
M2
M3
M3
M4
M4
MB
MB
M 1 c*
M 1 c*
Rc
197
201
213
225
94
92
94
91
52
51
47
47
44
44
50
48
83
95
Artificial Specimen
28 days
Artificial Specimen
90 days
Test
M1c
M1c
M1c
M1c
M2
M2
M3
M3
M4
M4
MB
MB
M 1 c*
M 1 c*
M1c
M1c
M1c
M1c
M2
M2
M3
M3
M4
M4
MB
MB
M 1 c*
M 1 c*
Rc
105
104
102
104
75
75
71
70
71
71
58
57
98
104
112
110
109
108
78
78
72
71
76
75
62
61
108
104
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
Similarly, the Ettringite crystals had undergone a more dramatic reduction. They had changed from
the well known sticks to fine hairs that covered the inside of the pores.
These changes towards greater surface/mass relations would have densified the interface and
achieved that appearance of artificial stone.
The results obtained in strength behaviour for mortar M20 after seven days are shown in Table 8. In
the table, H corresponds to oven curing, C to curing in a chamber and C to curing in a saturated bath of
Ca(OH)2.
t (Days)
Breaking
stress
undue
bending
(kN)
Bending
strength
(MPa)
H 118C
5,50
12,88
13,50
14,20
84,38
88,75
86,56
H 118C
6,05
14,18
13,00
15,10
81,25
94,38
87,81
C 22C
3,98
9,34
15,70
14,00
98,13
87,50
92,81
C 22C
3,75
8,80
15,00
14,90
93,75
93,13
93,44
3,57
8,37
15,00
15,10
93,75
94,38
94,06
4,00
9,38
15,00
15,30
93,75
95,63
94,69
3,79
8,88
16,05
14,08
100,31
88,00
94,16
T
(C)
Av. Comp.
strength
(Mpa)
Bending
strength
(MPa)
Av. Comp.
strength.
(MPa)
13,53
87,19
9,07
93,13
8,88
94,30
The mechanical study was not limited to compression and tension. Fracture energy tests were also
conducted and a vertex test was designed in order to assess the maximum load strength of the cube
prepared.
Figure 20 Image of a test specimen and section with artificial stone appearance
From the results obtained it was necessary to achieve significantly improved strength characteristics.
Having tested the proportion that supplied the best results, we proceeded to test dosages that
improved mechanical behaviour by reducing the water content and we studied the effect caused by
temperature and curing conditions on the sample.
46
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
With respect to the durable characteristics of the material, one of the most influential parameters
is porosity. But not only total porosity, pore size distribution can largely explain the behaviour of the
durable material. In this respect, the proposed material substantially reduces both porosity and the
accessible pore size distribution.
Figure 23 shows the variation in the pore distribution of mortars by adding nano-silica.
The results of all tests and at all ages proposed in the work plan for the Subproject can be found in the
details of tables attached to reports.
There are however two more aspects regarding the behaviour of the ballast that should be noted.
One of the most characteristic is behaviour in the Los Angeles test. The need to tamp the material
implies that the service will suffer great wear due to the impact on the different material particles, so we
considered it vital to improve adhesion between the different constituents.
Figure 23 Pore distribution and cumulative total volume of intruded mercury (in proportion to the sample total)
The test was carried out according to the relevant regulations regarding the weight and number of
turns, but using the same cubes obtained for mortar specimens prepared. The comparison test was also
performed for different natural rock specimens. The results are shown in Table 9.
As can be seen, the values obtained for M20 already approach the value of the rock with pore pressure
coefficient A (granite).
48
Material
CLA (%)
M1
15,37
M17
15,2
M20
12,5
Cornea
8,1
Granite
10,3
0phite
Sample holder
Placing sample
holder on scales
Micromeritics
Autopore IV 9500
test equipment
This pore distribution should clearly improve durable results and this is shown by the results achieved.
The improvement in this behaviour is evident in some of the most characteristic durability tests: chloride
penetration and freeze/thaw behaviour.
One of the aggressive ions that, due to their size and mobility, penetrate cementitious materials most
easily is chloride. Basically the materials resistance to the penetration of aggressive ions is measured by
measuring the diffusion and/or resistivity coefficient.
The migration test was conducted through application of standard NT BUILD 492. (specifications
and procedures are described in the report on behaviour against aggressive physical conditions and
chemicals).
Figure 25 clearly shows the reduction that this parameter involves for the proposed dosage compared
to a traditional mortar and the working procedures.
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
Mortar
Electrical Resistivity
( m)
Electrical Resistivity
(k cm)
Chloride permeability
(ASTM C1202)
CEM I
184,03
18,40
Low
CEM I + 5% nano-silica
426,12
42,61
Very low
CEM I + 5% nano-silica
426,12
42,61
Very low
Table 10 Resistivity values in the proposed sample and the reference mortar
Freeze-thaw behaviour may constitute a limit to the use of a material subjected to sudden temperature
changes. The test was performed according to the standard UNE-EN 12390-1:2009. As can be seen, the
results have been significantly improved in the proposed mortar, as expected given the micro-structural
characteristics of the material.
Figure 26 shows the variation in mass loss results for the various materials in the different cycles and
an illustration of the test conducted.
Freeze-thaw test
chamber
Ultrasonic bath
We also measured the resistivity of the samples studied. A very significant increase was found here,
as expected, when nano-particles were added.
The table below gives the variation in reference resistivity values between the reference sample and
the mortar proposed.
50
Figure 26 Results of the weight loss in different cycles and illustration of test
51
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
Another aspect that characterizes the ballast as a material is surface hardness. It is here where the
values obtained are considered to be more limited. Surface hardness tests were conducted on various
natural rock samples and mortars proposed. In no case did our material reach the reference values of
the rocks. The values obtained were approximately 30% lower than the softer natural rocks, basalt and
serpentine. Mortars selected were subjected to an accelerated carbonation process in a chamber with a
controlled humidity of 65% thereby achieving an increase in hardness of approximately 20% compared
to noncarbonated mortar.
Table 11 shows a comparative diagram of the hardness values found.
Material
Rock
Mortar
Description
Granite
383
Quarzite
215
Basalt
133
Reference
82
107
122
With active additives it was possible to achieve high strength levels with a suitable dosage and
by suitably reducing the w/c ratio. But the high strength alone did not allow any modifications to the
53
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
interface that should help to achieve the properties required for use on the material.
The number and size of crystals formed is determined by the first stages of the hydration process.
In short, the concrete setting and hardening process is nothing more than a dissolution/precipitation
process. In the most soluble cement phases they dissolve and pass into solution. In the second stage,
when the latter begins to be saturated, the solid hydrated compounds begin to precipitate.
The precipitation process begins by forming precipitation nuclei involving a limited number of
molecules. The nucleation rate determines the size of the crystal. If this rate is high a large number of
crystals are formed and these are smaller. The rate of nuclei formation depends on the relative degree of
supersaturation of the solution. The degree of particle subdivision largely determines the reaction rate.
Therefore, the alternative of using the more active additive, silica fume, in nano-size, could be an option
in order to act simultaneously on both the interface and the hydrated silicates.
All this led to mortars and/or micro-concretes being studied and proposed as the most suitable
material to achieve the proposed objective. The material has complied with reasonable targets related
to strength, compactness, wear, fracture energy and better than expected results regarding durable
behaviour. While surface hardness results obtained are less satisfactory or very close to those obtained in
natural rocks of lower hardness.
The project started four years ago and the current knowledge of the research group about dosage and
production of materials with nano-particles has experienced significant progress.
Although the experimental part of the Subproject has been
completed, work has continued to improve the material in aspects
that we consider most important.
The use of nano-particles is not straightforward, they are generally
used dispersed in the liquid phase and, in the subsequent kneading
process of the material, a more homogeneous distribution of such
particles in the paste has been achieved. The degree of success in
achieving this objective depends largely on the materials behaviour.
The team worked on a new production process that optimizes the
dispersion of the particles. The process is based on cement particles in
which nano-particles have been previously dispersed (Figure 28). The
results obtained show increases in resistant behaviour of at least 25%
54
RMN Si
Sample
MORTARS
%P
MCL
MCL Si
PCP_7d
PCP_28d
4FMA_7d
63.3
4.12/3.78
2.82/3.78
4FMA_28d
83.5
2.34
2.34
10FMA_7d
68.0
4.48/3.96
2.60/3.96
10FMA_28d
81.5
3.86/3.68
3.33/3.68
4NCV_7d
66.1
3.14
3.14
4NCV_28d
82.7
4.02
2.74
10NCV_7d
85.8
4.55
2.33
10NCV_28d
74.2
5.82
2.33
4FCV_7d
75.0
4.29
2.30
4FCV_28d
82.7
4.85
2.40
10FCV_7d
72.4
4.27
2.25
10FCV_28d
84.3
4.89
2.87
8F2NCV_7d
84.3
3.84
2.51
8F2NCV_28d
85.0
3.79
2.44
8F2NCV_28d
85.0
3.79
2.44
(in the worst case) for the same amounts of cement and the same water/cement ratio. This suggests that
the mechanical strength could be higher, if deemed suitable for use.
The hydration process that takes place under these conditions changes the hydrated calcium silicates
produced. Hydration through the nano-particle changes the total chain length of silicates and the
degree of polymerization. The most detailed study shows that this increase is due to aluminium being
55
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
We have achieved the objectives proposed, changed the gel structure and changed the size and
number of crystals in the interface and have thereby obtained changes in the macroscopic behaviour.
Changes in the
aggregate-pasta
interface
Evolution in the
gel chains
We therefore believe that the proposed material is viable. It is reasonably close to the requirements
demanded, but as scientists we continue to believe that there is great potential for improving the
performance obtained and to which we hope to be able to contribute.
Figure 30 Evolution of the
proposed material in images
Evolution of crystal
sizes. Changes in
the type of crystal
deposition
56
Mechanical shape
and characterisation
tests
57
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
3.1. State of the art in numerical tools for the study of granular media
Continuous element analysis requires the simulation of contacts between particles in each element,
making it very laborious and most of the time, it far exceeds the computing capacity of I.T. equipment.
Because of the granular nature of the ballast, discrete element method analysis is the most suitable
for computing, since it makes it possible to simulate gaps and contact between particles, as well as the
possibility of including various types of loads.
The programmes considered by Ingeciber for project resolution are shown in the following table:
BALL&TRUBAL: FORTRAN.
58
59
60
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
YADE.
AUTODYN.
PFC.
GiD DEMpack.
61
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
solution information and other parameters. The programme can generate a finite element mesh, finite
volumes or finite difference analysis and transcribe information for a numerical simulation programme
into the desired format. It is also possible to run this simulation within the GiD and then transcribe the
results of the analysis.
GiD can be customized and configured by users so that the data required for its own calculation solver
can be generated. These calculation solvers can also be included within the GiD software system.
The programme works, when the geometry is defined, in a manner similar to a CAD (Computer
aided design) programme but with some differences. The most important of these is that the geometry
is constructed hierarchically. This means that a higher-level entity (dimension) is built on lower-level
entities, two adjacent entities sharing the same lower entity.
All materials, conditions and solution parameters can be defined in the actual geometry, separated
from the mesh so that the mesh is only formed once the problem has been properly defined. The
advantages of this are that, by using associated data structures, the geometry can be modified and all
other information will be automatically uploaded and ready to launch the analysis.
All the graphical display of the geometry, mesh and conditions are available for a detailed check of
the model before starting the analysis. Further graphic display features are available to evaluate the
results after analysis. This post-processing graphical interface can also be customized depending on the
type of analysis and the expected results.
3.2.1.2. DEMpack
We justified the choice of the software due to its high capacity in terms of definition and Graphic
Display as a preprocessor and postprocessor, and its capacity to work simultaneously with discrete
elements and finite elements.
Due to its high capacity in terms of definition and Graphic Display as a preprocessor and postprocessor
we used GiD postprocessor in its latest 10.1.8d version and relying on the latest version of ProblemType
dempack-0.1.40, we used the DEMpack programme as a solver.
3.2.1.1. GID
GiD is an interactive graphical user interface used for the definition, preparation and display of all
data related to numerical simulation. This data includes the definition of geometry, materials, conditions,
62
The basic formulation of the discrete element formulation using spherical and cylindrical elements
was first proposed by Cundall and Strack (1979). A similar formulation was developed in CIMNE and
implemented in the explicit dynamic discrete/finite element code DEMpack.
For analysis of our model we used the GiD DEMpack software from the International Center for
Numerical Methods in Engineering (CIMNE).
63
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
Once the model was stabilized according to the settlement curve for a number of 1,000,000 cycles, we
proceed to perform a series of simulations.
Simulation considering the mechanical properties of the natural material. Besides this simulation,
four more simulations are performed with several geometry generations, ensuring that the results are
practically identical.
The simulations were divided by the type of material, natural or artificial, and the state of the track,
non degraded and degraded track, the latter causing the situation known as bare sleeper.
Outlined below are graphs of the sleeper settlement achieved in the main simulations performed
according to an initial programme of simulations. The example also shows the model geometry used in
each simulation and the friction angles obtained according to the type of material for cases where the
material is changed.
3.3.1. Geometry
Reference geometry from which the simulations are performed is shown in the next image.
In the simulations modifying the particle size in accordance with the grading curve, another geometry
different to the one shown above is generated.
64
65
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
Once the necessary simulations have been performed to check that the model is stable enough, we
carry out a series of simulations with the new material, which we refer to as Artificial material.
66
67
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
68
69
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
70
71
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
73
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
Mobile Product
Fixed moulds
Static production
Extrusion
Mobile moulds
As discussed above, it is necessary to clearly define what requirements should be made of the
artificial product replacing the ballast. Although the difficulty of the task is considerable, we should start
75
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
by demanding that the material meets the current ballast regulations regarding durability, particle size,
geometry, resistance to fragmentation and abrasion resistance. It will then be necessary to implement
a test section that serves to verify the validity of the product and, based on this test, to fit the properties
and geometry of the industrial product.
The artificial ballast should be a material that is insoluble in water, resistant to sulphates, strong, hard
and not friable.
4.2.2.1. Grading
Figure 33 Ballast cuboid
Maximum line
speed (km/h)
Type of line
CLA
Type of ballast
Categories of Standard
UNE-EN 13450:2003
1435
200
AVE, A or B
14%
Type 1.
LARB14
1435
200
AVE, A or B
16%
Type 2.
LARB16
1435
C (*)
20%
Type 3.
LARB20
At production facility
0,6%
1%
4.2.2.3. Fines
76
At production facility
0,5%
0,7%
Action to be taken
< 0,5
Acceptance of material
0,5 A 1,5
> 1,5
can occur due to atmospherical reaction , characterized by the appearance of grey and white points,
followed by radial micro-fractures at these points, which are then interconnected. This decreases
aggregate strength, and even causes its subsequent disintegration. If an operations shows the signs
described above, a boiling test will be carried out according to standard UNE-EN 1367-3:2001. For all
kinds of railway operating lines and conditions, the difference in Los Angeles wear coefficients, before
and after boiling, will be 5%.
The following chart is a summary of some of the tests to be carried out on the ballast.
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
technology, this research seeks to obtain ballasts that are not very homogeneous in shape, but which
meet the durability and strength properties required of natural ballasts.
The system proposed for use is precasting with open moulds, which involves pouring the fresh
concrete into each of the moulds on the top side, which lacks any cover or closure. Once the concrete is
poured it is then compacted, either by vibrating the mould or through a concrete compression system. In
the case of using a self-compacting concrete this stage can be omitted.
As the size of the precast part is reduced, it is more cost-efficient to move the moulds and maintain
the discharge hose fixed. In this way you achieve production of a series of concrete elements more quickly,
resulting therefore in lower costs. The following shows a typical precast system:
Figure 34 Production of artificial ballast with moulds. Fuente: Ctedra de Ferrocarriles de E.T.S.I. Caminos, Canales y Puertos de Madrid
The concrete curing process may be performed inside the mould or after it has been emptied. In both
cases, the concrete curing depends on the type of material that has been used in the mould and the final
requirements of the precast part. This is where the research opens up into two subgroups: fast and slow
curing, where the choice of one or the other depends on the size of the series to be produced, and the
marginal costs they represent.
When using accelerated processes such as steam tunnel curing, electric blankets, thermal floors, etc.,
the cure cycle will be studied according to the type of element (cross section dimensions) and the cement
type. The temperature of the concrete will not in any case exceed 70C, the cooling phase should not
be abrupt to avoid the occurrence of surface micro-fissures, and there must always be a resting phase
prior to heating. In curing processes in which temperatures of around 70 to 72 C are reached, there is no
79
disadvantage in using the following materials: steel, plastic or wood, and in the event of steam curing the
most recommended material is steel.
Outlined below is a diagram of an artificial ballast plant.
The design of a prefabricated artificial ballast plant using moulds has been based on a prefabricated
plant of paving bricks and tiles. However, there are two significant differences to be adapted to
prefabricate railway ballast:
In ballast manufacturing there is no gap between layers due to the randomness of the falling stones
during the formation of the benching or ballast replacement.
The finish of the paving bricks
or tiles is completely different
to the ballast aggregate. Stones
in ballast do not, a priori, need
surface treatment. It is only
necessary for all of them to be free
of fine particles, so that the only
treatment needed is washing.
Having
established
these
differences, the following proposal
is given for artificial ballast based on
cement:
80
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
81
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
30 60 mm: this is the range of envelopes established in the technical requirements for the ballast.
In ballast plants whose monthly production is 30,000 m3, production is 250 t/h.
0 30 mm, size which corresponds to the aggregate which is subsequently used in other construction
applications, such as for the production of concrete with recycled aggregate.
This document focuses on the ballast plant, i.e. it defines its layout in the plant and the machinery
to be employed.
To determine the production capacity of the concrete block plant, two design hypotheses have been
established, taking monthly production capacity of ballast plants as the starting point on the one hand
and, on the other hand, the production capacity of concrete blocks.
Finally, we will analyze the annual consumption of ballast by ADIF, to determine the average
production needed to meet that demand.
The crushing process is described below:
As in a natural aggregate crushing plant, in artificial ballast production plant there should be three
different stages based on the size of the material entering and leaving the crusher.
In the primary crusher the maximum size of the rock is 1500 mm, although the optimal size for
concrete blocks crushed is around 900 mm.
The reduction ratio is usually 6, so when leaving the crusher the size of the rocks will be around 150
mm. If they are bigger, the rocks will be re-circulated to be reduced to the desired size through a closed
circuit, while the smaller ones and those between 40 and 125 mm will be transported and stored in the
regulation stock.
Furthermore, rocks sized between 0 to 40 mm are stockpiled for use as recycled aggregate.
From the regulation stock the material is taken to the secondary crusher. In this phase the reduction
ratio should not be greater than 5. Finally, 0-100 mm material from the secondary crushing stage will
reach the screening point in which there are trays for the following trays of particle sizes:
60 100 mm, which goes back on a conveyor to the feed hopper at the screening point.
82
83
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
Scenario 1
Scenario 2
Scenario 3
Facilities (A)
6.000.000,00
6.000.000,00
6.000.000,00
Land (B)
2.200.000
3.300.000
4.400.000
2,2
2,2
2,2
Price (/m2)
100
150
200
1.500.000
1.500.000
1.500.000
Transport (D)
1.304.000
1.304.000
Workshops (E)
1.304.000
1.130.400
1.130.400
1.130.400
%(A+D)
10%
10%
10%
TOTAL
11.734.400,00
12.834.400,00
13.934.400,00
4.6.1.2. Operation
After calculating the initial investment, we calculate the cost of producing a cubic metre of ballast.
Data for this has been taken from the operating costs section (3.6), as well as production data calculated
in the document: Definition of production systems and guidance on materials.
The range of costs related to electricity consumption can be seen in the following chart.
84
150
200
85
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
Concrete blocks
Annual ballast production
12.000
Use
70%
17.143
2.520.806,10
Direct costs
Depreciation
Personnel
(20 years)
586.720,00
(18 Employees)
427.657,52
Electricity
Table 14 Concrete block
proposal results
Concrete Production
135.000,00
(80 /m3)
1.371.428,57
264.464,43
Indirect costs
Maintenance and Repairs
15%
88.008,00
Other
7%
176.456,43
Total production
m3 artificial ballast
2.785.270,52
232,11
86
200
250
300
1.500.000,00
1.500.000,00
1.500.000,00
Land (B)
2.000.000,00
2.500.000,00
3.000.000,00
Price (/m2)
200
250
300
Moulds
1.395,00
1.395,00
1.395,00
Concepto
Sub-concepto
Valoracin (Impacto)
500.000,00
500.000,00
500.000,00
Air quality
CO2 Emissions
Medium
Workshops (E)
150.000,00
150.000,00
150.000,00
Noises
Heavy Machinery.
Facilities and motors
High
High
%(A)
10%
10%
10%
Landslides
Changes in the morphology of the relief
Low
Medium
TOTAL
4.151.395,00
4.651.395,00
5.151.395,00
Gaia
Water
Water Pollution
Medium
Flora
Medium
Fauna
Low
Countryside
High
High
Town
Low
Low
Energy
Energy consumption
High
4.6.2.2. Operation
After calculating the initial investment, we calculate the cost of producing a cubic metre of ballast.
The range of costs related to electricity consumption can be seen in the following chart.
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Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
Sub-item
Assessment (Impact)
Air quality
CO2 Emissions
Medium
Noises
Low
Low
Gaia
Landslides
Low
Low
Water
Low
Flora
Water Pollution
Low
Fauna
Zero
Countryside
Unlike the concrete blocks, in this proposal maximum use is made of concrete produced. The results
obtained for the artificial ballast plant based on moulds are the following:
Low
Low
Town
Low
Low
Energy
High
Mould
Annual ballast production
600
Use
100%
Concrete production
600
591.638,06
Direct costs
Depreciation
Personnel
(11 years)
(10 Employees)
Electricity
Concrete Production
286.188,61
232.969,45
24.480,00
(80 /m3)
48.000,00
64.117,14
Indirect costs
Maintenance and Repairs
10%
28.618,86
Other
6%
35.498,28
Total production
m3 artificial ballast
88
655.755,21
1.092,93
consumption may, in principle, justify the use of artificial cement-based ballast provided the product
price increases as a result of major limitations in the extraction of natural aggregates. Current market price
does not allow artificial cement-based ballast production to be sustainable from a financial standpoint.
Creation of micro-fissures in concrete as a result of the forces the concrete is subjected to during
crushing of blocks.
From a strictly technical standpoint, artificial ballast must comply with the conditions established
in the technical requirements regarding compressive strength, abrasion resistance, impact strength
(fracture), grain size, geometry and, especially, durability.
Currently, there are prefabrication technologies that, a priori, would satisfy the technical requirements
demanded of artificial ballast with ballast manufactured artificially. However, there is still a large degree
of uncertainty about the viability of its application.
The two production techniques best suited to artificial ballast production are:
Production of ballast from large, crushed blocks of precast concrete.
The advantages of this solution are:
The production of large concrete blocks is a technique used in other civil engineering fields, for
example in dyke breakwaters or counterdykes for ports, for placing them on the bed, and so it is
a mature technology, has the machinery available and the technical and cost requirements are
known.
Crushing plants machinery does not have to be reinvented simply because some adjustments will
have to be made according to the hardness and strength of the concrete. What will be required is to
seek to reduce reject material since fine constraints will be more restrictive.
There is the possibility of on-site ballast production using mobile crushers, which result in a
substantial improvement in productivity.
The main uncertainties that arise in the application of this production process are:
The energy used in concrete block production and crushing might not be in line with desired energy
efficiency.
The crushing process will inevitably generate an amount of waste material, and the unit cost of
material is very high with respect to the rocks used for ballast. This has a negative impact on the
economic efficiency of the process. However, for the process to be sustainable, all the material that
has been rejected may be used later in the production of other concrete blocks for this or other
purposes.
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Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
infrastructure. Furthermore, this type of solution does not eliminate what is probably the major drawback
of railway lines on ballast, which are the high maintenance costs and the need for fresh material. From an
environmental point of view, making artificial ballast also involves the removal of material from quarries,
which is the main impact of natural ballast, and the energy consumption of both solutions should be
analyzed in detail.
Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
Figure 43 Logo
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Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
Website creation was contracted from an outside company (La Isla de Internet S.L.) that took care of
both graphic design and the development of the necessary IT infrastructure for the operation: databases,
content management and portal management system, the latter being needed to facilitate updates by
any authorized user without web programming knowledge. The maintenance and management of the
content was carried out by the Spanish Railways Foundation (FFE).
The website, prepared for two languages (Spanish/English) is structured into six main sections.
5.2.3.1. Public area structure of the website:
a) Home page.
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Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
b) Project.
c) Research group.
d) Documents.
e) Dissemination.
f) Links.
The website is updated regularly, based on the progress and developments of the project work areas,
the results obtained and the various dissemination and internationalization activities that have been
undertaken since the project began.
A newsletter has been produced in electronic format, with updates and related news, aimed at
researchers, experts and managers in the field.
The website also has a restricted access area which, in this case, refers users (Project partners) to
a portal managed by FFE in which, duly authenticated by username/password, they can access the
collaborative area for the internal exchange of information and documents.
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Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
EFFICIENT RAILWAY INFRASTRUCTURE. From planning and design to construction and operation.
SESSION 11. Major ongoing railway Innovation projects. Crdoba. June 2012.
5.5. Publication of a final report on the main results and advances of the Project
and conference presenting the results of the artificial ballast project
This document is the final report of the artificial ballast project summary and has been produced by
all members of the consortium under the coordination of the Railways Foundation.
This document was submitted on the day of the projects presentation on November 29, 2012.
This document is accompanied by a CD which includes the final reports on each Subproject.
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Final report on the results and advances of the Artificial Ballast project
v. 9th World Congress on Railway Research WCRR, held on 22-26/05/2011 in Lille (France).
Organised by SNCF,TTCI, DB, RSSB, JR,Trenitalia, UIC.
vi. I RailTechnological Forum for Internationalization, organized by the Spanish Railways
Foundation and funded by the MICINN (currently MINECO) in 2011 in Madrid.
vii. BcnRail Congress and Exhibition, International Railway Industry Show, organized by
Railgroup, Barcelona. 2009 and 2011 editions.
viii. Participation at InnoTrans International Fair, Berlin. 2010 and 2012 Editions.
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www.balastoartificial.es