Chemical Engineering Science 63 (2008) 3223 -- 3234

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Chemical Engineering Science

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Bubbling process in stirred tank reactors II: Agitator effect on the mass transfer rates
Mariano Martn , Francisco J. Montes, Miguel A. Galn
Departamento de Ingeniera Qumica y Textil, Universidad de Salamanca, Pza. de los Cados 1-5, 37008 Salamanca, Spain

A R T I C L E

I N F O

Article history:
Received 19 July 2006
Received in revised form 18 March 2008
Accepted 21 March 2008
Available online 29 March 2008
Keywords:
Mass transfer
Hydrodynamics
Bubbles
Stirred tanks
Geometry

A B S T R A C T

Several impellers, perforated plates and geometrical configurations were tested in order to evaluate the
effect of the particular hydrodynamics generated by each impeller on the mass transfer rates and to
optimize the performance of the tank. Theoretical and empirical equations have been used or proposed,
based on the experimental data, to study the oxygen transfer rates from air bubbles generated in a
non-standard stirred tank. The empirical equations obtained depend on the impeller type, its position
and the design of the perforated plate because of their effect on the bubbles. The optimal position of the
impeller depends on the physical effect of the impeller on the bubbles. Higher mass transfer coefficients
were obtained close to the perforated plates. Not only the dispersion but also the break up of the bubbles
favors the mass transfer rates. In short, although the Rushton turbine is efficient and stable with its
relative position, other impellers show very interesting results for lower power inputs.
2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Mass transfer is a key parameter in the performance of multiphase contactors. For example, in many microbian processes, the
oxygen transfer limits the global rate process because the oxygen
concentration in the liquid phase is quickly depleted. Meanwhile,
the consumption of other nutrients is relatively slow (Arjunwadkar
et al., 1998a; Montes et al., 1999). That is the reason why the volumetric mass transfer coefficient, kL a, has been the selected parameter in the design of gas--liquid contactors (Bouaifi et al., 2001).
Mass transfer rates depend on many factors. The effects on kL a
of aeration, gas flow rate, temperature, tank geometry, physical
properties of the liquid and its rheology, the presence of antifoam
agents, the impeller type and the combination among different
standard impellers have been studied broadly (Calderbank, 1958;
Kawase and Moo-Young, 1988; Montes et al., 1999; Galindo et al.,
2000; Bouaifi et al., 2001; zbek and Gayik, 2001; Alves et al., 2002;
Parente et al., 2004).
Another important variable in process design is the way a gas
phase is introduced into a liquid phase, whether by its surface or
directly into the bulk. The difference between both determines the
equipment: lagoons or process tanks. The latter has two possibilities
that are commonly used simultaneously: the use of impellers and/or
perforated plates, which only generate what are known as primary
bubbles.

Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 923294479; fax: +34 923294574.

E-mail address: mariano.m3@usal.es (M. Martn).

0009-2509/$ - see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ces.2008.03.035

The impeller location and its geometry determine the fraction

of surface aeration in the total aeration of the bulk mass, since the
impeller can introduce gas due to vortexes, modifying the efficiency
of the mass transfer process.
The most studied impellers have been the Rushton turbines, different pitched blade turbines as well as combinations of two or
three of them, in an attempt to optimize the power consumption
(Arjunwadkar et al., 1998a, b; Montes et al., 1999; Gogate et al.,
2000). However, the effect of the surface aeration due to the agitation has only been studied for the Rushton turbine (Wu, 1995).
On the other hand, dispersion devices allow higher kL a by modifying the gas flow rate and the power input with low backmixing.
However, compressors are expensive and the gas phase reduces the
effective power of the impeller (Wu, 1995).
In an attempt to rationalize the huge amount of data, several authors have proposed analytical expressions to predict mass transfer rates in stirred tank reactors (Kawase and Moo-Young, 1988;
Barabash and Belevitskaya, 1995; Garca-Ochoa and Gmez, 2004).
Due to the great number of variables affecting kL a, a general correlation for all systems is difficult to obtain (Sideman et al., 1966),
making easier the use of empirical equations for particular systems
(Montes et al., 1999; Bouaifi et al., 2001).
In this work, several variables are going to be studied, both experimentally and theoretically, in order to obtain a wide range of
experimental results of kL a, to be able to provide generality and determine the advantages and disadvantages of each configuration. All
these factors will be explained based on the hydrodynamics of the
tank previously studied (see Martn et al., 2008, part I).

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M. Martn et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 63 (2008) 3223 -- 3234

The experimental part consists of the study of the effect of different impellers on kL a. Several impellers were used (two different
pitched blade turbines, Rushton turbine, a modified blade and a propeller), placed at different heights (h = 2, 3.5, 5 cm) above the perforated plate. This will lead to the optimization of the location of
each impeller and the most efficient impeller. Since mass transfer
depends on the bubble size, two perforated plates were also used
(D0 = 2 mm with one and two orifices separated by 6 mm). The effect of bubble size on kL a will be established and a perforated plate
will be defined as convenient.
In stirred tanks, there is always a gas region over the liquid phase,
whose contribution to the mass transfer has been barely studied.
The effect of the contribution of surface aeration on mass transfer
rates, due to the renewal of the superficial layer of fluid as a result of
mixing, has also been studied. Three more impellers, pitched bladed
turbines with two, three and four blades, were also used in this
section.
We will compare the experimental results with empirical equations from the literature and with some theoretical results for the
prediction of kL a.

There are models for each of the three regions. Only the predicting
equations are written. Their development can be found in Barabash
and Belevitskaya (1995).
Zone 3:  > 1 W/kg
The model of the steady-state boundary layer and the relationship
for turbulence damping leads to
s =

0.54 ( )0.25
Sc 0.5

Zone 2:  > 0.1 W/kg

This region is characterized by low agitation and gas hold-up,
lower than 1%. The mechanism for the mass transfer is similar to
the one in the absence of mixing. There is a difference between the
mass transfer in the rear part of the bubble, rp , and the front part
of it, fp . For bubbles of 5 mm, the rear part of the bubble is about
25%, rp = 0.25, so that the liquid film resistance can be calculated
weighing up the superficial areas.
t = rp rp + fp (1 rp )

2. Theoretical considerations
2.1. Mass transfer
The rate of mass transfer is controlled by the liquid phase resistance and the contact area. In a stirred tank, the flow developed by
the impeller and its effect on the bubbles is what determines both
(Sideman et al., 1966).
The hydrodynamics inside a stirred tank depends on its geometry and on the impeller. Then, to reduce the number of variables,
the geometry of the stirred tanks has been standardized. Vogel and
Todaro (1996) reported that the best height/diameter ratios are from
2 to 3 so that it is possible not only to obtain a high residence time
for the bubbles but also to improve the dissolution of oxygen in the
liquid by increasing the pressure on the dispersion device. Furthermore, for the above-mentioned height/diameter ratios, the air fed
decreases for the same uG . Additionally, there are also standard impellers such as Rushton turbine, "A'' series turbines and others.
However, the various impellers used and the geometric differences among equipment (baffles, configuration of impellers, . . .) have
made easier the use of empirical correlations for each particular system instead of theories to explain and predict kL a, since the effect of
the impeller on the bubbles is not considered in any of the available
theories.
The first theory to be reviewed is according to Barabash and
Belevitskaya (1995). The second is according to Kawase and
Moo-Young (1988) and it is based on Higbie's Theory.
2.1.1. Barabash's theory (Barabash and Belevitskaya, 1995)
The effect of turbulence on the mass transfer rate can be studied
from two points of view. The first approach is based on the diffusion
equation at steady state in the interphase, considering the effect of
the turbulence in the proximities of the bubble surface. The second
uses the non-constant diffusion model near the interphase.
Experimentally, it has been verified that the relaxation time of
the surface layer is lower than that necessary for surface removal
given by the variable diffusion model. So, the mass transfer rate can
be approximated by a stationary model at the interphase.
The effect of mixing on the mass transfer rate can be divided into
three different regions. For power inputs lower than 0.1 W/kg, the
mass transfer rate is defined by that given by bubbles rising through
a non-stirred fluid. From 0.1 to 1 W/kg, mass transfer increases with
the dissipated energy. For higher dissipated energy, the mass transfer
coefficient remains stable with it.

(1)

(2)

For the frontal region of the bubble:

fp =

0.65 D
Re Sc
db

(3)

For the rear region of the bubble, rp = s .

This region has also been studied using the similarity between
mass and heat transfer, in the absence of viscous warming, using
Higbie's theory (Kendoush, 1994)
0.5

2
3 E2 + 4
0.5
Nu = Sh = Pe

E2 + 4

(4)

Zone 1: 0.1 <  < 1 W/kg

This region is characterized by the change in the average energy
dissipation rate in the apparatus. This is a complex zone, since there
is general turbulence surrounding the bubble as well as pulsations
which cross the boundary layer.
The rear part of the bubble occupies 25% of the bubble surface.
Turbulent pulsations whose velocities depend on the energy dissipation rate in the wake zone determine the coefficient of mass transfer.
For a certain fraction of the frontal surface, fp , the averaged
velocities of the flow around the bubbles are the ones responsible
for the mass transfer rate.
For the remaining part of the frontal surface, the pulsation motion, whose intensity depends on the average value of the energy
dissipation rate, determines the mass transfer coefficient.
t = 0.25 rp + fp fp + (1 0.25 fp )0

(5)

0 is given by Eq. (1) and fp is empirically determined.

2.1.2. Kawase's theory (Kawase and Moo-Young, 1988)
Kawase and Moo-Young (1988) derived an expression to determine the liquid film resistance, kL , based on Higbie's (1935) theory,
using Kolmogorov's isotropic turbulence theory to define the exposition or contact time. The parameter used is the dissipated energy.
Contact time can be calculated as the ratio between the two characteristic parameters of turbulent eddies, their length, , and their
fluctuation velocity, u. Both depend on the dissipated energy per unit
mass, , and the kinematic viscosity, 

=

3


1/4
(6)

M. Martn et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 63 (2008) 3223 -- 3234

u = ()1/4

(7)

The exposition time corresponds to the time a bubble needs to

travel a length equal to its diameter. For a Newtonian fluid, the liquid
film coefficient can be calculated using the following equation:
 1/4
2

kL =
D



(8)

2.1.3. Specific area

Both theories are focused on the calculus of the resistances for
the mass transfer. However, the design parameter for stirred tank
reactors is kL a, which is related to the former through the specific
surface area given by Eq. (9)
a=

6G
db

(9)

The gas hold-up can be determined empirically by Gogate's correlation (Gogate et al., 2000)

G = 0.21

0.27
Pg
(1 G )
u0.65
G
V

(10)

or theoretically by Garca-Ochoa (Garca-Ochoa and Gmez, 2004)

2/3

uG
G
= 0.5
1 G
(g long )1/3


 G

long was defined as

 3/5  2/5   0.1

L

long = 2

G
w6/5

(11)

(12)

The resilience coefficient, , is 0.4 for a wide range of Reynolds

numbers (1000 < Re < 200 000).
w = TN

(13)

L = 16 H

(14)

H is the blade height.

The specific area can also be calculated using the equation proposed by Calderbank (1958)



(Pg /V )0.4 0.2
uG 0.5
a = 1.44
(15)
U

0.6
2.1.4. Empirical kL a equations
Typical empirical equations for predicting kL a have the form
 
Pg

kL a = k
uG
(16)
V
k,  and  depend on the experimental conditions and equipment
(Figueiredo and Calderbank, 1979; Van't Riet, 1979; Arjunwadkar
et al., 1998a, b; Nocentini et al., 1993; Moucha et al., 1995; Linek
et al., 1987).
3. Materials and methods
The experimental setup can be seen in Fig. 1. Deionized water
(20 C,  = 998 kg/m3 ,
= 0.073 N/m, L = 1.037 103 Pa s) was
deoxygenated by means of a nitrogen flow rate. Under these initial
conditions, air bubbles were generated at two different dispersion
devices. The first dispersion device has one hole of 2 mm diameter,
the other instead of one has two orifices, each of 2 mm diameter,
with a separation between both of 6 mm in order to avoid coalescence. A more detailed description of the gas chambers on which the

3225

perforated plates are fixed can be found in the first part of the work
(Martn et al., 2008).
Three different air flow rates were used for each dispersion device, 0.6 106 , 1.4 106 and 2.8 106 m3 /s for the one-holed
dispersion device and 0.3 106 , 0.6 106 and 1.4 106 m3 /s
due to setup limitations for the one with two holes. Higher gas flow
rates overwhelmed the seal of the gas chambers. Along with them,
three vertical positions for the impellers (0.02, 0.035 and 0.05 m)
and three rotational speeds, 180, 280 and 430 rpm, for each of the
first five different impellers in Fig. 2, were used to study the effect of
the type of impeller and the dispersion device on the mass transfer
rates in stirred tanks.
Furthermore, the two-bladed, three-bladed at 120 and fourbladed impellers, Fig. 2, were used to study the effect of the number
of blades on the contribution of the surface aeration and the effect of
the geometry on the empirical coefficient k. Their diameter is 6 cm
and the height of the blades is 0.7 cm. The one-hole dispersion device
and h = 0.02 m were used, along with gas flow rates of 0.6 106 ,
1.4 106 and 2.8 106 m3 /s, and the same rotational speeds as
mentioned above. The power input for these three impellers was
determined by simulation in the same way as exposed in the first
part of the work (Martn et al., 2008). The values obtained were, for
the two-, three- and four-bladed turbine impellers, 0.025, 0.039 and
0.046, respectively. The profile of the power number with the number of blades is potential with an exponent of 0.87, lower than 1,
due to the wake effect reducing the drag.
The liquid working volume consists of the volume of the whole
tank up to 8 cm above the perforated plate. The effect of the gas
phase on the liquid surface represents the effect of the volume of
gas inside a closed stirred tank.
The experimental value for kL a was measured by means of an
oxygen electrode, OXI 92, Crison. A typical two-resistance model
was used to determine kL a from the experimental measures (Martn
et al., 2007).
4. Results
Table 1 gathers the values of kL a in the absence of agitation, just
to compare the effect of the impeller on the mass transfer rate. The
experimental values of kL a were fitted to an empirical equation of the
form given by Eq. (16). Based on the values obtained of k,  and , and
the hydrodynamics observed (see Martn et al., 2008, part I), we try to
analyze the effect of the impeller and its relative location on the mass
transfer rates. Furthermore, direct comparison of the experimental
results will also provide useful information about the effect of the
same variables on the mass transfer rate. In order to simplify the plot
legends, the correspondence will be shown here. So N1 = 180 rpm,
N2 = 280 rpm, N3 = 430 rpm, h1 = 2 cm, h2 = 3.5 cm and h3 = 5 cm
meanwhile Qc1 = 0.6 cm3 /s, Qc2 = 1.4 cm3 /s, Qc3 = 2.8 cm3 /s for the
one-orifice perforated plate and Qc1 = 0.3 cm3 /s, Qc2 = 0.6 cm3 /s,
Qc3 = 1.4 cm3 /s for the two-orifice perforated plate.
Additionally, the contribution of the superficial aeration to kL a
was measured without gas injection for all the impellers and their
relative locations. The mass transfer due to this mechanism is considered a part of the measured kL a. This contribution reaches from
10%, for high gas flow rate, to 30% of the total value in case of a high
location of the impeller, low gas flow rate and low impeller speed in
general. The only exception was the propeller, as it will be explained
later.
4.1. Pitched blade turbine
4.1.1. One-orifice dispersion device
From the values of , see Table 2, it can be concluded that
the location of the impeller above the dispersion device shows an

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M. Martn et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 63 (2008) 3223 -- 3234

Fig. 1. 1, High-speed video camera; 2, optic table; 3, bubble column; 4, illumination source; 5, air compressed; 6, rotameters; 7, computer; 8, nitrogen compressed; 9,
impeller; 10, oxygen electrode.

Fig. 2. Impellers.

important effect on the efficiency of the power input on kL a. The

direct effect of the impeller on the bubbles is delayed or avoided as
the impeller is located higher and so the efficiency of the power input on kL a decreases with the vertical position of the impeller and,
as a result, so does  (Martn et al., 2008). However, the contribution
of the gas flow rate to the mass transfer, given in , is similar to that

found in the literature for the air--water system (Van't Riet, 1979)
because once the bubbles break, the impeller allows their scattering
across the tank.
A higher position of the impeller results in a loss of mass transfer
efficiency for high rotational velocities, where the main contribution
to kL a is that due to the break up of the bubbles. However, for low

M. Martn et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 63 (2008) 3223 -- 3234

Table 1
Mass transfer in the absence of agitation

3227

Table 3
Coefficients for the pitched blade turbine, two orifices, Eq. (16)
kL a (s1 )

Qc (m3 /s)

1 orifice

0.6 10
1.4 106
2.8 106

0.622 10
0.825 105
1.067 105

2 orifices

0.3 106
0.6 106
1.4 106

0.485 105
0.594 105
0.982 105

h = 2 cm
h = 3.5 cm
h = 5 cm

4.35 10
17.5 105
5.84 105

0.36
0.31
0.40

0.12
0.26
0.17

Table 2
Coefficients for the pitched blade turbine, one orifice, Eq. (16)

h = 2 cm
h = 3.5 cm
h = 5 cm

0.0032
0.0020
0.0021

0.47
0.39
0.29

0.54
0.50
0.53

Fig. 4. Effect of the position of the impeller in the volumetric mass transfer coefficient.
Pitched blade turbine, two-orifice dispersion device.

Table 4
Coefficients for the modified blade, one orifice, Eq. (16)
k
h = 2 cm
h = 3.5 cm
h = 5 cm

Fig. 3. Effect of the position of the impeller in the volumetric mass transfer coefficient.
Pitched blade turbine, one-orifice dispersion device.

rotational speeds the main contribution to kL a is based on bubble

deformations in the fluid flow so that the position of the impeller
shows small effect on kL a. Furthermore, the combined effect of superficial turbulence and the flow patterns developed in the liquid
reveals an important contribution of the superficial aeration to kL a
for locations of the impeller above 1/2 of the liquid depth. Another
experimental result to point out is that bubble oscillations cannot
cope with the lack of superficial area available if they are not broken
(Martn et al., 2007). Fig. 3 shows the experimental results.
In short, the most important contribution to the kL a for this configuration of impeller and dispersion device is the break up of the
bubbles, so that the best location of the impeller corresponds to
the lowest position, h = 2 cm, where the effect of the impeller on
the bubbles is high (Martn et al., 2008).
4.1.2. Two-orifice dispersion device
In the case of smaller bubbles generated at the two-holed perforated plate, the efficiency of the impeller input power is lower
than in the case of one orifice. The smaller generated bubbles are,
consequently, less deformable and thus more difficult to be broken.
Furthermore, the contribution of the gas flow rate decreases highly

5.7 10
4.3 104
14 104

0.32
0.29
0.23

0.35
0.32
0.46

with respect to the one-holed perforated plate, Table 3. Bubbles are

dragged by the gas flow rate and are able to avoid the impeller blades,
but they do not remain in the tank because they can rise without being affected by the impeller. The dispersions obtained were poorer in
terms of area generated and distribution of bubbles across the tank.
As a result,  and  are smaller than in the case of using a one-holed
perforated plate.
Since the direct effect of the impeller on the bubbles is low, the
increasing contribution of the surface aeration as the impeller is
placed higher over the perforated plate can balance the lack of effectiveness of the impeller and so, kL a is almost constant with the
position of the impeller for N = 430 rpm, but decrease for the other
rotational velocities because the bubbles can completely avoid the
effect of the impeller, Fig. 4.
4.2. Modified blade
4.2.1. One-orifice dispersion device
The characteristic geometry of this impeller, Fig. 2, results in values of  which decrease with the distance of the impeller to the
dispersion device (Table 4). Bubbles can avoid the blades if the rotational speed is low and this fact is easier as the impeller is located
higher along the vertical axis (Martn et al., 2008). Furthermore, for
higher positions of the impeller, the direct effect of the impeller on

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M. Martn et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 63 (2008) 3223 -- 3234

Table 5
Coefficients for the modified blade, two orifices, Eq. (16)
k
h = 2 cm
h = 3.5 cm
h = 5 cm

8.1 10
9.5 105
13.7 105

0.25
0.26
0.29

0.16
0.17
0.21

Fig. 5. Effect of the position of the impeller in the volumetric mass transfer coefficient.
Modified blade, one-orifice dispersion device.

the bubbles is delayed, and the enhancement of mass transfer due

to bubble oscillations of the big rising bubbles cannot balance the
lack of superficial contact area. On the other hand, for low rotational
velocities, as bubble break-up is difficult, the differences in the mass
transfer rate with the location of the impeller are small. The mass
transfer rate depends on the deformation of the bubbles during their
motion across the tank and it is related to the fluid flow in the tank.
The values of  are smaller than those of the previous impeller,
see Tables 2 and 4. Bubbles are not well dispersed across the tank
because most of them remain near the revolution cylinder generated
by the impeller for all of its locations.
However, the contribution of the surface aeration to the total kL a
with the distance of the impeller to the dispersion device increases.
This fact balances the loss of efficiency due to the lack of bubble
breakage and the poor dispersions obtained. As a result, the impeller
behaves almost in the same way no matter where it is placed along
the vertical axis. The only exception is the lowest position, where,
if the initial bubbles are big enough, as in the case of high gas flow
rates, they can be cut by the impeller blade during the first stages
of rising, improving the mass transfer rate by increasing the contact
area between both phases (see Fig. 5).
4.2.2. Two-orifice dispersion device
The smaller bubbles generated at this dispersion device reduce
the empirical coefficients ,  compared to the one-holed dispersion
device, as in the case of the pitched blade turbine.
The values of  are smaller than those obtained for the one-holed
dispersion device. The efficiency of power input on the mass transfer rate decreases because bubbles are barely broken due to their
smaller size. They are more stable in the flow. The main break-up
mechanism is bubble deformation near the blade, where the bubbles are retained, while bubbles can easily avoid the direct effect of
the blades, particularly for low rotational velocities of the impeller.
The values obtained for  are much smaller compared to the ones
obtained for the one-orifice perforated plate. Bubble dispersion is
determined by the dispersion device so that the superficial area is
lower than in the case of break-up processes taking place in the
tank. Unbroken bubbles can rise mainly due to their buoyancy, little
affected by the impeller, see Table 5.
Since bubbles can be retained at the impeller blades, the real
effect of the impeller on the bubbles does not depend on its location.

Fig. 6. Effect of the position of the impeller in the volumetric mass transfer coefficient.
Modified blade, two-orifice dispersion device.

Table 6
Coefficients for the Rushton turbine, one orifice, Eq. (16)

h = 2 cm
h = 3.5 cm
h = 5 cm

0.0012
0.00054
0.00054

0.47
0.43
0.52

0.41
0.32
0.35

In addition to that, the effect of the oscillations of the bubbles and the
contribution of the atmosphere balance the lack of superficial area
due to the absence of break-up processes. The generated bubbles are
stable in the flow. As a result, the mass transfer rate does not decrease
with the position of the impeller. The stability of the configuration
dispersion device--impeller on mass transfer with its relative position
can be seen in Fig. 6.
4.3. Rushton turbine
The most used impeller in fermentation processes has a particular
configuration from which the results can be totally explained. It can
be called the "disk effect''.
4.3.1. One-orifice dispersion device
The disk retains the rising bubbles so that they can be broken by
the blades in their discharge. Rising bubbles cannot avoid the effect
of the impeller and, as a result, the effectiveness of the break-up process is high, and so are the values of . Since bubbles are dispersed
throughout the tank and move with the flow after being discharged,
the values of  remain stable with the position of the impeller,
Table 6.
The retention of bubbles, or the control carried out by the disk,
the increment in the contribution of the surface aeration with the

M. Martn et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 63 (2008) 3223 -- 3234

3229

Table 7
Coefficients for the Rushton turbine, two orifices, Eq. (16)
k
h = 2 cm
h = 3.5 cm
h = 5 cm

7.5 10
4.2 104
2.3 104

0.43
0.40
0.49

0.35
0.30
0.24

Fig. 7. Effect of the position of the impeller in the volumetric mass transfer coefficient.
Rushton turbine, one-orifice dispersion device.

Fig. 9. Effect of the position of the impeller in the volumetric mass transfer coefficient.
Rushton turbine, two-orifice dispersion device.
Table 8
Coefficients for the pitched blade turbine b, one orifice, Eq. (16)
k
h = 2 cm
h = 3.5 cm
h = 5 cm

Fig. 8. Atmospheric contribution to the mass transfer rate. Rushton turbine,

one-orifice dispersion device.

4.6 10
2.8 104
3.6 104

0.46
0.37
0.42

0.29
0.26
0.30

smaller bubbles generated under these experimental conditions and

developing a good dispersion, Table 7.
For this configuration, the effect of the position of the impeller is
also low. The effect of the disk balances the decrease in the efficiency
of the gas flow rate, showing a stable operation with the position of
the impeller, Fig. 9.
4.4. Pitched blade turbine b

vertical position of the impeller and the deformation and final breakup of the bubbles due to the developed flow under the impeller
(Fig. 12, Martn et al., 2008) are able to balance the loss of mass
transfer efficiency as the impeller is located higher with respect to
the dispersion device, typically shown in other impellers. As a result,
this impeller is the most stable considering its vertical position for
the one-holed device, Fig. 7. However, the retention of bubbles can
lead to hydrodynamic instabilities (Vogel and Todaro, 1996).
Fig. 8 shows values of the contribution of the superficial aeration
to kL a, which decreases with the gas flow rate and the impeller
speed since both are, in general, the main responsible mechanisms
for mass transfer.
4.3.2. Two-orifice dispersion device
The above-mentioned "disk effect'' allows almost no changes in
the values of  and  with respect to the one-holed dispersion device.
Both are only a little lower due to the difficulties in breaking the

4.4.1. One-orifice dispersion device

Both pitched blade turbines differ in the shape of the blades.
The blades of the first pitched blade turbine are sharper. However,
bubble break-up effectiveness is higher for this turbine because the
blades collect the gas phase. The bags of gas gathered at the blades
are broken at the discharge in spite of their lack of sharpness. Due
to the development of those bags of air at the end of the blades,
 is more stable with the vertical position of the impeller than in
the case of the other pitched blade turbine, impeller 1, where the
bubbles could avoid the impeller.
The main difference is found in the values of . They are constant
with the position of the impeller above the dispersion device but
lower than those obtained for the first pitched blade turbine. The
difficulties in scattering the broken bubbles lead to poorer dispersions, see Table 8, resulting in a reduction in the values of  to half
with respect to those given in Table 2.

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M. Martn et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 63 (2008) 3223 -- 3234

Fig. 10. Effect of the position of the impeller in the volumetric mass transfer
coefficient. Pitched blade turbine b, one-orifice dispersion device.

Fig. 11. Effect of the position of the impeller in the volumetric mass transfer
coefficient. Pitched blade turbine b, two-orifice dispersion device.

Table 9
Coefficients for the pitched blade turbine b, two orifices, Eq. (16)

Table 10
Coefficients for the propeller, one orifice, Eq. (16)

k
h = 2 cm
h = 3.5 cm
h = 5 cm

2.2 10
3.0 104
0.6 104

0.47
0.36
0.31


0.23
0.27
0.13

The effect of the impeller distance to the dispersion device is

similar to that of the first impeller. The best location of the impeller
in terms of kL a is near the dispersion device, so that bubbles cannot
avoid an early break and dispersion. The contribution of the surface
aeration and the oscillations of the bigger bubbles cannot reduce the
loss of mass transfer rate due to the less direct effect of the impeller
breaking the bubbles generated at the dispersion device, Fig. 10.
4.4.2. Two-orifice dispersion device
The smaller bubbles generated by this dispersion device reduce
 and . However, the fact that bubbles are taken by the blades,
limits the loss of break-up efficiency. Bubble break-up is due to the
deformation of the bags of gas at the end of the impeller blades
(Martn et al., 2008). Consequently, the values of  remain stable with
the location of the impeller. The reduction in the values of  is more
important, Table 9. The bubbles are not properly dispersed when
the location of the impeller is higher with respect to the dispersion
device.
For this particular impeller--dispersion device configuration,
there is almost an equilibrium for the two lower positions of the
impeller in terms of mass transfer rate, but the best location for the
impeller is, again, near the dispersion device, Fig. 11. If bubbles are
broken at an early stage, better dispersions are developed.
4.5. Propeller
The flow pattern developed by this impeller leads to the development of a dispersion characterized by the accumulation of bubbles
below the impeller as well as low break-up effectiveness, since there
is almost no physical contact of the impeller with the bubbles. Bubble break-up is due to its deformation under the impeller (Martn
et al., 2008).

h = 2 cm
h = 3.5 cm
h = 5 cm

8.97 104
3.66 104
3.06 104

0.28
0.30
0.21

0.40
0.30
0.31

4.5.1. One-orifice dispersion device

Table 10 presents the fitting parameters of the experimental values of kL a to Eq. (16). For big initial bubbles, k,  and  are similar to
the ones presented in the other impeller--dispersion device configurations. Bubbles can easily be broken and scattered across the tank.
The characteristic dispersion generated, the retention of the bubbles below the impeller maintaining them in the liquid (Fig. 12 of
Martn et al., 2008), together with the contribution of the superficial
aeration, stable with the power input, results in an optimal position
of the impeller at 3.5 cm from the dispersion device. Figs. 12 and 13
report that. The contribution of the surface aeration to kL a is particular for this impeller since, in contrast to other impellers, it does
not depend on the power input, due to the flow pattern developed
by this impeller.
4.5.2. Two-orifice dispersion device
Similar to other impellers, bubble break-up efficiency is lower for
smaller bubbles because they are stable in the flow so, the values of
 are also smaller, Table 11. The decrease in the values of  is also
remarkable. Bubble size, as a result of a lack in break-up processes,
allows the formation of a gas cluster made of a large group of bubbles
under the impeller (Martn et al., 2008). The effective area is lower
than that given by the bubbles due to their surface. Bubbles are close
and part of their surface may be too close to another bubble to be
effective for the mass transfer since no concentration gradients can
be developed.
Furthermore, the generated bubbles, due to their size, can avoid
the effect of the impeller. In addition to that, impeller effectiveness
in mass transfer decreases with the distance of the impeller to the
dispersion device. However, for low rotational speeds this decrease
is almost non-existent. The increase in the atmospheric contribution
balances the loss of area due to the decrease in break-up efficiency
as the impeller is located higher, Fig. 14.

M. Martn et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 63 (2008) 3223 -- 3234

Fig. 12. Effect of the position of the impeller in the volumetric mass transfer
coefficient. Propeller, one-orifice dispersion device.

Fig. 13. Atmospheric contribution to the mass transfer rate. Propeller, one-orifice
dispersion device.

Table 11
Coefficients for the propeller, two orifices, Eq. (16)
k
h = 2 cm
h = 3.5 cm
h = 5 cm

1.3 10
0.9 104
0.7 104

0.33
0.28
0.22

0.17
0.15
0.16

3231

Fig. 14. Effect of the position of the impeller in the volumetric mass transfer
coefficient. Propeller, two-orifice dispersion device.

Eq. (10), and the specific area resulting is bigger than that calculated
using Eq. (15) or (9). From now on, the value of the area given
by Eq. (15) is going to be used since it has some theoretical basis
(Kolmogorov's theory).
In order to use the Barabash's model, zone 2 is considered, according to the experimental results of the power input.
Fig. 15 shows an example of the comparison among theoretical,
experimental and empirical values of kL a for the Rushton turbines.
Similar figures were obtained for the other impellers and dispersion
devices.
In general, the theoretical results of Kawase and Barabash
(Kawase and Moo-Young, 1988; Barabash and Belevitskaya, 1995),
give high values of kL a. In case of using Garca-Ochoa's model, apart
from the fact that the gas hold-up equation is particularly developed
for a Rushton turbine, the results of kL a are ever bigger than those
of Barabash. This is because the predicted gas hold-up is higher
than the one predicted by typical empirical equations (Gogate et al.,
2000; Shukla et al., 2001) and so, the calculated area is bigger than
the actual.
The comparison among experimental values and the empirical
values from Arjunwadkar et al. (1998a, b) gives better results in
spite of the fact that the geometry of the system used to obtain the
empirical equation, almost standard, is different from the one used
for this work.
The general trend is that the theoretical results are always higher
than the empirical and experimental ones, which are both close.
These models do not cope with the loss of energy due to the geometry of the systems nor the actual area. The experimental results
are between the empirical and very close to them and the theoretical ones. Results like these have popularized the use of empirical
correlations in the design and scale-up of stirred tanks.

4.6. Theoretical--empirical--experimental comparison

4.7. Effect of the dispersion device on kL a

Mass transfer theories focus on calculating the liquid film resistance. It is necessary to determine the specific area in order to compare the experimental values of kL a with the theoretical ones.
It has been proved that Eq. (9), with the gas hold-up calculated
using the empirical correlation given by Eq. (10) and Eq. (15) give
similar results for all the experimental conditions. The gas hold-up
calculated using Eq. (11) shows bigger values than those obtained by

In a stirred tank, the dispersion of the gas phase into the liquid phase relies on two mechanisms: the dispersion device and the
impeller itself. If the bubbles generated at the dispersion devices
are small enough to be stable in the fluid flow developed in the
tank for both dispersion devices used, the one-holed and the twoholed dispersion devices, the smaller the bubbles generated the more
efficient the system is. However, if the bubbles generated at the

3232

M. Martn et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 63 (2008) 3223 -- 3234

Fig. 15. Theoretical--empirical--experimental comparison of the volumetric transfer mass coefficient: Rushton turbine, h = 2 cm.

Table 12
Air--water system: dispersion device effect
k
1 orifice
2 orifices

4 10
2 104

0.28
0.21

0.31
0.25

one-holed dispersion device can be broken and those generated at

the two-holed dispersion device cannot, the break-up process provides more area than that generated by the dispersion device alone
and bubbles, due to the discharge, are better dispersed across the
tank. Furthermore, for the same final mean diameter, the break-up
process deforms the bubbles before breaking them and the break-up
itself, due to the modification of the concentration pattern surrounding the bubbles, improving the mass transfer rate of the system.
The effect of the dispersion device can also be seen in the coefficients of typical empirical equations like Eq. (16). Table 12 presents
the results.
Bubble break-up improves the efficiency of the power input. For
easily breakable bubbles, the values of  are bigger than in the case

of no break-up. This is because power input translates into the generation of contact area and the modification of the concentration
profiles surrounding the bubbles as they deform previous to their
breakage. The values of  become higher due to the scattering of the
broken bubble, providing a higher available area and a better dispersion. In terms of k, the smaller the bubbles of the dispersion the
bigger the coefficient is.
To sum up, not only a better dispersion in terms of gas--liquid
contact area but also the break-up process itself improves the mass
transfer.
4.8. Effect of the impeller on the contribution of the superficial
aeration to kL a
Each impeller develops a particular flow pattern inside the tank.
The turbulence generated in the surface liquid--atmosphere defines
the contribution of that interphase to kL a in the liquid bulk. Two
effects have been studied, the effect of the position of the impeller,
summarizing the results impeller by impeller exposed during the
discussion of each of the first five impellers, and the effect of the
number of the blades of an impeller.

M. Martn et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 63 (2008) 3223 -- 3234

Table 13
Coefficients of Eq. (17) for the effect of the impeller location on the volumetric
mass transfer coefficient
k
Impeller
Impeller
Impeller
Impeller
Impeller

6.17 10
1.56 105
1.80 105
9.89 106
1.31 105

1
2
3
4
5

0.22
0.12
0.27
0.29
0.30

0.31
0.57
0.60
0.34
0.40

3233

generates more contact area. However, as the number of blades

increases, the superficial turbulence increases. Therefore, the contribution of the surface aeration increases with the number of
blades.
To analyze the effect of the number of the blades on the contribution of the surface aeration to the total kL a, the volumetric
mass transfer coefficient was measured in the absence of air input. The experimental results were fitted to an equation similar to
Eq. (17):
kL aatm = 1.48 106


P 0.18
(no. blades)0.59
V

(18)

Although the number of the blades also determines the power

input, the circulation in the gas--liquid interphase depends on the
frequency with which the blades go through a fixed point. This has
a linear dependency with the number of blades, whereas the power
input does not depend lineally on it.
5. Conclusions

Fig. 16. Effect of the number of blades on the atmospheric contribution on kL a.

The location of the impeller defines the liquid vortexes inside the
tank. In the absence of air input, it is possible to determine the value
of kL a due to superficial aeration following an equation of the form:
kL aatm = k

 

P 
(h)
V

(17)

Table 13 collects the data of the fitting values k ,  and  for the
five impellers. The height of the blade is what defines  in Eq. (17). A
bigger size of the blade results in bigger values of  . The value of  is
related to the power input, and it has a constant value for impellers
3, 4 and 5 but a lower value for the other two. The liquid circulation
renovating the surface is less effective for these two impellers.
In the empirical equations for kL a given by Eq. (16), the effect

of the position of the impeller (k h ) is included in k. Therefore,
k gathers the effect of the geometry on the mass transfer rate. In
addition to that, it can be seen how the effectiveness of the power
input is not only determined by the generation of area but also by
the effect of the impeller in the surface liquid--atmosphere. Anyway,
it is small compared with the contribution of the aeration provided
by the bubbles.
For the second part of this study, three impellers were designed
with two to four blades, Fig. 2. The number of blades increases the
input power for a particular agitation speed, determines the effect on
the bubbles, which cannot avoid the blades in their rising movement
as the number of blades increase, as well as define the turbulence
in the air--liquid surface. As a result, there is an increment in the
contribution of the superficial aeration on kL a with the number of
blades of the impeller. Fig. 16 shows the contribution of the surface
aeration on the total kL a versus the power input.
In general, the increment in the total input power reduces the
fraction of kL a due to surface aeration because bubble break-up

Mass transfer rate depends heavily on the hydrodynamics of the

system generated by the impellers and the dispersion devices.
The most important effect of the impeller is that affecting the gas
phase. The effect of the impeller on the bubbles, direct or that due
to the flow generated, determines the contact area between phases
and the concentration profile surrounding the bubbles and so, the
mass transfer rate. If bubbles are only dragged by the developed flow
pattern or move freely, kL a values are lower than in the case of a
combination between break-up process and flow movement. In general, a higher position of the impeller with respect to the dispersion
device reduces that physical effect of the impeller or delays it, and
so, there is a decrease in the values of kL a.
A direct result of the effectiveness of the power input in kL a is
bubble break-up, which increases the mass transfer rate due to the
generation of superficial area and by modifying the concentration
profile surrounding the bubbles. We found that  is a measure of
the power input efficiency in relation to the contacting performance
of a stirred tank. Furthermore, bubble breakage improves bubble
dispersions. This fact is one of the reasons for the high efficiency in
the mass transfer rate when the impellers are located next to the
dispersion devices. If the bubbles break, an early break-up makes
easy the development of a dispersion. Furthermore, the oscillations
of these big bubbles cannot cope with the superficial area generated
in case of their breakage.
The available specific area and the scattering of the bubbles determine the experimental value of .
In an industrial fermentor, there is a gas phase over the liquid phase, whose contribution must be taken into consideration.
The effect of the atmospheric gas--liquid contact makes it possible that the highest mass transfer coefficients were obtained at
a distance of the impeller above the dispersion device instead of
feeding the gas phase too close to the impeller. The surface aeration contribution affects the k coefficient in the empirical equations
for kL a.
Although the most stable impeller with respect to its relative
location above the dispersion device in terms of kL a is the Rushton turbine, some others are very stable, with interesting values of
kL a which generate less stress in the liquid phase; for example, the
pitched turbine with hydrodynamic blades. Its advantage can be that
for high gas flow rates the Rushton turbine usually decays in the
power input more than other impellers (Vogel and Todaro, 1996).
Since the bubble break-up process improves the mass transfer
rate, dispersion devices should generate bubbles whose size allows
their breakage. The gas flow rate across an orifice must be optimized.

3234

M. Martn et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 63 (2008) 3223 -- 3234

It has been proved that smaller bubbles in the dispersion lead to

bigger k coefficients.
The differences among the theoretical, empirical and experimental results support the effect of the geometry of the system in the mass transfer and the difficulties in predicting kL a
theoretically.
Notation
a
c
D
db
E
h
H
kL
N
P
Pg
Pe
Qc
r
Sh
T
u
uG
U
V
w
We

specific surface area, m1

concentration, mol/m3
diffusivity, m2 /s
bubble diameter, m
eccentricity
position of the impeller above the dispersion
device, m
height of the impeller blade, m
transport resistance in the liquid phase, m/s
rotational velocity, s1
unaerated input power, W/m3
aerated input power, W/m3
Peclet number Pe = U db /D
gas flow rate, m3 /s
bubble radius, m
Sherwood number, Sh = kL db /D
impeller diameter, m
fluctuation velocity, m/s
superficial gas velocity, m/s
rising velocity of the bubble, m/s
liquid volume, m3
velocity of the blade, m/s
Weber number We = N 2 T 3 /

Greek letters
,  , ,  , 
i
i

g




G

empirical coefficients
fraction of the bubble surface
mass transfer coefficient, m/s
dissipatedenergy, W/kg
gas hold-up
turbulent characteristic length, m
liquid viscosity, Pa s
kinematic viscosity, m2 /s
liquid density, kg/m3
gas density, kg/m3
superficial tension, N/m

Acknowledgments
The support of the Ministerio de Educacin y Ciencia of Spain
providing a F.P.U. fellowship to M. Martn is greatly welcomed. The
funds from the project reference CTQ 2005-01395/PPQ are also appreciated. We thank Prof. J. Cuellar of Chemical Engineering Department at University of Salamanca for lending us some of the impellers
used in this paper.

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