MECH 364

MECHANICAL
VIBRATIONS
Presentation Part 3
Clarence W. de Silva, Ph.D., D.Eng. (hc), P.Eng.
Professor of Mechanical Engineering
The University of British Columbia
e-mail: desilva@mech.ubc.ca
http:// www.mech.ubc.ca/~ial
C.W.

de Silva

Plan

Time Response Analysis

To Study:
Element Behavior
Naturally Oscillating Systems
Undamped Oscillator
Damped Oscillator
Free Response
Forced Response

MECH 364 Road Map

Time Response Analysis

Time Domain:
Independent variable is time t
System is represented by differential equations
Free Response:
No external forcing input
Response is due to an initial-condition excitation
Exhibits natural response
E.g.: system shut-down conditions
Useful in measuring natural frequency and damping ratio
Forced Response:
Response is due to a forcing excitation
E.g.: system start-up and operating conditions
Initial-condition effects are not present (or, decayed due to
damping)
Useful in determining resonant conditions

Element Behavior

Mechanical Elements
Mass/Inertia Element

Spring/Flexibility Element

Damper/Dissipation Element

Mass (Inertia) Element

Constitutive Equation (Newtons 2nd Law):

dv
= f
dt

m = mass (inertia)

Power = fv = rate of change of energy

E = fv dt = m

dv
v dt = mv dv
dt

Energy E =

1 2
mv (Kinetic Energy)
2

Note: Energy storage element

Integrate constitutive equation

1
v (t ) = v (0 ) +
m
-

f
0

dt

+
+
Set t = 0 v ( 0 ) = v ( 0 ) unless force is infinite.
Note: 0- denotes instant just before t = 0 and 0+ denotes instant just after t = 0.

Observations:
1. Velocity (across variable) represents the state of an inertia element

A=Type Element
Notes: 1. Velocity at any t is completely determined from initial velocity and the
applied force; 2. Energy of inertia element is represented by v alone.
2. Velocity across an inertia element cannot change instantaneously unless infinite
force/torque applied.
3. A finite force cannot cause an infinite acceleration in inertia element. A finite
instantaneous change (step) in velocity needs an infinite force v is a natural
output (or state) variable and f is a natural input variable for inertia element.

Spring (Flexibility) Element

df
Constitutive Equation (Hooks Law): dt = kv ;
k = stiffness
Note: Differentiated version of familiar force-deflection Hookes law in order to use velocity
(as for inertia element)
Energy

E = fv dt =

1
k f df

Energy

1 f2
E=
2 k

(Elastic potential energy)

f (t ) = f ( 0 ) + k v dt
-

1 df
f
dt =
k dt

0-

+
f (0 ) = f (0 ) unless an infinite velocity is applied

Note: Energy storage element

Observations:
1. Force (through variable) represents state of spring element

T-Type Element
Justified because: 1. Spring force of a spring at time t is completely
determined from initial force and applied velocity; 2. Spring energy is
represented by f alone.
2. Force through stiffness element cannot change instantaneously unless an
infinite velocity is applied to it.
3. Force f is a natural output (state) variable and v is a natural input variable
for spring.
Note: Displacement x may be used in place of force f in the above discussion.

Damping (Dissipation) Element

Constitutive Equation: f = bv
b = damping constant (damping coefficient); for viscous damping
Observations:
1. This is an energy dissipating element (D-Type Element)
2. Either f or v may represent the state
3. No new state variable is defined by this element.

Gravitation Potential Energy

Work done by external force in raising an object against gravity

Lumped mass m is raised to height y by a constant external force f
(Note: f = mg in order to avoid acceleration).
Work done by the external force Energy: E = fdy = mgdy = mgy

Gravitational Potential Energy:

PE = mgy

f = mg

mg

Ground
Reference

Constitutive (Physical) Equations

System
Type

TranslatoryMechanical
v = velocity
f = force
Electrical
v = voltage
i = current
Thermal
T = temperature
difference
Q = heat transfer rate
Fluid
P = pressure
difference
Q = volume flow rate

Constitutive Relations for:

Energy Storage Elements
A-Type
(Across) Element
Mass
m

dv
= f
dt

(Newtons 2nd Law)

m = mass
Capacitor
C

dv
=i
dt

C = capacitance
Thermal Capacitor
Ct

T-Type
(Through)
Element
Spring
df
= kv
dt

(Hookes Law)
k = stiffness
Inductor
L

di
=v
dt

L = inductance
None

dT
=Q
dt

Cf

dP
=Q
dt

Cf = fluid capacitance

Viscous Damper
f = bv

b = damping
constant
Resistor
Ri = v

R = resistance
Thermal Resistor
Rt Q = T

Rt = thermal resistance

Ct = thermal capacitance
Fluid Capacitor

Energy Dissipating
Elements
D-Type
(Dissipative) Element

Fluid Inertor
If

dQ
=P
dt

If = inertance

Fluid Resistor
Rf Q = P

Rf = fluid resistance

Naturally Oscillating Systems

(a)

(c)

(b)

x
m

m
q
k1

k = k1+ k2

k2

(d)
(e)
A
(f)
l

VL

y
h

C
Mass density = r

mg
l

Six Examples of Single-D.O.F Oscillatory Systems:

(a) Translatory, (b) Rotatory, (c) Flexural,
(d) Pendulous, (e) Liquid slosh, and (f) Electrical.

+
vC

Undamped Oscillator

Undamped Oscillator
Mass-Spring System
(Simplified model of a rail car impacting against a snubber)

Conservation of Energy: 12 mx& 2 + 12 kx 2 = constant

Differentiate:
&&& + kxx& = 0
mxx
k
x+ x=0
Generally x& 0 at all t &&

2
&&
x +wnx

Natural frequency:

=0

wn =

k
m

m
k

Free Undamped Response

General Solution of Equation of Motion: x = A sin(wn t + f )
Proof: Satisfies the equation; Has two unknowns (A and f )
Initial Conditions: x(0) = xo = A sin f ; x& (0) = vo = Awn cos f
A = amplitude; f = phase angle
2
v
A = x o2 + o 2
wn
-1 w n x o
f = tan
vo

Natural Frequencies of
Six Types of Systems

Approaches for Equations of Motion

Example: Conveyor System Oscillations

Tracked Conveyor System

x + ( k1 + k2 ) x = 0
m + 2 &&
r

wn =

( k1 + k2 ) / m +

meq = m +

J
r2

J eq = r 2 m + J
Free-Body Diagram

J
r 2

k eq = k 1 + k 2
K eq = r 2 ( k 1 + k 2 )

Heavy Spring

Distributed Parameter (Continuous) System: A Heavy Spring

Note: Mass and flexibility are distributed throughout the spring

(not at a few discrete points)

Lumped Model of a Heavy Spring

ms = mass of spring; k = stiffness of spring; l = length of spring

One end fixed and the other end moving at velocity v

Kinetic Energy Equivalence

Local speed of element dx =
Element kinetic energy KE =

x
v.
l

s
Element mass = l dx

1 ms
x
dx( v ) 2
2 l
l

1 ms
x 2 1 ms v 2
1 ms v 2
2
As dx dx, Total KE = 2 l dx ( l v) = 2 l 3 x dx = 2 3
0
0
Equivalent lumped mass concentrated at free end =
Assumption: Conditions are uniform along the spring.

1
spring
3

mass

Lumped-Parameter Approximation of a Heavy Spring

Note: Natural frequency equivalence may give a different approximate model

Free (Unforced) Response of

Damped Oscillator

Damped Oscillator (Free)

k

mx&& + bx& + kx = 0
m

x&& + 2zw n x& + w 2n x = 0

Natural Frequency:

kx

wn =
m

Damping Ratio:
Note: z = damping ratio =

k
m

2zw n =

z=

1
2

b
m

b
km

Damping constant
Damping constant for critically damped conditions

Free Response Determination

Steps:
1. Substitute into equation of motion (i.e., seek) solution of the
form:
x = Ce lt
2. Solve the resulting characteristic equation: l2 + 2zw n l + w 2n = 0
to give roots:
l = -zw n z 2 - 1 w n

3.

General response:
x = C1el1t + C2 el2t
x = C1e lt + C2 te lt

4.

= l1 and l2

l1 l 2
l1 = l 2 = l

Determine the unknowns using initial conditions (ICs)

Three Cases of Roots:

1. Real and unequal Overdamped (Nonoscillatory)
2. Real and equal Critically damped (Nonoscillatory)
3. Complex conjugate Underdamped (Oscillatory)

Free Response Results

Typical Time Responses

(a)
Response 0.6

x (m)
0.4

z = 0.5
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Time t (s)

(b)
Response

0.6

x (m)

z = 1.0
0.4

z = 2.0
z = 4.0

0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Time t (s)

Logarithmic Decrement Method of

Damping Measurement

Period: T =
Decay Ratio During r Periods:

- zwn t

2p
wd

Ae-zw n t sin(wd t + f )
x (t )
=
x(t + rT ) Ae-zwn ( t + rT ) sin[wd (t + rT ) + f ]

2p rz

=e

e -zwn (t + rT )
Using peaks

zwn rT

=e

1-z 2

Note: wd rT = 2rp and

2p rz
Ai
= exp
Ai + r
1 - z 2

Logarithmic decrement per cycle:

1 A
2pz
d = ln i =
r Ai + r
1- z 2

z =

1
1 + ( 2p / d )

w nT = w n

2p
2p
=
wd
1-z 2

d
= Logarithmic decrement per radian
2p

Dependence of Free Response

(Stability) on Pole Location
s-Plane
Im

(Eigenvalue Plane)

E
A
C

Re

A
C
E

A and B are stable; C is marginally stable;

D and E are unstable

Forced Response of
Damped Oscillator

Forced Oscillator
y

Spring

k
Mass

f(t)

m
Viscous Damper

&& + by& + ky = f (t )
Equation of Motion: my

&&
y + 2zw n y& + w 2n y = w 2n u (t )
Normalized force u(t) = f(t)/k

(has units of displacement)

Note: In control systems nomenclature, u = input; y = output

Forced Response Components

Methods of Forced Response Determination

Particular Solution Method
1.
Add a suitable particular solution (a solution that satisfies the forced
equation) to the homogeneous solution (general solution of free response)
2.
Determine the unknown constants (in the homogeneous solution) by
using ICs
Convolution Integral Method
1.
Determine the impulse response h(t)the response to a unit impulse
(assumes zero ICs)
2.
Use convolution integral to determine the zero-IC response:

y (t ) = h(t - t )u (t )dt = h(t )u (t - t )dt

3.

Add the zero-input response (i.e., IC response)

Laplace Transform Method

1.
In the equation of motion represent time-derivative by Laplace variable
s and corresponding ICs
2.
Express the forcing function (input) by its Laplace transform
3.
Express the response in terms of s (algebraic manipulations)
4.
Using Laplace tables determine the inverse Laplace

Particular Solutions for

Useful Input Functions

Useful Results on
Forced Response