BIOLOGY STUDY GUIDE

1. Ecology
a. Phosphorus Cycle
i. Phosphate is found in rocks on the ground
ii. Phosphate is pushed up into the soil by sedimentation
iii. Phosphate in soil is absorbed by plants
iv. The phosphate is eaten by animals (in plants) and is excreted
from animal. Rocks form from decomposition of material at
earths surface.
b. Nitrogen Cycle
i. Plant and animal wastes decomposes and adds nitrogen into soil
ii. Bacteria in soil convert these forms of nitrogen into forms plants
use
iii. Plants use the nitrogen in soil to grow
iv. People and animals eat the plants
v. Animal and plant residue returns nitrogen to soil
c. Water Cycle
i. Water storage in ocean
ii. Evaporation or Transpiration
iii. Condensation
iv. Precipitation
v. Surface runoff
d. Carbon Cycle
i. Carbon enters the system as carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere
ii. Carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants and converted in
carbohydrates through photosynthesis
iii. Carbohydrates are incorporated into plant matter and released
into soil through decomposition
iv. Decomposition of organic material, produces humid matter and
eventually gaseous carbon dioxide
v. Later released and absorbed by plants
e. Symbiosis
i. Ecological relationship between members of 2 or more different
species that live in direct contact with each other.
f. Population Density
i. Measure of individuals living in a defined area
g. Characteristic of Life
i. Living things are composed of cells
ii. Living things have different levels of organization
iii. Living things use energy
iv. Living things respond to environment
v. Living things grow
vi. Living things reproduce
vii. Living thins adapt to environment
h. Homeostasis
i. Regulation and maintenance of constant internal conditions in
an organism
i. Autotrophic vs Heterotrophic

i. Autotrophic- an organism that is able to produce its own food

ii. Heterotopic- an organism that cant produce its own food
iii.
j.
Tertiary Consumer: ex.
Snakes
Secondary Consumer: ex.
Frogs
Primary Consumer: ex.
Plants

k. Biodiversity
i. Diversity of plants and animal in certain region
l. Population dispersion
i. Random
ii. Uniform
iii. Clump
m. Survivorship Curve

n.
o.
p.
q.
r.
s.
t.
u.
v.
w.
x.

i. Type I: low level of infant nortality and survive until old age
ii. Type II: survivorship rate is roughly equal
iii. Type III: high birth rate and hgih infant mortatlity rate
Mutualism
i. Each animal benefits from each other
Commensalism
i. One animal benefits from another without any harm
Parasitism
i. One animal benefits from another with harm
Inter-specific competition
i. Comnpetition between two different speicies
Intra-specific competition
i. Compeition between same speicies
Competition exclusion
i. 2 spiecies competing for same resource
Endo-parasities
i. Insides host/body
Encto-parasite
i. Outside host/body
Carrying capcity
i. Maxiumum number of individual in enviroment
Habitat loss impact
i. Deforestation
ii. Invasive species
Level of organization
i. Biosphere

ii. Biome
iii. Ecosystem
iv. Community
v. Population
vi. Organism
y. Pyramid
i. Biomass
1. Total dry mass of organism in area (kg)
ii. Pyramid of numbers
1. Amount of organisms
iii. Energy pyramid
1. Energy flow in community
2. Chemistry
a. Monomer
i. Individual subunit
b. Polymer
i. Many monomers
c. Macromolecules
i. Carbohydrates
1. Subunit
a. Glucose
2. Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
3. Examples: Sugar
ii. Lipids
1. Subunit
a. Fatty acids
2. Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus
3. Examples: oil, fat
iii. Protein
1. Subunit
a. Amino acids
2. Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and
phosphorus
3. Examples: meat
iv. Nucleic Acids
1. Subunit
a. Nucleotides
2. Composed of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and phosphorus
3. Examples: DNA and RNA
d. Hydrogen bond
i. Attraction between positive hydrogen and negative atom
e. Covalent bond
i. Bond formed when 2 atoms share one or more pairs of electrons
f. Relative charge
i. Electric potential at a distance from charge
g. Solute
i. Dissolve in solvent
1. Ex. Sugar
h. Solvent
i. Solute dissolves on

i.
j.

k.
l.

m.

n.

o.
p.

1. Ex. Water
Solution
i. Mixture that is consistent throughout (homogenous mixture)
1. Ex. Lemonade
Properties of water
i. Cohesion
1. Attraction between 2 same molecules
ii. Adhesion
1. Attraction between 2 different molecules
iii. High specific heat
1. Amount of energy it takes to raise temp of substance to 1
degrees
iv. Polarity
1. Sticking to certain substances due to unequal sharing of
electrons
a. Polar- absorb water
b. Non-polar- not absorbed by water
Compounds
i. Substances made of atoms of different elements bonded
together
Bonds
i. Ionic bonds
1. Chemical bond formed through the electrical force
between opposite charged bonds
ii. Covalent bonds
1. Formed when 2 or more atoms share 1 or more electrons
Basics
i. Atoms
1. Smallest basic unit of matter
ii. Elements
1. One particular type of atom, cannot be broken down by
chemical means
iii. Ions
1. Atoms gain/loose electrons
iv. Molecules
1. 2 or more atoms held together by covalent bonds
Experiments
i. Experimental control
1. Experimental done w/o variable
ii. Qualities data
1. Description
iii. Quantities data
1. Number
PH/Acid and Bases
i. 0=highest 14=lowest
ii. 0=lemon juice 14=ammonia
Dipeptide
i. 2 amino acids linked together
ii. Peptide links molecules
iii. Carboxyl

iv. Amino Acids

q. Enzymes
i. Enzymes
1. Protein that catalyzes chemical reaction for organisms
ii. Substrate
1. Reactant in a chemical reaction upon which an enzymes
act
iii. Active site
1. Place where substrate binds and catalyst occurs
r. Endothermic
i. Absorbs more energy than released
s. Exothermic
i. Releases more energy than absorbed
t. EXTRA NOTES:
i. Protein in the bodies are enzymes
ii. Hydrolysis: breaking apart
iii. Compound
1. Substances made of atoms of different elements bonded
together
iv. PH Scale
1. Acids are 0-7
2. Bases 8-14
3. 7- is water
v. Peptide
1. Dont bond
2. Chain 2 or more amino acids
vi. Substrate
1. Compound that enzymes attach on and start a reaction
3. Cells
a. Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
i. Prokaryotes
1. Unicell
2. Bacteria
3. Has- DNA, cytoplasm, cell wall, cell membrane
ii. Eukaryote
1. Animal cell
2. Larger that Prokaryote
3. Has- DNA, cell membrane, cytoplasm
b. Organelles
i. Nucleus
1. Found in plant, animal, prokaryote
2. Involved in making protein
3. Holds DNA and stores genetic info/data
ii. Cell Wall
1. Found in plants
2. Stiff covering made of cellulose

3. Structure to plant
iii. Nucleolus
1. Found in plant and animals
2. Involved in making protein
3. Dense ribosome factory. DNA code to make ribosome
iv. Centriole
1. Found in animals
2. Cytoskeleton repurposed to separate chromosomes
during cell division
v. Ribosomes
1. Found in plant and animals
2. Link amino acid to from cell
3. Free floating in cytoplasm
4. Attached to rough ER
5. Involved in making protein
vi. Golgi Apparatus
1. Found in plant and animal
2. Series of flattened membrane that out zip code of
carbohydrates on protein and repacking it for shipping to
where needed
3. Involved in making protein
vii. Endoplasmic Reticulum
1. Found in plant and animals
2. Rough and smooth ER
a. Rough
i. Make non polar protein
ii. Has ribosomes
b. Smooth
i. Use to detox cells
ii. Liver cells have a lot
iii. Use for data
iv. No ribosomes
3. Both involved in making protein
viii. Mitochondria
1. Found in plant and animals
2. Has double membrane
3. Turns food into energy
ix. Chloroplast
1. Found in plant
2. Double membrane
3. Converts sunlight into food
x. Peroxisomes
1. Found in plant and animal
2. Get rids of hydrogen peroxide
xi. Cytoskeleton
1. Found in plants and animals
2. Involved in protein making
3. Monorail for vesicle to travel
4. Support cell, gives shape and structure to cell
xii. Vesicle

1. Found in plant and animals

2. Involved in protein making
3. Tiny sphere encasing a new protein that carries it to Golgi
body
xiii. Cell Membrane
1. 2 layer phospholipid
2. Protein embedded to help transport glucose and amino
acids
c. Passive Transport (no energy)
i. Diffusion
1. Uses fluid and gas to carry molecules across membrane
2. Facilitated diffusion
a. Protein channel pierces membrane
d. Active Transport (requires energy)
i. Exocytosis
1. Release of substances out of a cell by the fusion of a
vesicle with membrane
ii. Endocytosis
1. Uptake of liquid or large molecules into a cell by inward
folding of the cell membrane
e. Hyper/Hypo/Isotonic
i. Hypertonic
1. More solvent than solute
2. Water inside cell, cell explodes
ii. Hypotonic
1. More solvent than solute
2. Water outside cell
3. Plant cell dies dehydration
iii. Isotonic
1. Solution and solvent is equal
4. Energy
a. ATP
i. Adenosine tri-phosphate-transfers energy to cell process
ii. High energy molecule that contains, within it bonds, energy that
cells can use
iii. Universal energy currency of all known living energy organisms
b. ADP
i. Adenosine diphosphate
ii. Low-energy molecule that can be converted to ATP
iii. Important part of glycolysis and photosynthesis
c. Relationship between ATP and ADP
i. ADP is a lower-energy molecule that can be converted into ATP
by adding phosphates
d. Photosynthesis
i. Equation: 6CO2+6H2O=C6H12O6+6O2
ii. Parts of Chloroplast
1. Thylakoid-Light Dependent
2. Stroma-Light Independent
iii. Light Dependent

1. Absorbs energy from sunlight and transfers energy to the

light-independent reactions
2. Happens in thylakoid
3. Water and sunlight in
4. O2, NADPH, ATP out
iv. Light Independent
1. Takes place in Stroma
2. Need carbon dioxide from atmosphere
3. Use energy to build a sugar in cycle of chemical reaction
4. CO2 in
5. Glucose out
e. Cell Respiration
i. Equation: sugar + oxygen=carbon dioxide + water
ii. Process of producing ATP by breaking down carbon-based
molecules when oxygen is present
iii. Occurs in cytoplasm
iv. Glycolysis
1. cuts six carbon sugar into 2-3 carbon pyruvate
2. Energy 2 net ATP
3. Every organism on earth does glycolysis
v. Krebs Cycle
1. Occurs in matrix inner membrane
2. In 2-3 carbon pyruvate
3. Out CO2/ATP/High Energy Carriers (NADH and FADH2)
vi. Electron Transport Chain
1. Occurs in mitochondria inner membrane
2. In O2 and high energy carrier
3. Out H2O and ATP (lots)
vii. Fermentation- allows glycolysis to continue without oxygen
(anaerobic)
1. Alcoholic fermentation
a. Type of cellular respiration that does not require
oxygen (anaerobic respiration) and involves
breaking down glucose to pyruvic acid and then
ethanol.
2. Lactic acid fermentation
a. Occurs in muscle cells
b. Product of fermentation in many types of cells
including human muscle cells