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C OPYRIGHT 2013

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T HE J OURNAL

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AND J OINT

S URGERY, I NCORPORATED

Current Concepts Review

Fractures of the Radial Head and Neck

David E. Ruchelsman, MD, Dimitrios Christoforou, MD, and Jesse B. Jupiter, MD
Investigation performed at the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Hand and Upper Extremity Service, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard
Medical School, and Newton-Wellesley Hospital/Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts

The majority of simple fractures of the radial head are stable, even when displaced 2 mm. Articular fragmentation
and comminution can be seen in stable fracture patterns and are not absolute indications for operative treatment.

Preservation and/or restoration of radiocapitellar contact is critical to coronal plane and longitudinal stability of the
elbow and forearm.

Partial and complete articular fractures of the radial head should be differentiated.

Important fracture characteristics impacting treatment include fragment number, fragment size (percentage of
articular disc), fragment comminution, fragment stability, displacement and corresponding block to motion, osteopenia, articular impaction, radiocapitellar malalignment, and radial neck and metaphyseal comminution and/
or bone loss.

Open reduction and internal fixation of displaced radial head fractures should only be attempted when anatomic
reduction, restoration of articular congruity, and initiation of early motion can be achieved. If these goals are not
obtainable, open reduction and internal fixation may lead to early fixation failure, nonunion, and loss of elbow and
forearm motion and stability.

Radial head replacement is preferred for displaced radial head fractures with more than three fragments, unstable
partial articular fractures in which stable fixation cannot be achieved, and fractures occurring in association with
complex elbow injury patterns if stable fixation cannot be ensured.

The role of the radial head in the functional anatomy and

kinematics of the elbow and forearm continues to be defined.
The importance of the radial head has stimulated a greater
degree of interest in the fixation and reconstruction of traumatic injuries to the radial head and/or neck, whether simple
(isolated) or complex (associated with concomitant osseous or
soft-tissue injury). In this article, we will discuss the structural
anatomy of the lateral side of the elbow, the role of the radial
head in stability of the elbow, classifications of isolated fractures
as well as fracture-dislocations, treatment algorithms, indications for internal fixation or arthroplasty, and best evidence
regarding outcomes by fracture subtype.

Anatomy and Biomechanics

The articular surfaces of the radiocapitellar joint are congruent
along their corresponding radii of curvature. The concave
surface of the radial head articulates with the hemispherically
shaped capitellum, and the radial head rim articulates with the
lesser sigmoid notch. Articular cartilage covers the concave
surface as well as an arc of approximately 280 around the rim1.
Anatomic studies2-5 have demonstrated that the radial head is
not perfectly circular and is variably offset from the axis of the
neck. van Riet and colleagues2 found that the orientation of the
long axis of the radial head is perpendicular to the lesser sigmoid notch of the ulna with the forearm in neutral rotation.

Disclosure: None of the authors received payments or services, either directly or indirectly (i.e., via his or her institution), from a third party in support of any
aspect of this work. One or more of the authors, or his or her institution, has had a financial relationship, in the thirty-six months prior to submission of this
work, with an entity in the biomedical arena that could be perceived to influence or have the potential to influence what is written in this work. No author has
had any other relationships, or has engaged in any other activities, that could be perceived to influence or have the potential to influence what is written in
this work. The complete Disclosures of Potential Conflicts of Interest submitted by authors are always provided with the online version of the article.

J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2013;95:469-78

http://dx.doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.J.01989

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This anatomical relationship needs to be precisely restored

during radial head fixation or replicated by prosthetic replacements to optimize outcomes.
The primary stabilizer to varus stress consists of the
lateral collateral ligament complex. The lateral collateral ligament complex comprises the radial collateral ligament, the
lateral ulnar collateral ligament, the anular ligament, and the
accessory collateral ligament. The lateral ulnar collateral ligament origin at the isometric point of the lateral epicondyle as
well as its insertion distal to the posterior attachment of the
anular ligament on the crista supinatoris6 provide both varus
and posterolateral stability.
An intact radiocapitellar articulation is essential to both
valgus and longitudinal stability of the elbow and forearm.
Morrey et al.7 demonstrated in a cadaveric model that the radial
head is a key secondary stabilizer to valgus stress in the medial
collateral ligament-deficient elbow; therefore, restoration of
the radiocapitellar compartment is critical following trauma.
Dushuttle et al.8 found that capitellar excision creates coronal
plane instability when the medial structures are disrupted.
Axial engagement of the radial head against the capitellum,
in conjunction with the interosseous membrane, distal radioulnar joint ligaments, and triangular fibrocartilage complex, provides for load transfer from the wrist through the elbow as well as
resistance to proximal migration of the radius9-11. Halls and
Travill12 showed that the radiocapitellar articulation bears almost
60% of the load at the elbow, with maximum force transmission
through the proximal part of the radius occurring with the elbow
in terminal extension and the forearm pronated. In a cadaveric
model of concomitant comminuted radial head fracture and
interosseous membrane disruption, Markolf et al.13 demonstrated that restoration of anatomic radial length with use of an
appropriately sized radial head prosthesis preserves distal ulnar
load-sharing and prevents proximal migration of the radius.
In the setting of elbow fracture-dislocation or longitudinal instability of the forearm, restoration of the proximal part
of the radius through repair or reconstruction is essential to
restore and maintain coronal plane (i.e., varus-valgus) stability,
to decrease the stress imparted on the ulnar collateral ligament,
and to prevent proximal migration of the radius. The need for
careful clinical examination of the forearm axis and wrist must
be emphasized. Even with a simple radial head fracture, magnetic resonance imaging of the forearm may demonstrate distal
interosseous membrane injury, which may impact treatment
and prognosis14. The role of repair or reconstruction of the
interosseous membrane in the setting of longitudinal disruption of the forearm continues to be investigated15,16.
Current Treatment-Based Classifications
Prior to definitive classification of the injury, radiographs
should be assessed for associated lateral-column and periarticular osseous injuries17, including fractures of the capitellum,
trochlea, medial epicondyle, and coronoid18-21. The original
classification system described by Mason22 distinguished nondisplaced fractures (Type 1), displaced partial head fractures
(Type 2), and displaced fractures involving the entire radial

head (Type 3). Broberg and Morrey23 attempted to quantify the

extent of radial head involvement and included the presence of
concomitant radial neck fracture. They suggested that a partial
radial head fracture must be of sufficient size (30% of the
articular surface) and displacement (2 mm) to be considered
displaced (i.e., Mason Type-2 fracture). Johnstons modification24 (Type 4) of the Mason classification system sought to
include fractures of the radial head associated with elbow dislocation, with the recognition that proximal radial fractures may
be associated with a variety of complex fracture-dislocation
patterns about the elbow and forearm and may change the
treatment and prognosis of a similar radial head fracture
without dislocation. The AO classification system accounts for
the spectrum of injuries at the proximal part of the radius
(radial head and/or neck fractures), whether isolated (21-B injury
pattern) or associated with complex elbow/forearm fracturedislocations (21-C injury pattern)25. Proximal radial fractures
associated with complex elbow/forearm injuries require careful
characterization and preoperative planning.
The Hotchkiss26 modification of the Mason classification
system attempted to direct treatment. In this modified system,
Type-1 fractures are defined as nondisplaced or minimally
displaced fractures (displacement, <2 mm) or small marginal
fractures that do not block motion and can be treated nonoperatively; Type-2 fractures are defined as displaced fractures
(displacement, >2 mm) of the radial head or neck without
comminution, and with or without mechanical block to motion, that are amenable to open reduction and internal fixation;
and Type-3 fractures as displaced fractures that are not repairable and are either excised or replaced with a prosthesis.
Classification systems based on standard radiographic
interpretations have demonstrated only modest interobserver
reliability27,28. Sheps et al.27, in a series of forty-three patients
with radial head fractures, reported that the interobserver reliability of the Hotchkiss modification26 of the Mason classification system was only moderate (kappa statistic, 0.585) and
that the interobserver reliability of the AO classification system
was fair (kappa statistic, 0.261). Interobserver reliability improved when Hotchkiss Type-2 and 3 fractures are consolidated
into a single fracture class for observers (kappa statistic, 0.760)
or when the final digit in the AO classification is not used (kappa
statistic, 0.455). Doornberg et al.28 reported that the Broberg
and Morrey classification23 of Mason Type-1 and 2 fractures
demonstrated excellent intraobserver reliability (mean kappa,
0.85) but only moderate interobserver reliability (mean kappa,
0.45) when displacement was assessed in 119 isolated partial
articular fractures of the radial head. Dillon et al.29 found improved interobserver agreement when an external rotation
oblique view was included.
Decision-Making Principles
A number of parameters must be taken into account when
evaluating fractures about the radial head and neck to determine treatment. These include fracture stability, displacement,
the magnitude of articular involvement, and the presence of
associated complex injuries. These subtleties should be assessed

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TABLE I Radial Head-Neck Fracture Characteristics

Impacting Treatment
1. Partial articular versus complete articular
2. Fragment number
3. Fragment size (percentage of articular disc)
4. Fragment comminution
5. Fragment stability
6. Displacement and corresponding block to motion
7. Osteopenia
8. Articular impaction
9. Radiocapitellar malalignment
10. Radial neck and metaphyseal comminution and/or bone loss

together so that decisions are not rigidly based on classification

schemes (Table I and Highlight Box).
For fractures of the radial head, fracture instability and
displacement are not synonymous. The majority of isolated
fractures involving only a part of the radial head are inherently
stable even when displaced 2 mm30. Currently, fracture fragment displacement of 2 mm31 is often used as a criterion for
consideration of operative treatment. However, this amount of
displacement can be seen in association with a stable fracture28
and preserved elbow and forearm motion. Furthermore, when
forearm motion is maintained, long-term follow-up studies
have demonstrated successful outcomes in association with
nonoperative treatment32,33. Stability of a displaced and/or impacted fragment may be preserved by the periosteal attachments.
Fracture stability, the preservation of forearm rotation, radiocapitellar alignment, and associated injuries are evaluated when
operative intervention is being contemplated and should be
considered in addition to the magnitude of displacement.
Fragmentation or comminution of the articular surface also
may be seen even in association with stable, minimally displaced fractures. Malalignment of the radiocapitellar articulation on radiographs should heighten suspicion for associated
soft-tissue and/or osseous injury.
In contrast to the above injuries, gross displacement
of fracture fragments indicates instability and disruption of
soft-tissue attachments. These unstable and widely displaced
fractures of the radial head are more often associated with
fracture-dislocation patterns about the elbow and forearm. In a
series of 121 modified Mason Type-2 radial head fractures,
Rineer et al.34 showed that complete loss of cortical contact
between a single fracture fragment and the rest of the proximal
part of the radius is an important predictor of the presence of a
complex elbow injury. In addition, fracture instability has often
been defined intraoperatively by the presence of mobile fragments separated from the intact radius35,36. Preoperative computed
tomography (CT) may be used to better define the magnitude of
articular involvement and the anatomic zone of articular injury
but is not routinely performed unless there is an associated
complex periarticular injury involving the distal part of the
humerus or the proximal part of the ulna37,38.

Current Treatment Guidelines of Select Fractures

Stable, Nondisplaced Fractures and Isolated, Stable Partial
Articular Fractures
There is consensus that nondisplaced and stable, minimally
displaced partial articular fractures of the radial head should be
treated nonoperatively39,40.
The simple and moderately displaced partial radial head
fracture (displacement, 2 to 5 mm) is an uncommon fracture pattern28. As noted by Athwal and King41 in a recent review of these rare
injuries, the best available evidence is limited to retrospective case
series and relatively small cohort studies with differences in fracture
classification; treatment techniques and approaches; methods of
clinical, functional, and radiographic evaluation; and durations of
follow-up. As the series discussed below are limited to Level-III and
IV data42, grade B/C recommendations exist for both nonoperative
and operative treatment of these fracture types. Randomized, prospective, and/or case-control cohorts are needed to elucidate the
optimum treatment of partial articular fractures of the radial head.
Long-term clinical outcome studies32,33 have supported
nonoperative treatment and early active motion of two-part
fractures of the radial head associated with 2 to 5 mm of displacement when there is no block to elbow or forearm motion
and the elbow is stable. A hematoma aspiration and lidocaine
injection can be helpful if a mechanical block is suspected.
Akesson et al.32, in a retrospective cohort series of forty-nine
patients with two-part partial articular fractures of the radial
head that were displaced 2 to 5 mm and that comprised >30%
of the articular surface (Mason Type-2a fractures according to
the Broberg-Morrey modification of the Mason classification
system) that were treated with early mobilization, reported that
forty patients (82%) had no subjective complaints after a mean
duration of follow-up of nineteen years and that there were
only minimum clinical differences between injured and uninjured elbows in terms of ulnohumeral and pronation-supination
arcs of motion. Six patients underwent radial head excision
(after less than six months) because of an unsatisfactory outcome. Although posttraumatic arthrosis was more prevalent in
the injured elbows, its presence did not correlate with pain or
motion. In a larger retrospective series of 100 patients with
Mason Type-2 and 3 fractures, Herbertsson et al.33 reported a
good outcome in eighty-four (84%) of 100 patients after
nineteen years of follow-up. However, that study remains
limited in that the outcomes at this long-term follow-up interval were not specifically stratified by treatment rendered. As
a result, differences in outcomes between the treatment subgroups (nonoperative treatment [n = 78], acute radial head
excision [n = 19], acute open reduction and internal fixation
[n = 2], and medial collateral ligament repair [n = 1]) is not
known. These data, in conjunction with historical series43-47
demonstrating satisfactory results in the majority of patients
with isolated displaced partial articular fractures following
nonoperative management, suggest that these fractures were
stable, albeit displaced. Lindenhovius et al.48 reported good-toexcellent results following open reduction and internal fixation of isolated, stable, displaced, partial articular fractures in
thirteen (81%) of sixteen patients at a mean of twenty-two

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years postoperatively. However, clinical and functional outcomes were not superior to those obtained following nonoperative treatment of these injuries in previous series. The
magnitude of displacement and articular surface involvement
that is acceptable and reliably portends an acceptable clinical
and functional outcome is not known. However, at increasing
magnitudes of displacement, complex patterns and associated
injuries are more common and should be strongly suspected.
Unstable Partial Articular Fractures
Unstable partial articular fractures of the radial head are defined
by gross displacement, periosteal disruption, metaphyseal bone
loss, radiocapitellar articular incongruency, malalignment and
impaction, block to elbow and forearm motion, and the presence
of associated elbow or forearm fracture-dislocation patterns38.
Involvement of the anterolateral quadrant of the radial head articular surface is often seen following posterolateral subluxation
or dislocation. This is the nonarticular portion of the radial head,
and the lack of subchondral bone may make it more prone to
fracture and comminution and less able to provide support for
fixation34. Open reduction and internal fixation along with softtissue repair is indicated to restore stability of the elbow when
primary ligamentous stabilizers have been disrupted.
Operative Exposure
When operative fixation of an isolated radial head and neck
fracture is required, a lateral surgical approach is generally utilized for exposure. A lateral skin incision at the elbow is centered
over the lateral epicondyle and extends from the anterior aspect
of the lateral column of the distal part of the humerus along
the midaxial line of the radial head and proximal part of the radius. Several deep muscular intervals may be exploited, including
the Kocher interval49 between the anconeus and extensor carpi
ulnaris muscles or the Kaplan interval50 between the extensor
carpi radialis longus and extensor digitorum communis. Alternatively, the extensor digitorum communis may be split as
described by Hotchkiss26. The exposure can often proceed through
the traumatic defect in the lateral structures. An arthrotomy is
performed anterior to the lateral ulnar collateral ligament to
prevent creating posterolateral rotational instability. Bain et al.51
advocated a lateral Z step-cut ligament-sparing capsulotomy
anterior to the lateral ulnar collateral ligament at the level of the
anular ligament to avoid overtensioning if one elects capsular repair during closure. Distal exposure of the proximal radial shaft
requires elevation of the extensor-supinator complex and protection of the posterior interosseous nerve. Tornetta et al.52 found
that in only one (2%) of fifty arms did the posterior interosseous
nerve lie directly on the radius and that the average distance (and
standard deviation) from the radial head to the origin of the
posterior interosseous nerve was 1.2 1.9 mm, with the takeoff
being proximal to the radial head in thirty-one cases. In a cadaveric
study, Schimizzi et al.53 found that the mean distance between the
posterior interosseous nerve and the radiocapitellar joint in neutral, supination, and pronation was 44.5, 40.8, and 48.2 mm, respectively. On the basis of these data, the posterior interosseous
nerve may be safer during exposure with forearm pronation. An

extensile lateral column exposure may be needed to reduce and fix

a concomitant coronal shear capitellar-trochlear fracture19-22.
When a posterior and/or medial exposure is anticipated,
a midline extensile posterior skin incision with elevation of
full-thickness skin flaps may be used. In the setting of a terrible triad injury (posterolateral elbow fracture-dislocation
with associated radial head and coronoid fractures)26, resection
of the associated comminuted radial head fracture may yield
access to the coronoid fracture from the lateral side without an
additional medial exposure in select cases. Alternatively, a medially based exposure (i.e., flexor-pronator split or elevation)
may be used for open reduction and internal fixation of larger
or anteromedial facet coronoid fractures.
Articular Surface Reconstruction
The goals of open reduction and internal fixation include stable
articular surface fixation and restoration of articular congruencies
and the radial head-neck relationship to facilitate early active
motion. Small (1.5 to 2.4-mm) cannulated headless compression
screws or screws countersunk beneath the articular surface are
often used for unstable fractures36,48,54-57. When there is comminution of the articular surface, screws may be inserted in neutral
mode (i.e., without lag technique) to avoid narrowing the articular disc. Bioabsorbable implants58 or terminally threaded wires
may be helpful for securing very small fragments. Occasionally,
widely displaced articular fragments devoid of soft-tissue attachments are assembled to each other on the back table and then
are secured to the remaining head and/or neck. The overall stability of the construct will depend on associated injuries as well.
Various low-profile periarticular plates are available for
the treatment of unstable extra-articular radial neck fractures or
combined radial head-neck fractures. These implants are applied
within the safe zone,59,60 defined as the posterolateral quadrant
of the radial head that is nonarticular with the lesser sigmoid
notch of the ulna and is located laterally between the radial
styloid and the Lister tubercle with the forearm in neutral rotation61. When there is a concomitant fracture of the radial head
and neck, reconstruction of the articular disc with use of buried
implants may be performed first and then plate fixation may be
used to secure the head to the neck. Alternatively, these fractures
may be treated with a single low-profile plate-screw construct.
Impacted or deformed62 articular fragments require elevation
to restore the head-neck and radiocapitellar relationships. The articular surface is then fixed to the proximal part of the shaft with a
plate-screw construct (Figs. 1-A through 2-B). Even with fixedangle constructs, there is benefit to addressing the metaphyseal void
(created at the time of articular elevation) with use of local autograft
(olecranon or lateral epicondyle), allograft, or bone-graft substitute.
For extra-articular but displaced simple transverse fractures of the radial neck, antegrade, crossed, countersunk screws
may be used. In a fresh-frozen cadaveric biomechanical model of
isolated radial neck fractures, Capo et al.63 demonstrated that a
2.4-mm T-plate in conjunction with an antegrade interfragmentary screw placed from a nonarticular portion of the head
into the shaft provided the highest rigidity in both bending and
torsion. The addition of a lag screw (antegrade or retrograde)

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rospectively compared outcome differences at a mean of 1.5 years of

follow-up in a study of Mason Type-2 fractures that were treated
nonoperatively (n = 16) or with open reduction and internal fixation (n = 10). Clinical outcomes were significantly better in the
open reduction and internal fixation group (with a 90% rate of
good to excellent results) in comparison with the nonoperative
treatment group (with a 44% rate of good to excellent results) (p <
0.01). At a mean of eighteen months of follow-up, radiographs
demonstrated a higher prevalence of articular depression, displacement, and arthrosis in elbows that had been treated nonoperatively. Pearce and Gallannaugh55 reported good to excellent
results in all nineteen patients following open reduction and internal
fixation of isolated, displaced partial articular fractures. However, it
is difficult to discern from these series if the fractures represented
stable or unstable partial articular radial head fractures or a combination of these injuries. Ring et al.38 retrospectively reported on

Fig. 1-A

Fig. 1-C

Fig. 1-B

Figs. 1-A and 1-B Preoperative anteroposterior (Fig. 1-A) and lateral (Fig. 1-B)
radiographs demonstrating a displaced radial head and neck fracture.

across the neck fracture always increased the torsional and

bending stiffness of the construct. In contrast, locking buttress
pins or locking screws did not increase torsional or bending
rigidity. In cases of radial neck impaction, comminution, or
metaphyseal bone loss, fixed-angle implants (i.e., a minicondylar
blade-plate or locking plate) remain advantageous.
Outcomes of Operative Treatment
Several retrospective studies36,38,54,57 have demonstrated good to excellent results following open reduction and internal fixation of
partial articular fractures of the radial head. Khalfayan et al.54 ret-

Fig. 1-D

Figs. 1-C and 1-D Postoperative fluoroscopic images following fixation.

Note that the orientation of the long axis of the radial head is perpendicular
to the lesser sigmoid notch of the ulna with forearm in neutral.

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tion and internal fixation, fragment excision may be performed.

If fragment excision is contemplated, it must be confirmed that
the fragment or fragments are not essential to elbow or forearm
stability. If stability is in question, radial head replacement is
performed. The effect of radial head fracture size on elbow
kinematics and stability has been demonstrated64. Excision of
radial head fragments totaling >25% of the surface area of the
articular disc should be avoided.
Patients should be counseled that radial head excision,
prosthetic replacement, and intra-articular osteotomy remain
options if symptomatic malunion or nonunion of a partial
articular fracture develops.

Fig. 2-A

Complete Articular Fractures (Mason Type 3)

In the case of a young patient with a complete multifragmentary
articular injury, priority is given to open reduction and internal
fixation to salvage the native radial head if stable fixation can be
achieved. This allows for restoration of the lateral column
and early motion. In the case of a highly comminuted fracture
in which stable fixation cannot be achieved, prosthetic replacement is preferred (Figs. 3-A through 3-D). Ring et al.38
suggested that open reduction and internal fixation is best reserved for minimally comminuted fractures with three or fewer
articular fragments. Attempted fixation when there are more
than three fragments at the site of an unstable displaced fracture risks failure of fixation, fragment nonunion and/or osteonecrosis38,65, and unpredictable ulnohumeral and forearm
motion36,38. The risks of open reduction and internal fixation
failure should be balanced against the long-term effects of
radial head arthroplasty. For unstable and complex complete
articular fractures, radial head arthroplasty may offer more
predictable results51,65-72 while restoring radial length, radiocapitellar contact, and elbow kinematics67. To elucidate the
optimum treatment of the displaced, unstable radial head
fracturethat is, open reduction and internal fixation or arthroplastyprospective, randomized, controlled studies are
needed. This is a difficult task given the incidence of these
injuries combined with the reality that many unstable, displaced fractures may not be amenable to stable open reduction
and internal fixation once intraoperative exposure and assessment has been performed.

Fig. 2-B

Postoperative anteroposterior (Fig. 2-A) and lateral (Fig. 2-B) radiographs

of the elbow, demonstrating fixation with a combination of buried
screws and minicondylar blade-plate fixation.

thirty patients following open reduction and internal fixation of

displaced partial articular fractures. Fifteen fractures were comminuted, and fifteen consisted of a single fragment. Four (27%) of the
fifteen patients with comminution of the partial articular fragment
had an unsatisfactory outcome, and all four of these cases were
associated with a fracture-dislocation of the elbow or forearm. In
contrast, all fifteen patients who had a displaced, noncomminuted
single-fragment fracture achieved a satisfactory outcome.
When a partial articular fracture of the radial head creates a
mechanical block to motion but is not amenable to open reduc-

Radial Head Arthroplasty

Radial head prosthetic replacement aims to help stabilize an
elbow with traumatic instability66 when stable fixation of a multifragmentary articular fracture of the radial head is not possible36,38. The indications for the use of a metallic radial head
prosthesis include an acute comminuted fracture of the radial
head (with or without neck involvement) involving >30% of
the articular surface of the radial head for which satisfactory
reduction and stable internal fixation cannot be achieved. A
low threshold for radial head replacement in the setting of
associated complex elbow and forearm fracture-dislocation
patterns such as terrible triad injuries, longitudinal instability
of the forearm, and Monteggia and transolecranon fracturedislocations is recommended36,38,66. Various prosthetic head and

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arable radial head fracture with no radiographic evidence of instability on radiographs75, intraoperative assessment for ligament
injury, particularly of the ulnar collateral ligament and interosseous membrane, is required26,75. The prevalence, severity, and
clinical sequelae of proximal migration of the radius after the
excision of isolated fractures of the radial head remain controversial75-77. While biomechanical alterations at the ulnotrochlear
articulation are seen following resection72,78, Antuna et al.79 reported no correlation between satisfactory functional outcomes
and the degree of arthrosis at the time of long-term follow-up
after acute radial head resection in young patients with isolated
fractures without associated instability.
Radial Head and Neck Fractures Associated with Complex
Elbow and Forearm Injuries
Unstable, displaced Mason Type-2 and 3 fractures of the radial
head and neck are often a component of complex fracture-

Fig. 3-A

Fig. 3-B

Figs. 3-A and 3-B Preoperative anteroposterior (Fig. 3-A) and lateral (Fig.
3-B) radiographs demonstrating an unstable, complete articular fracture

Fig. 3-C

of the radial head with loss of cortical contact as a component of a terrible

triad injury. The fracture was not amenable to stable fixation.

stem implant designs are available and aim to replicate native

radial head size, height, and head-neck offset to restore radiocapitellar and proximal radioulnar joint in vivo kinematics.
Radial Head Excision
Acute radial head excision is rarely indicated given the coincidence of unstable, displaced partial articular (Mason Type-2)
and complete articular (Mason Type-3) fractures of the radial
head and neck associated with complex periarticular fracturedislocations about the elbow and forearm18,62. Open reduction
and internal fixation yields results superior to radial head excision
for the treatment of unstable Mason Type-2, 3, and 4 fractures
associated with complex elbow fracture-dislocations73,74. When
excision is contemplated for the treatment of an isolated, irrep-

Fig. 3-D

Figs. 3-C and 3-D Postoperative radiographs made after radial head replacement and suture anchor repair of the avulsed lateral collateral ligament complex.

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dislocation patterns about the elbow and forearm62. These patterns include the spectrum of posterolateral rotatory instability
injuries (displaced partial or complete articular fractures of the
radial head in conjunction with rupture of the lateral collateral
ligament and terrible triad injuries), valgus injuries of the elbow
(tensile failure and disruption of the ulnar collateral ligament
complex followed by lateral column fracture), posterior transolecranon fracture-dislocations and posterior Monteggia80 variants (Bado81 Type-2 injuries), and longitudinal instability of
the forearm (Essex-Lopresti82 lesions). Although series have been
of a retrospective nature, it has been consistently demonstrated
that restoration of stable radiocapitellar contact and the lateral
column buttress is essential to optimize outcomes following
these complex elbow and forearm injuries66,83-89. In these injuries,
prosthetic replacement of the radial head is preferred over
suboptimal fixation because the radial head and neck will bear
increased axial, coronal, and sagittal plane forces because of the
associated soft-tissue disruptions. Suboptimum fixation may
result in early or late failure. In addition, greater disability and
inferior clinical outcomes have been reported in patients who
receive delayed treatment of radial head fractures associated
with complex fracture-dislocation patterns90.
Postoperative Care
When rigid fixation is achieved or prosthetic replacement is
performed, a long arm posterior plaster splint or bulky compressive dressing is worn until the first office visit between seven
and ten days postoperatively. Active and active-assisted range of
motion of the elbow and forearm is then initiated on the basis
of the stability of fixation and assessment of the radiographs.
In the presence of concomitant ligamentous or functionally
equivalent osseous injuries, a ligament-specific protocol may
be instituted with mobilization in pronation (lateral-sided injury)91 or supination (medial-sided injury)92. Shoulder abduction and varus stress on the elbow is avoided when lateral-sided
injury is present. Strengthening exercises are initiated when there
is clinical and radiographic evidence of fracture union. Delayed or
protected mobilization with a hinged elbow brace may be necessary when there is concern about elbow stability following complex fracture-dislocations. A hinged brace with gradual reduction
of the extension block helps to maintain radial head congruity
against the capitellum and to protect soft-tissue repairs. Extension
splinting may be used to address flexion contracture. Static progressive splinting can be effective for regaining ulnohumeral motion20,93, although flexion contracture release may be needed.
Overview
Fractures of the radial head and neck continue to represent
technical challenges to the upper extremity surgeon. A better
appreciation of the spectrum of injuries that may be seen at
the proximal part of the radius, whether in isolation or in
conjunction with associated complex elbow and forearm injury patterns, continues to emerge. Headless or variable-pitch
compression screws buried in a subarticular fashion allow for
stable fixation of the articular disc in select cases of partial
head fractures. Complete articular fractures and combined

radial head-neck fractures may be addressed with a lowprofile periarticular implant that allows for a single fixation
construct in cases of neck or shaft extension. Fixed-angle lowprofile periarticular implants help to address technical challenges created by metaphyseal comminution and bone loss in
the radial neck, radial head-neck impaction, and osteopenia.
Evolution in radial head prosthetic designs to better match the
dynamic in vivo relationships in the radiocapitellar and
proximal radioulnar joints may improve outcomes following
radial head arthroplasty.
Displacement, fragment stability, the magnitude of articular comminution of fracture fragments, and associated
complex injuries are essential components to consider in the
decision-making process. The concept of fracture fragment
stability is often undefined in current studies of elbow fractures. Recognition of fragment instability may help to elucidate the optimum treatment of Type-2 fractures and may
prove to be an important determinant of outcomes following
radial head fractures35.
Current evidence supports the treatment of isolated,
minimally displaced or stable Mason Type-2 partial articular fractures without associated block to motion with early,
progressive active range of motion. Displaced, partial articular fractures creating mechanical impediment to motion are
treated with open reduction and internal fixation. Isolated, unstable and multifragmentary fractures of the radial head and
those associated with complex elbow fracture-dislocation and
ligamentous injuries are usually treated with radial head arthroplasty. Open reduction and internal fixation is performed
when a stable fixation construct that allows for radiocapitellar
contact and early motion is obtainable. Fixation failure, nonunion, osteonecrosis, recurrent instability, and poor functional
outcomes are seen following open reduction and internal fixation of these complex fractures if fixation is tenuous. Severe
articular fragmentation, displacement with loss of cortical contact, metaphyseal bone loss, and the size and quality of the
fracture fragments make open reduction and internal fixation
technically challenging. The optimum fracture for open reduction and internal fixation will have three or fewer articular
fragments without impaction or deformity, each of sufficient
size and bone quality to accept screw fixation, and little or no
metaphyseal bone loss. The exposure that is selected will be
determined on the basis of the constellation of osseous, ligamentous, and soft-tissue injuries. n

David E. Ruchelsman, MD
Dimitrios Christoforou, MD
Jesse B. Jupiter, MD
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery,
Hand and Upper Extremity Service,
Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School,
55 Fruit Street, Yawkey Center,
Suite 2100, Boston, MA 02114.
E-mail address for D.E. Ruchelsman: druchelsman@partners.org.
E-mail address for J.B. Jupiter: jjupiter1@partners.org

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