1

HYDROSTATICS
1.1 Define clearly what is meant by the following, and give the appropriate units in each case:
(a) pressure; (b) force; (c) weight; (d) gravity; (e) mass; (f) mass density (g) weight density; (h) relative
density; (i) hydrostatic pressure; (j) buoyancy force.
(a) Average pressure, PAV , is defined by equation 1.1 as: PAV = F/A where F is a force (N) and A is the area
(m2) over which the force acts. Thus pressure is the force per unit area with the units N/m2.
(b) Force is the product of a mass (M) and an acceleration (a). Equation 1.3 shows this relationship as:
F = Ma with M in kg and a in m/s2. Force is measured in Newtons, with a Newton being defined as the force
required to give a mass of 1 kg and acceleration of 1 m/s2. F = Ma is Newtons Second Law of Motion.
(c) Weight (W) is a force, namely the force on a body when acted upon by gravity. Thus weight and force have
the same units, that is the Newton (N). F = Ma can be written as W = Mg, since weight is a force and g is the
acceleration due to gravity.
(d) Gravity, g, is the force of attraction that tends to move bodies towards the centre of a celestial body, such as
the earth or the moon. Bodies subject to gravity do not fall towards the celestial centre at a constant speed, but at
a progessively increasing velocity. In other words they accelerate, so gravity is an acceleration that is measured
in m/s2. A familiar definition of acceleration is the time in seconds required for a car to go from 0 to 60 miles per
hour. This is the time required for a change in velocity to occur, so another definition of acceleration is the rate
of change of velocity. Gravity is not constant. It varies according to the size of the celestial body and the distance
from its centre. However, on earth the variations are relatively small so the value of gravity is usually assumed to
be constant at 9.81 m/s2. The moon is smaller that the earth, and its gravitational acceleration is about 1.6 m/s2.
Jupiter is larger than the earth and has an average gravitational acceleration of about 26.9 m/s2. Because Jupiter
is not a perfect sphere the value varies according to location.
(e) Mass is a universal constant. It is a physical quantity expressing the amount of matter in a body. It is
measured in kg. Unlike weight its value is not affected by gravity and does not change.
(f) Mass density, , gives the relationship between the mass (M kg) of a substance and its volume (V m3).
Equation 1.5 defines mass density as: = M /V, with the units of mass density being kg/m3. Thus is basically
the mass per unit volume. For example, water has a mass density of 1000 kg/m3, so every cubic metre of water
has a mass of 1000 kg.
(g) Weight density, w, is the relationship between the weight (W N) of a substance and its volume (V m3). Thus w
= W/V and has the units N/m3. Hence w is the weight of a cubic metre of a substance. Water has a weight density
of 9810 N/m3. This follows from W = Mg, that is if we multiply the mass density by gravity we obtain the weight
density.
(h) Relative density, s, is a ratio denoting the density of a substance, S , relative to the density of water, . Thus
equation 1.7 is: s = S / . Since this is the ratio of two similar quantities, s is dimensionless an has no units. For
example, mercury has a mass density of 13 600 kg/m3 while water has a mass density of 1000 kg/m3, so for
mercury s = 13 600/1000 or 13.6. In other words mercury is 13.6 times as dense as water. The same result is
obtained if weight densities are used instead of mass densities because both 13 600 kg/m3 and 1000 kg/m3 would
have to be multiplied by 9.81 m/s2 to obtain the weight density, so the ratio is unaltered.
(i) The pressure at a point which is at a depth, h, in the liquid is given by P = gh, where P is often referred to as
the hydrostatic pressure (in N/m2). Hydrostatic pressure results from the weight of the liquid acting downwards,
so the greater the depth, the greater the weight (N) of liquid acting on any surface and the greater the pressure P.
(j) Hydrostatic pressure acts equally in all directions, even upwards, and it acts normally (at 90 degrees) to any
surface immersed in it. Therefore, on something like a flat bottomed pontoon the hydrostatic pressure (P) acts
vertically upwards over its plan area (A) resulting in a vertical force (F = PA) being exerted on the pontoon. This
is the buoyancy force, which can be defined simply as the upward vertical force exerted on an immersed object
as a result of hydrostatic pressure acting over the submerged surfaces of the body. Figs 1.28 and 1.33 provide
good illustrations of a buoyancy force. Archimedes showed that the buoyancy force exerted on a body is equal to
the weight of the liquid it displaces, that is F = gV, where V is the volume of water displaced by the body. The
units are the same as for any other force, N/m2.
1.2 (a) Explain what is meant by gauge pressure and absolute pressure. (b) What is the approximate
numerical value of atmospheric pressure expressed in N/m2 and as a head of water? (c) Calculate
atmospheric pressure expressed as a head of mercury (the relative density of mercury is 13.6).

3rd ed, Understanding Hydraulics

Les Hamill 2001, 2011

(a) The gauge pressure, P N/m2, at a depth, h m, below the surface of a body of water is P = gh N/m2. This is
the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid measured relative to atmospheric pressure, that is taking atmospheric
pressure as a datum so that PATM = 0 (see Fig 1.8).
In reality the atmosphere does exert a considerable pressure on the water surface (and is not zero as assumed
when calculating the gauge pressure), so if we want to calculate the total or absolute pressure, PABS , at the depth,
h, in the liquid we must add the gauge pressure to the atmospheric pressure thus:
PABS = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
(1.9)
= gh + PATM
When written like this PABS is the pressure (in N/m2) at the depth, h, measured relative to a datum
corresponding to a vacuum, which is the lowest datum possible. When working with absolute pressure, PATM has
the value given in part (b) below.
Note from Fig 1.8 that it is possible to have a negative gauge pressure. For example, if a pipeline transporting
water goes over the crest of a hill that is higher than the ends of the pipeline, then the pressure of the water may
fall below atmospheric pressure so that gh has a negative value (see Example 4.7 and Figs 6.1 and 6.2). On the
other hand, absolute pressure must always be positive because it is impossible to have a pressure lower than a
vacuum.
(b) Atmospheric pressure varies over the surface of the earth. It is higher at sea level than at the top of Everest.
At any point it also fluctuates according to weather conditions, as shown by the rise and fall of a barometer.
However, as a guide atmospheric pressure is roughly about 101 000 N/m2, that is 101 103 N/m2. Since P = gh
then h = P/g which gives PATM as the equivalent of 101 103/(1000 9.81) or 10.3 m of water. Thus
atmospheric pressure is roughly the same as the pressure that exists at the bottom of a 10.3 m high column of
water.
(c) The mass density of mercury is 13 600 kg/m3, so the height of a column of mercury needed to equal
atmospheric pressure is 101 103/(13 600 9.81) = 0.76 m. The same result is obtained by dividing the head of
water equivalent to atmospheric pressure by the relative density of mercury, thus 10.3/13.6 = 0.76 m.
1.3 A rectangular tank is 1.0 m long and 0.7 m wide and contains fresh water to a depth of 0.5 m.
(a) What is the gauge pressure at the bottom of the tank in N/m2 ? (b) What is the absolute pressure at the
bottom of the tank?
(a) At the bottom of the tank the gauge pressure is: P = gh = 1000 9.81 0.5
P = 4905 N/m2
(b) With atmospheric pressure, PATM , equal to 101 000 N/m2, the absolute pressure is:
PABS = gh + PATM
= 4905 + 101 000 = 105 905 N/m2
1.4 For the tank in question 1.3, using gauge pressure, calculate (a) the mean pressure intensity on the
0.7 m wide end of the tank; (b) the mean pressure intensity on the 1.0 m long side of the tank; (c) the force
on the end of the tank, and (d) the force on the side.
(a) Gauge pressure at the liquid surface = 0
Gauge pressure at the bottom of the tank = 4905 N/m2
Therefore the mean or average pressure intensity PAV = (0 + 4905)/2 = 2452.5 N/m2
(b) The average pressure intensity on the side of the tank is the same as on the end, since it depends upon the
depth of liquid not the area of the surface. Thus PAV = 2452.5 N/m2.
(c) From equation 1.2 and Chapter 1.3 we know that F = PAV A where F is the force due to hydrostatic pressure
and PAV is the average pressure intensity acting over an area A. In this case:
F = PAV A = 2452.5 (0.7 0.5) = 858 N
(d) Similarly, F = PAV A = 2452.5 (1.0 0.5) = 1226 N
Note that using F = ghGA gives the same answer. For example, for part (d):
F = 1000 9.81 (0.5/2) (1.0 0.5) = 1226 N. Both approaches are correct.
1.5 A dam that retains fresh water has a vertical face. Over a one metre length of the face at the centre of
the valley the water has a depth of 38 m. (a) Calculate the resultant force on this unit length of the face.
(b) At what depth from the surface does the resultant force act?
(a) As the questions get more complex it is best to start with F = ghGA. With a one metre length of the dam
A = (1.0 38) m2 since the depth h = 38 m. Thus hG = 38/2 = 19 m.
F = 1000 9.81 19 (1.0 38) = 7083 103 N

3rd ed, Understanding Hydraulics

Les Hamill 2001, 2011

(b) The resultant force acts at of the water depth when measured from the surface, that is:
= 38 = 25.33 m.
1.6 (a) A rectangular culvert 2.1 m wide by 1.8 m high discharges to a river channel as in Fig 1.10. At the
end of the culvert is a vertical flap gate which is hinged along its top edge, the gate having the same
dimensions as the culvert. During a flood the river rises to 3.5 m above the hinge. What is the force
exerted by the floodwater on the gate, and at what depth from the surface does it act? (b) A circular gate,
also hinged at the top, hangs vertically at the end of a pipe discharging to the river. The gate has a radius
of 0.5 m, and during a flood the hinge is 3.5 m below the water surface. What is the force exerted by the
floodwater on the gate, and at what depth from the surface does it act?
(a) Again starting with F = ghGA, this time hG = 3.5 + (1.8/2) = 4.4 m and A = (1.8 2.1) m2.
F = 1000 9.81 4.4 (1.8 2.1) = 163.16 103 N
Equation 1.12 gives the depth from the water surface, hP, to the resultant force as:
hP = hG + (IG/AhG) where for a rectangle (Table 1.1) IG = LD3/12.
In this case IG = (2.1 1.83)/12 = 1.0206 m4 and A = (1.8 2.1) = 3.78 m2 so:
hP = 4.4 + (1.0206/[3.78 4.4])
= 4.461 m
hP is often referred to as the vertical depth to the centre of pressure, P, that is the point at which the resultant
force, F, acts.
(b) F = ghGA with hG = 3.5 + 0.5 = 4.0 m.
F = 1000 9.81 4.0 ( 0.52)
= 30.82 103 N
Again hP = hG + (IG/AhG) where for a circle IG = R4/4 = ( 0.54/4) = 0.0491 m4.
hP = 4.0 + (0.0491/[ 0.52 4.0])
= 4.016 m
1.7 A gate at the end of a sewer measures 0.8 m by 1.2 m wide. It is hinged along its top edge and hangs at
an angle of 30 degrees to the vertical, this being the angle of the banks of a trapezoidal river channel.
(a) Calculate the hydrostatic force on the gate and the vertical distance between the centroid of the gate,
G, and the centre of pressure, P, when the river level is 0.1 m above the top of the hinge. (b) If the river
level increases to 2.0 m above the hinge, what is the force and the distance GP now? (c) Has the value of
GP increased or decreased, and why has it changed in this manner?
(a) The inclined dimension of the gate is 0.8 m as shown in Fig Q1.7.
Its vertical height is 0.8 cos 30 = 0.693 m.
The vertical depth from the water surface to the centroid, G, of the gate, hG = 0.1 + (0.693/2) = 0.447 m.
The area, A, of the gate is 0.8 1.2 = 0.96 m2. F =ghGA = 1000 9.81 0.447 0.96 = 4.21 103 N

Fig Q1.7

Because the gate is inclined to the vertical equation 1.13 must be used to find the location of P, thus:
LP = LG + (IG/ALG).

3rd ed, Understanding Hydraulics

Les Hamill 2001, 2011

The water surface is 0.1 m vertically above the top of the gate which is equivalent to an inclined distance of
0.1/cos 30 = 0.115 m. Therefore LG = 0.115 + (0.8/2) = 0.515 m.
IG = LD3/12 = (1.2 0.83 ) /12 = 0.0512 m4.
As before A = 0.96 m2.
LP = LG + (IG /ALG) so the inclined distance between G and P is:
LP LG = (IG/ALG)
= (0.0512 /[0.96 0.515])
= 0.104 m
The equivalent vertical distance between G and P is hP hG = 0.104 cos 30 = 0.090 m.
Note that using equation 1.12 instead of 1.13 results in an incorrect answer, namely 0.119 m (see Box 1.6).
(b) Again F = ghGA with hG = 2.0 + (0.693/2) = 2.347 m and A = 0.8 1.2 = 0.96 m2.
F = 1000 9.81 2.347 0.96 = 22.10 103 N
As above, LP LG = (IG/ALG) with LG = hG /cos 30 = 2.347 /cos 30 = 2.710 m. Thus:
LP LG = (0.0512 /[0.96 2.710]) = 0.020 m.
The equivalent vertical distance between G and P is hP hG = 0.020 cos 30 = 0.017 m.
(c) The distance between G and P has decreased as the water depth increased. This is as predicted by Box 1.5.
The distance between G and P is, in a sense, a measure of the amount by which the pressure varies over an
immersed surface. It is easy to show that the variation in pressure on a flat, vertical immersed surface that
extends from the water surface to a depth, h, in a liquid is 0 to gh. This is a relatively large variation resulting
in a relatively large distance between G and P, namely (h/2 h/3) or h/6. This is as large as GP can get. Now if
the same vertical surface of height, h, was immersed with its top edge a distance, H, below the surface of the
liquid the variation in pressure would be from gH to g(H + h). Relatively speaking this is a smaller variation
than 0 to gh, hence P is closer to G. As H increases P moves closer to G.
The relative variation of pressure on a 1 m high vertical surface that starts with its top edge at the water
surface and then moves down in 1 m increments is shown in Table Q1.7. The increase in pressure over the
1 m increment is always 9810 N/m2, and dividing this by the average pressure on the immersed surface gives the
pressure variation in the last column. This decreases with depth, so P moves close to G.
Table Q1.7 Relative variation of pressure with depth.
Depth, h
0m
1
2
3
4
5

P = gh
0 N/m2
9 810
19 620
29 430
39 240
49 050

Average pressure
-------4 905 N/m2
14 715
24 525
34 335
44 145

Pressure variation
----2.00
0.67
0.40
0.29
0.22

1.8 A circular gate of 0.5 m radius is hinged so that it rotates about its horizontal diameter, that is it
rotates about a horizontal line passing through the centroid of the gate. The gate is at the end of a pipe
discharging to a river. Measured above the centroid of the gate, the head in the pipe is 6.0 m while the
head in the river is 2.0 m. Assuming that the gate is initially vertical: (a) calculate the force exerted by the
water in the pipe on the gate, and the distance GP between the centre of the gate, G, and the centre of
pressure, P; (b) calculate the force exerted by the river water on the gate, and the distance GP;
(c) by taking moments about the hinge, using the results from above determine the net turning moment on
the gate caused by the two forces acting at their respective centres of pressure on opposite sides of the
gate. Explain your answer.
(a) F = ghGA with hG = 6.0 m.
F = 1000 9.81 6.0 ( 0.52) = 46 228.5 N
hP = hG + (IG/AhG) where for a circle (Table 1.1) IG = R4/4.
hP hG = ( 0.54) /[4 0.52 6.0] = 0.0104 m
(b) F = ghGA with hG = 2.0 m.
F = 1000 9.81 2.0 ( 0.52) = 15 409.5 N
hP hG = ( 0.54) /[4 0.52 2.0] = 0.0312 m
(c) Taking moments about the hinge through the centroid of the gate:
net turning moment = 46 228.5 0.0104 15 409.5 0.0312
= 480.776 480.776
= 0 Nm

3rd ed, Understanding Hydraulics

Les Hamill 2001, 2011

The net turning moment is zero because the first force is exactly three times the other while the lever arm (that is
the distance GP) of the first force is exactly one-third of the other, allowing for rounding errors. Regardless of
the depths on the two sides of the gate the net turning moment is always zero. This is a useful result because, for
example, it means that a valve designed on this principle will be able to operate smoothy and will remain in a set
position. If there is no turning moment on the valve, the flow in the pipeline will not open or close the valve.
1.9 A gate which is a quarter of a circle of radius 4.0 m holds back 2.0 m of fresh water as shown in the
diagram. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant hydrostatic force on a unit length of the
gate.
cos = 2.0/4.0 = 0.5 so = 60
Area sector ABC = (60/360) 4.02
= 8.378 m2
Length AD = 4.0 sin 60 = 3.464 m
Area ACD = 3.464 2.0 = 3.464 m2
Area ABD = area ABC area ACD
= 8.378 3.464 = 4.914 m2
Volume of displaced water, V = 4.914 1.0
V = 4.914 m3 per m length
Vertical force on gate, FV = gV = 1000 9.81 4.914 = 48.206 103 N/m

Fig Q1.9

Horizontal force on gate, FH = ghGA = 1000 9.81 1.0 (2.0 1.0) = 19.620 103 N/m
Resultant force on gate, FR = 103 (19.6202 + 48.2062)1/2 = 52.05 103 N/m
Angle of resultant, = tan1 (48 206 /19 620) = 67.9 to horizontal passing upward through C.
1.10 The dam in the diagram has a curved face, being part of a 40 m radius circle. The dam holds back
water to a depth of 35 m. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant hydrostatic force per
metre length.
sin = 35/40 so = 61.045
Area sector CBE = (61.045/360) 402
= 852.349 m2
Length CD = 40 cos = 19.365 m
Area CDB = 19.365 35 = 338.888 m2
Area BDE = area CBE area CDB
= 852.349 338.888
= 513.461 m2
Volume of displaced water, V = 513.461 1.0
V = 513.461 m3 per m length
Vertical force on gate, FV = gV = 1000 9.81 513.461 = 5037.05 103 N/m

3rd ed, Understanding Hydraulics

Les Hamill 2001, 2011

Fig Q1.10

Horizontal force on gate, FH = ghGA = 1000 9.81 (35/2) (35 1.0) = 6008.63 103 N/m
Resultant force on gate, FR = 103 (6008.632 + 5037.052)1/2 = 7840.6 103 N/m
Angle of resultant, = tan1 (5037.05 /6008.63) = 40 to horizontal passing through C.
1.11 A 7500 tonne reinforced concrete lock structure has been constructed in a dry dock. The lock is 60 m
long by 30 m wide in plan and is shaped like an open shoe box. The side walls are 8 m high. (a) Will the
lock structure float in sea water of density 1025 kg/m3, and if so, what is its draught and freeboard? (b)
What additional weight will be required to sink the structure onto the sea bed if the depth of water is
5.3 m, assuming the structure is watertight? (c) If the additional weight is to be provided by a blanket of
sand (density 2600 kg/m3), how thick must the layer of sand be? (1 tonne = 1000kg)
(a) A floating body displaces its own mass, M, of water, so if the lock floats it will displace
7500 103 kg of sea water. Since volume, V = M /SW the volume displaced is:
V = 7500 103/1025 = 7317 m3
The depth of immersion = V / plan area of the lock
= 7317 /(60 30) = 4.07 m
This is the draft of the lock. The side wall are 8 m high, so the lock will float.
The freeboard is (8 4.07) = 3.93 m.
(b) If the depth of immersion of the lock structure is 5.3 m then the volume of water displaced
= 5.3 60 30 = 9540 m3.
The buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the water displaced, which is now
= 1025 9.81 9540 = 95 927 103 N.
The weight of the lock is 7500 103 9.81 = 73 575 103 N.
The difference between the buoyancy force and lock weight = (95 927 73 575) 103
= 22 352 103 N
3
Therefore a weight in excess of 22 352 10 N is required to sink the lock onto the sea bed.
(c) The volume of sand required = W /S g = 22 352 103/(2600 9.81) = 876 m3.
Assuming that the internal dimensions are the same as the external (that is ignoring the thickness of the walls)
then the minimum depth of sand required = 876 /(60 30) = 0.49 m.
Thus the blanket thickness should be greater than 0.5 m.
1.12 (a) Explain what is meant by a stratified fluid. (b) A pressure transducer is used to measure the
hydrostatic pressure on the sea bed in a tidal estuary. The water in the estuary is stratified at the point
where the measurement is taken, with fresh water (1000 kg/m3 ) overlying saline water (1025 kg/m3 ).
Water sampling shows that the fresh water extends from the water surface to a depth of 2.7 m. If the
transducer indicates a gauge pressure of 69.73 103 N/m2, how thick is the layer of saline water?
(a) A stratified fluid is one that consists of layers of fluid of different densities lying on top of each other. This
can only occur if the fluids do not mix with each other, that is they are immiscible. Obviously, the densest fluid
would be at the bottom, with the lighter fluids above.
(b) The transducer indicates a pressure = 69.73 x 103 N. Therefore the sum of the pressures resulting from the
layers of fresh water and saline water must equal this. If hS is the unknown thickness of the saline layer, then:
1000 9.81 2.7 + 1025 9.81 hS = 69.73 103
26 487 + 10 055.25 hS = 69 730
hS = 4.30 m

3rd ed, Understanding Hydraulics

Les Hamill 2001, 2011