Soil & Tillage Research 86 (2006) 129140

www.elsevier.com/locate/still

Effect of tillage and crop rotations on pore size distribution

and soil hydraulic conductivity in sandy clay loam soil
of the Indian Himalayas
Ranjan Bhattacharyya *, Ved Prakash, S. Kundu, H.S. Gupta
Vivekananda Institute of Hill Agriculture (Indian Council of Agricultural Research),
Almora 263 601, Uttaranchal, India
Received 18 August 2004; received in revised form 17 January 2005; accepted 7 February 2005

Abstract
Tillage management can affect crop growth by altering the pore size distribution, pore geometry and hydraulic properties of
soil. In the present communication, the effect of different tillage management viz., conventional tillage (CT), minimum tillage
(MT) and zero-tillage (ZT) and different crop rotations viz. [(soybeanwheat (SW), soybeanlentil (SL) and soybeanpea (S
P)] on pore size distribution and soil hydraulic conductivities [saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) and unsaturated hydraulic
conductivity {k(h)}] of a sandy clay loam soil was studied after 4 years prior to the experiment. Soil cores were collected after 4
year of the experiment at an interval of 75 mm up to 300 mm soil depth for measuring soil bulk density, soil water retention
constant (b), pore size distribution, Ksat and k(h). Nine pressure levels (from 2 to 1500 kPa) were used to calculate pore size
distribution and k(h). It was observed that b values at all the studied soil depths were higher under ZT than those observed under
CT irrespective of the crop rotations. The values of soil bulk density observed under ZT were higher in 075 mm soil depth in all
the crop rotations. But, among the crop rotations, soils under SP and SL rotations showed relatively lower bulk density values
than SW rotation. Average values of the volume fraction of total porosity with pores <7.5 mm in diameter (effective pores for
retaining plant available water) were 0.557, 0.636 and 0.628 m3 m
3 under CT, MT and ZT; and 0.592, 0.610 and 0.626 m3 m
3
under SW, SL and SP, respectively. In contrast, the average values of the volume fraction of total porosity with pores
>150 mm in diameter (pores draining freely with gravity) were 0.124, 0.096 and 0.095 m3 m
3 under CT, MT and ZT; and
0.110, 0.104 and 0.101 m3 m
3 under SW, SL and SP, respectively. Saturated hydraulic conductivity values in all the studied
soil depths were significantly greater under ZT than those under CT (range from 300 to 344 mm day
1). The observed k(h)
values at 075 mm soil depth under ZT were significantly higher than those computed under CT at all the suction levels, except at

10,
100 and
400 kPa suction. Among the crop rotations, SP rotation recorded significantly higher k(h) values than those
under SW and SL rotations up to
40 kPa suction. The interaction effects of tillage and crop rotations affecting the k(h) values

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 5962 241 005; fax: +91 5962 231 539.
E-mail address: ranjan_vpkas@yahoo.com (R. Bhattacharyya).
0167-1987/$ see front matter # 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.still.2005.02.018

130

R. Bhattacharyya et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 86 (2006) 129140

were found significant at all the soil water suctions. Both SL and SP rotations resulted in better soil water retention and
transmission properties under ZT.
# 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Conservation tillage; Soil water retention; Pore size distribution; Saturated and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity; Soybean based
cropping system

1. Introduction
Soil moisture conservation is a critical issue in
rainfed farming in sub-temperate regions of the Indian
Himalayas. Conservation tillage management systems
(zero-tillage and minimum tillage) are effective means
in reducing water loss from the soil and improving soil
moisture regime (Hatfield and Stewart, 1994). Soil
pore geometry (pore size, shape and distribution) and
soil structure are affected by tillage management and
influence soil water storage and transmission (Azooz
et al., 1996). Overall, tillage effects on soil physical
properties are uncertain and variable. For example,
some researchers have found no or negative effect of
tillage on soil water transmission characteristics (Obi
and Nnabude, 1988; Heard et al., 1988), while others
found beneficial effects of zero-tillage (ZT) on soil
water retention properties than conventional tillage
(CT) (Blevins et al., 1971; Datiri and Lowery, 1991).
Many researchers have reported that saturated
hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity [k(h)] were significantly and positively affected by ZT owing to either greater continuity
of pores (Benjamin, 1993) or to water flow through a
very few large pores (Allmaras et al., 1977) or more
depth (Ehlers, 1977). The inconsistent results of soil
physical and hydraulic properties under different
tillage systems may be related to the transitory nature
of soil structure after tillage, site history, initial and
final water content, the time of sampling and the extent
of soil disturbances (Azooz and Arshad, 1996).
In a long-term study, Dao (1996) reported that notill soil had lower bulk density than that under
conventionally tilled soil. On the other hand, Roseberg
and McCoy (1992) found that CT increased total
porosity of the soil, but the macropores (effective
pores) decreased in number, stability and continuity
compared with no-till soil.
Macropores are responsible for the effective
porosity of the soil. Effective porosity has been

related to saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ahuja

et al., 1989). However, it also reflects the percentage of
total pores that are open to infiltration during a rain
event. The volume fraction of total porosity with pores
<7.5 mm in diameter are classified as effective pores
for retaining plant available water. In contrast, the
volume fractions of total porosity with pores
>150 mm in diameter are effective pores for drainage
of water freely with gravity (Azooz et al., 1996).
Under dry soil, transmission of water across a matric
pressure gradient occurs more rapidly through small
than large pores. Soil water storage and transmission
can, therefore, be manipulated with alteration of pore
size distribution through different tillage management
practices.
Information on potential changes in soil water
storage and transmission properties due to tillage
management and crop rotation is scanty. Therefore,
the present study was undertaken with the objective
to assess the effect of conservation tillage and
different crop rotations on soil pore size distribution
and water transmission properties under rainfed
production system. We determined water retention,
pore size distribution, Ksat and k(h) on a sandy clay
loam soil that was subjected to continuous conventional tillage (CT), minimum tillage (MT) and zerotillage (ZT) for 4 years under soybeanwheat (SW),
soybeanlentil (SL) and soybeanpea (SP) rotations.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Site details
The experiment was initiated in 1999 on a sandy
clay loam soil (pH 5.9, oxidizable soil organic carbon
9.2 g kg
1, alkaline permanganate oxidizable N
280.5 kg ha
1, 0.5 M NaHCO3 extractable P
20.1 kg ha
1 and 1N NH40Ac K 96.2 kg ha
1) at

R. Bhattacharyya et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 86 (2006) 129140

the experimental farm of the institute located at

298360 N, 798400 E, and 1250 m above mean sea level).
The sandy clay loam soil contained 21.8% clay, 19.7%
silt and 58.5% sand at 0150 mm and 19.3% clay,
20.9% silt and 59.8% sand at 150300 mm depth. The
climate of the region is sub-temperate. The average
daily maximum and minimum air temperatures ranged
from 31.7 and 20.6 8C in June and 17.8 and 1.1 8C in
January. The mean annual rainfall is 1058 mm.
Approximately, 70% of the total precipitation occurs
during the rainy season (JuneSeptember).
2.2. The experiment
The experiment was laid out in split-plot design with
three tillage management practices (zero, minimum and
conventional) in main plots (9 m  3 m size) and three
sequential cropping [soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.)
wheat (Triticum aestivum L. Emend. Flori and Paol),
soybeanlentil (Lens culinaris Medicus) and soybean
field pea (Pisum sativum L. Sensu Lato) in sub-plots
(3 m  3 m size) with three replications. The growing
period of soybean was from June to October and that for
lentil and pea was from November to 1st week of April
and for wheat from November to 1st week of May.
Under ZT, every year the seeds were sown in the
furrows with the help of a hand pulled furrow opener.
Whereas, under MT sowing was done after a single
tillage operation by spade (up to 15 cm soil depth) and
under CT sowing was done following two tillage
operations (up to 15 cm soil depth) made by spade at a 7
days interval. The details of the sowing and harvesting
time of the crops and the detail of the weather
parameters during the period of the experimentation are
given in Table 1. Before sowing of soybean and winter
crops, weeds were controlled with the application of
gramaxone (1,10 -dimethyl 1-4,40 -bipyridylium) at
1.0 kg a.i. ha
1 under zero-tillage. Weeds in MT and
CT systems were controlled by pre-emergence spray of
alachlor [2-chloro-N-(2,6-diethylphenyl)-N-(methoxymethyl)acetamide] at 2.0 kg a.i. ha
1 in soybean
followed by one hand weeding at 45 days after sowing
except in zero-tillage. Similarly, during winter season
weeds were controlled in CT and MT systems by
spraying isoproturon [3,-(4-isopropylphenyl)1,1-dimethyl urea] at 1.0 kg a.i. ha
1 at 35 days after sowing
in wheat and pendimethalin [N-(1-ethylpropyl)-3,4dimethyl-2,6-dinitrobenzenamine] at 1.0 kg a.i. ha
1

131

(as pre-emergence) in field pea and lentil followed by

one hand weeding as and when required except in zerotillage. Soybean variety VL Soya 2 was sown in 1st
fortnight of June whereas, winter crops viz., wheat cv.
VL Gehun 616, field pea cv. VL Matar 1 and lentil
cv. VL Masoor 4, were sown during 2nd fortnight of
October in each year of the study. Recommended doses
of fertilizers, which were applied to different crops
were, 20 kg N + 34.9 kg P + 33.3 kg K ha
1 to soybean, 60 kg N + 13.1 kg P + 16.7 kg K ha
1 to wheat,
20 kg N + 17.5 kg P + 33.3 kg K ha
1 to field pea
and 20 kg N + 17.5 kg P + 16.7 kg K ha
1 to lentil.
Full amount of N, P and K in pulses and half amount of
N along with full amount of P and K in wheat were
applied at the time of sowing. The remaining half
amount of N was top-dressed in wheat after winter rains
in February.
At maturity the above ground portion of all the
crops were harvested leaving 5 cm stubbles in the
field.
2.3. Soil physical and chemical analysis
Initial soil samples (015 cm) were collected and
analyzed for pH by pH meter in 1:2.5 soil: water
suspension (Jackson, 1973), organic carbon by the
method of Walkley and Black (1934), available N by
standard procedure using a FOSS Tecator (Model
2200), available P following the method of Olsen et al.
(1954) and available K by 1 N NH4OAc using a flame
photometer (Jackson, 1973).
In 2003, after the harvest of wheat crop, triplicate
undisturbed soil cores were collected to a depth of
300 mm in 75 mm increments with a core sampler.
Bulk density was determined from oven-dried core
mass divided by the core volume. For determining the
soil water desorption characteristics at 0 to
10 kPa
suction range, we followed the method of Kooistra
et al. (1984) with some modifications. A closed porous
cup was used for measurement of outflow from a
single sample as a function of soil water matric
potential. A soil core was saturated by capillary rise on
the porous fritted disc of the Buchner funnel. Starting
from saturation, water outflow during successive C
decrements (
2,
4 and
10 kPa) was measured in a
burette connected to the Buchner funnel. Water
retention was determined successively at
10,
20,

30,
40
100,
400 and
1500 kPa using a

132

R. Bhattacharyya et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 86 (2006) 129140

Table 1
Weather parameters of the site during the experimental period and crop calendar
Crops and year

Rainfall
(mm)

Average maximum
temperature (8C)

Average minimum
temperature (8C)

Average
evaporation
(mm day
1)

Date of
sowing

Date of harvesting

Soybean,
1999
Soybean,
2000
Soybean,
2001
Soybean,
2002
Wheat,
19992000
Wheat,
20002001
Wheat,
20012002
Wheat,
20022003
Lentil and pea,
19992000
Lentil and pea,
20002001
Lentil and pea,
20012002
Lentil and pea,
20022003

538.3

28.5

18.0

3.3

2 June 1999

3 October 1999

870.5

27.9

17.9

3.0

1 June 2000

3 October 2000

464.0

29.3

17.8

3.4

6 June 2001

5 October 2001

643.1

28.8

17.1

3.0

5 June 2002

6 October 2002

307.6

22.6

4.7

2.3

10 October 1999

3 May 2000

130.1

23.6

5.3

2.2

9 October 2000

4 May 2001

238.4

23.4

4.2

2.2

12 October 2001

7 May 2002

353.3

23.3

4.2

2.5

12 October 2002

8 May 2003

250.4

21.4

3.8

2.0

98.0

22.8

3.7

2.0

182.1

22.4

3.5

2.4

306.3

22.4

3.4

2.2

22 October 1999
and 22 October 1999
20 October 2000
and 20 October 2000
23 October 2001 and
23 October 2001
25 October 2002 and
25 October 2002

16 April 2000
and 25 April 2000
15 April 2001
and 26 April 2001
18 April 2002
and 28 April 2002
19 April 2003
and 27 April 2003

pressure plate apparatus for each replication of each

treatment. After taking the wet mass at the final
potential (
1500 kPa), the saturation water content
(assumed to represent 0 kPa suction) of soil was
determined. Water retention data were fitted to the
equation:
C C e u=usat
b

(1)

where C is the matric pressure, Ce the intercept (also

termed as the air entry point), u the volumetric water
content at a given matric pressure, usat the volumetric
water content at saturation, and b is an empirically
derived constant describing the slope of the relationship between matric pressure and relative saturation
(u/usat).
Soil pore size distribution data was computed from
the soil water retention data for C range of
2 to

400 kPa, using the theoretical relation between soil
water characteristic and distribution of pore sizes
(Vomocil, 1965). Equivalent pore diameter (EPD) of a
given matric pressure was estimated according to the
following expression that relates the suction applied to

a water column as a function of the capillary radii (the

capillary rise equation):
EPD 4s cos a=rgh

(2)

where s is the surface tension of water; cos a the

cosinus of the angle a displayed by the water meniscus; r the water specific weight; g the gravity acceleration and h the matric pressure. At 22 8C the value of
s become 0.07357 kg s
2 and a = 0, the capillary rise
equation can be reduced to the following expression
(Marshall and Holmes, 1988):
EPD 300=h

(3)

where the equivalent pore diameter (EPD) of the

smallest pore (mm) drained at water suction of h (kPa).
Pore size distribution was presented as pore volume
occurring within a given size interval per unit soil
(total) volume. The volume fraction of total porosity
with pores <7.5 mm in diameter was defined as
effective pores for retaining plant available water,
whereas that with pores >150 mm in diameter was
defined as pores draining freely with gravity.

R. Bhattacharyya et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 86 (2006) 129140

Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) values to a

depth of 300 mm in 75 mm depth increments were
determined in the laboratory using Darcys law by
constant head method (Klute and Dirksen, 1986).
Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity [k(h)] values were
calculated from water retention and saturated hydraulic
conductivity using the following equation (Campbell,
1974):
kh K sat u=usat 2b3

(4)

where Ksat is the saturated hydraulic conductivity.

Analysis of variance was used to determine tillage
effects on bulk density, water retention constant (b),
volume fraction of pores, Ksat and k(h) at each matric
suction for each depth of soil (Gomez and Gomez,
1984). All the soil physical parameters were analyzed
as a split-plot model (tillage as main effect, cropping
system as split-plot effect). Tillage and cropping
system means were separated with an LSD at
P  0.05.

133

225 mm soil layer (all the interaction means were

calculated and not shown).
Trends in soil bulk density are generally considered a
rough approximation of soil structural changes (Liebig
et al., 2004). Several studies have reported higher bulk
density under ZTat the soil surface compared with tilled
soil (Wu et al., 1992; Hill, 1990; Klute, 1982). Tillage
loosens the soil and decreases soil macroporosity (Hill
et al., 1985; Vazquez et al., 1991). Significantly lower
core (075 mm) soil bulk density with CT system could
be due to the incorporation of crop residues by tillage to
the surface soil depth. There appeared to be very little
differences in bulk density values among the CT, MT
and ZT fields and among the plots under SW, SL and
SP rotations. The long (>200 days) lag time between
the most recent tillage event and soil sampling might
have contributed to the similar bulk density values
among the CT, MT and ZT fields. Our results are of
close conformity with other researchers on the
Canadian prairies who have reported slight or no
differences in bulk density values between CT and ZT
(Chang and Lindwall, 1989; Azooz et al., 1996).

3. Results and discussion

3.2. Soil water retention constant (b)
3.1. Soil bulk density
Soil bulk density was significantly higher under ZT
at the soil surface (075 mm) compared with tilled
(MT and CT) soil (Table 2), whereas, it was
significantly lower under MT at 225300 mm soil
depth than that of CT. There were no significant
variations in soil bulk density values due to tillage
management at other two studied soil depths. But there
was a significant increase in bulk density under SW
rotation over other cropping systems at the surface soil
layers (075 and 75150 mm depth). With increase in
soil depths, soil bulk density values also increased and
the highest bulk density value (1.40 Mg m
3) was
observed at 225300 mm soil depth under CT and ZT
systems with SW and SP crop rotations. At that soil
depth soil bulk density under SW rotation was higher
than that of SL rotation and was at par with that of S
P rotation. The significantly higher value of soil bulk
density under ZT at the surface soil layer (075 mm)
might be due to non-disturbance of soil matrix that
resulted in less total porosity compared to tilled plots.
The interaction effects of tillage  cropping were
non-significant at all the soil depths, except at 150

At a given matric pressure, soil under ZT retained

significantly more water than soil under MT and CT,
irrespective of the crop rotation at 075 and 75
150 mm soil depths, suggesting significant rearrangement of pores near the soil surface (Table 2). Soil
water retention constant (b) was the highest under ZT
at the surface soil layer. The b values under ZT were
significantly higher than the corresponding values
under CT at all the soil depths. In contrast, the
differences in b values due to crop rotations were not
significant at different soil depths except at 150
225 mm. The interaction effects on b were also nonsignificant at all the soil depths.
Greater water retention in the 075 mm soil depth
under ZT than under CT was also observed in a silt
loam and sandy loam soil by Azooz et al. (1996). The
greater the b value, the greater was the water retention
across a range of matric pressures.
3.3. Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat)
Saturated hydraulic conductivity (core) of the
studied four depths (075, 75150, 150225 and 225

134

Treatmentsa

Soil bulk density (Mg m
3)

Saturated hydraulic conductivity

(mm day
1)

Soil water retention constant (b)b

075
mm

75150
mm

150225
mm

225300
mm

075
mm

75150
mm

150225
mm

225300
mm

075
mm

75150
mm

150225
mm

225300
mm

Tillage
CT
MT
ZT
LSD (P = 0.05), tillage

1.34
1.34
1.35
0.007

1.35
1.34
1.35
NS

1.39
1.38
1.38
NS

1.40
1.39
1.40
0.006

344
370
393
7.6

315
364
372
2.4

308
313
331
9.3

300
306
331
19.9

4.2
4.5
4.6
0.15

4.3
4.3
4.6
0.25

4.1
4.3
4.5
0.18

4.2
4.3
4.4
0.19

Cropping system
SW
SL
SP
LSD (P = 0.05), cropping system
LSD (P = 0.05), tillage  cropping system

1.36
1.33
1.34
0.012
NS

1.35
1.35
1.34
0.008
NS

1.39
1.39
1.38
NS
0.011

1.40
1.39
1.40
0.008
NS

368
377
361
8.3
14.5

348
348
354
5.2
8.9

319
320
314
8.6
14.8

307
312
318
7.7
13.3

4.4
4.5
4.4
NS
NS

4.4
4.4
4.4
NS
NS

4.2
4.3
4.3
0.08
NS

4.3
4.2
4.3
NS
NS

a
b

CT, conventional tillage; MT, minimum tillage; ZT, zero-tillage; SW, soybeanwheat; SL, soybeanlentil; SP, soybeanpea.
Water retention constant (b) from the equation C = Ce(u/usat)
b; NS, non-significant.

R. Bhattacharyya et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 86 (2006) 129140

Table 2
Soil bulk density, saturated hydraulic conductivity and soil water retention constant (b) as affected by tillage management and cropping system to a depth of 300 mm

R. Bhattacharyya et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 86 (2006) 129140

300 mm) were always in the order ZT > MT > CT

(Table 2), with the difference between ZT and CT
always significant (P = 0.05). The effect of ZT and MT
management was to reduce the volume fraction of
large pores and increase the volume fraction of small
pores with better pore continuity relative to CT
management, which ultimately resulted in higher Ksat
under reduced tillage systems (ZT and MT). Saturated
hydraulic conductivity is highly dependent upon the
size, continuity and arrangement of pores. Greater Ksat
in tilled soils was an indication of better pore
continuity, as the proportion of larger pores was
comparatively less. Though the part of the transmission porosity (15030 mm diameter pores) was lower
under reduced tillage systems, a greater pore
continuity (possibly as a result of minimal soil
disturbances) was indicated by higher Ksat (Ehlers,
1977; Benjamin, 1993). Greater content of water
stable aggregates in the reduced tillage system
probably also contributed to its higher Ksat (Singh
et al., 1994). Ehlers (1975), Blevins et al. (1983),
among others, also measured a greater Ksat under notill system. In contrary, Carter and Kunelius (1986)
and Heard et al. (1988) found a reduced Ksat under notill. Although Ksat can be extremely variable, it is
possible that the higher Ksat values for the ZT field
might have been partially due to the burrows of the
endogenic earthworms (Joschko et al., 1992).
Soybeanwheat cropping resulted in significantly
lower Ksat than those of other systems. At 075 mm
soil depth, the average Ksat value under SL rotation
was significantly higher than those under SW and S
P rotations and at 75150 mm soil depth Ksat under S
P rotation was significantly greater than those under
SW and SL rotations. In contrast, at 225300 mm
soil depth, Ksat value under SP rotation was the
highest. At all the studied soil layers, the interaction
effects of tillage and cropping were significant. The
Ksat values of reduced tillage systems were significantly greater under SL and SP rotations than that
under SW of CT management. The greater Ksat
values at the surface soil layer under leguminous
cropping system might be due to presence of biochannels as a result of more microbial activities and
greater content of soil organic carbon (measured by
us) at the surface soil layers. That favourable soil
environment might have resulted in better pore
continuity.

135

There was a sharp reduction in Ksat from 075 to

75150 mm and from 75150 to 150225 mm soil
layers, irrespective of the management (tillage and
cropping) systems. In the first two layers, there were
significant differences in Ksat values under minimum
and conventionally tilled plots. A much larger Ksat in
075 mm soil layer than those in the lower layers
might be due to more vigorous macro-faunal activity
and higher pore continuity in the surface layer (Singh
et al., 1996).
3.4. Porosity and pore size distribution
At any given water potential, soil under ZT field
retained a greater amount of water compared to the CT
field. This trend suggested a soil structural improvement under the reduced tillage condition as the amount
of water retained at >
100 kPa suction depends
primarily upon the pore size distribution and the
capillary effect (Hillel, 1998). Water retention at
<
100 kPa suction is affected by texture and the
specific surface of the soil material. The greater soil
water retention in plots under ZT might have been due
to higher soil organic carbon content.
The majority of the pores within each tillage and
cropping system were <7.5 mm in diameter at all the
four depths (Figs. 1 and 2). The volume fraction of
total porosity with pores <7.5 mm in diameter was
0.06 m3 m
3 greater under MT than under CT and
0.04 m3 m
3 greater under ZT than under CT at 0
75 mm soil depth. In the surface soil layer (075 mm)
the volume fraction of total porosity with pore
diameters from 7.5 to 150 mm occupied 0.01 and
0.04 m3 m
3 less volume under ZT and MT than that
under CT. There was a significant (P = 0.05) effect of
reduced tillage systems on the above stated reduction
in volume fraction of total porosity with pore
diameters <7.5 mm except at 0.020.75 mm pore size
range at 075 mm soil depth. The volume fraction of
total porosity with pore diameters >150 mm was
significantly higher in SW system than SP at 0
75 mm soil and was significantly higher in SW
rotation than SL at 75150 mm soil depth. Other than
those, there were no definite trends in pore size
distribution though the individual effects were
significant at different pore size classes (Fig. 1) at
the upper two soil layers. The interaction effects of
volume fraction of total porosity were also significant

136

R. Bhattacharyya et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 86 (2006) 129140

Fig. 1. Pore size distribution as affected by tillage and cropping

system management at 075 and 75150 mm soil depth. CT, conventional tillage; MT, minimum tillage; ZT, zero-tillage; SW,
soybeanwheat; SL, soybeanlentil; SP, soybeanpea. LSD
(0.05) values for the means of tillage, cropping and tillage  cropcropping interactions at each data point are indicated by +,

and  signs, respectively.

at the upper soil layers, except at <0.02 mm pore

diameter of 075 mm soil layer. The effect of reduced
tillage management was to reduce the volume fraction
of large pores and to increase the volume fraction of
small pores relative to CT management.
We used the criteria of Greenland (1981) for
describing soil pores in this study. The volume of
pores drained >10 kPa are combination of transmission pores and macropores through which water
moves freely under gravity. The volume of pores
drained between
10 and
1500 kPa is termed as
storage pores. Transmission pores are important both
in soilplantwater relationships and in maintaining

Fig. 2. Pore size distribution as affected by tillage and cropping

system management at 150225 and 225300 mm soil depth. CT,
conventional tillage; MT, minimum tillage; ZT, zero-tillage; SW,
soybeanwheat; SL, soybeanlentil; SP, soybeanpea. LSD
(0.05) values for the means of tillage, cropping and tillage  cropcropping interactions at each data point are indicated by +,

and  signs, respectively.

good soil structure, and the storage pores are important

for holding water needed for plants and microorganisms (Pagliai et al., 1995). The 15030 mm portion of
transmission porosity (30030 mm EPD or pore space
drained when suction is reduced from
1 to
10 kPa)
was greater in the CT management than the reduced
tillage systems. Douglas et al. (1980) and Singh et al.
(1996) also observed less volume of transmission
pores under direct drilling and no-till soil, respectively. The 15030 mm portion of transmission
porosity of 0300 mm soil accounted for 9.4, 8.7
and 8.6% of the total porosity in the CT, MT and ZT

R. Bhattacharyya et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 86 (2006) 129140

systems and 9.0, 9.0 and 8.7% of the total porosity in

SW, SL and SP rotations, respectively. The pores
with diameters between 0.1 and 15 mm are assumed to
retain more plant available water than the larger pores
(Hill et al., 1985). The amount of plant available water
storage porosity (300.2 mm EPD) accounted for 58.4,
60.0 and 55.8% of the total porosity under ZT, MT and
CT systems, respectively, at 0150 mm soil depth and
58.5, 58.7 and 56.3% of the total porosity under ZT,
MT and CT systems, respectively, at 150300 mm soil
layer. In contrast, the volume fraction of total porosity
of pores >150 mm in diameter (pores draining freely
with gravity) averaged 0.124, 0.096 and 0.095 m3 m
3
under CT, MT and ZT systems, respectively.
Tillage resulted in the distribution of soil porosity
with time, and soil under ZT had a larger proportion of
water-filled pores than did conventionally tilled soil.
This might be due to better soil aggregation under ZT
system (Shukla et al., 2003). Although the soil of the
ZT system had higher bulk density in the surface layer
and lower total porosity and less macropore volume, it
probably had limited effect on soil water recharge and
drainage because of a higher amount of residue on the
soil surface. The macropores were more continuous
under ZT plots probably because of more soil fauna,
preceding crop root channels, and minimum disturbances (Zachamann et al., 1987). These continuous
macropores partially compensate for reduction in total
macroporosity of the soils under ZT plots. Tilled soils
had higher tillage-induced macropore volume in the
topsoil, but these might not be well connected to the
subsoil macropore (Hussain et al., 1998).
3.5. Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity [k(h)]
Greater unsaturated hydraulic conductivity was
computed for the soils under ZT than those under
MT and CT at
2 and
4 kPa suctions in the 075 mm
soil depth (Fig. 3). Soybeanpea cropping resulted in
significantly higher k(h) at 075 mm soil depth than
those under other systems up to
40 kPa suction.
Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity values were higher
under the soils of MT plots than those under CT and ZT
plots at higher suction range (>
10 kPa), except at

400 kPa suction. Significantly higher k(h) values
were obtained under SP rotation from
2 to
30 kPa
suction than those under SL and SW rotations. Again,
the interaction effects of tillage and cropping systems

137

Fig. 3. Calculated unsaturated hydraulic conductivity as a function

of matric pressure as affected by tillage and cropping system
management at 075 and 75150 mm soil depth using Eq. (4).
CT, conventional tillage; MT, minimum tillage; ZT, zero-tillage; S
W, soybeanwheat; SL, soybeanlentil; SP, soybeanpea. LSD
(0.05) values for the means of tillage, cropping and tillage  cropcropping interactions at each data point are indicated by +,

and  signs, respectively.

on k(h) were significant at all the matric pressures.

Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity under ZTSP
system was significantly greater than k(h) values under
MTSW, MTSL and CTSW and CTSL systems at

2 and
4 kPa suctions. At greater suctions (
10 to

100 kPa), k(h) values under MTSP system was
higher than those observed under other systems.
With higher suction values (from
4 kPa onwards),
k(h) values under reduced tillage systems were
significantly higher than those under CT system at
75150 mm soil depth (Fig. 3). Higher k(h) values
were obtained under SL cropping than those
computed under other systems. The interaction effects
were found to be significant on k(h) values at
4 to

40 kPa suction. With increasing soil depth the k(h)
values reduced, irrespective of the management

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R. Bhattacharyya et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 86 (2006) 129140

Fig. 4. Calculated unsaturated hydraulic conductivity as a function

of matric pressure as affected by tillage and cropping system
management at 075 and 75150 mm soil depth using Eq. (4).
CT, conventional tillage; MT, minimum tillage; ZT, zero-tillage; S
W, soybeanwheat; SL, soybeanlentil; SP, soybeanpea. LSD
(0.05) values for the means of tillage, cropping and tillage  cropcropping interactions at each data point are indicated by +,

and  signs, respectively.

systems. Average k(h) under ZT was significantly

higher than that under MT and CT up to
10 kPa
suction ranges. At
20 to
400 kPa suction range,
conservation tillage systems had greater k(h) values
than those under CT. At 150225 mm soil depth, k(h)
under SP rotation was significantly higher than that
of other cropping systems at all suction levels except
at
2 and
10 kPa (Fig. 4). There were significant
interaction effects on k(h) values at all the suction
levels, except at
30 kPa suction. A close analysis of
observed k(h) data at 225300 mm soil layer revealed
the same trend of significantly higher k(h) values
under reduced tillage systems (Fig. 4). At
2 to

40 kPa suction, k(h) under SP system had higher
values than those under SW and SL systems. The
tillage  cropping interaction effects were also significant at all the matric pressure levels.

Most researchers have reported a significant tillage

effect on unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, but they
found that it was dependent on water potential range
(Allmaras et al., 1977), depth (Ehlers, 1977), soil type
and layering (Datiri and Lowery, 1991) and crop
rotation (Benjamin, 1993). Higher k(h) under ZT was
attributed to the destruction of macroporosity in the
tilled soil (Ehlers, 1977). Datiri and Lowery (1991)
found that tillage and soil layering both affected k(h).
Azooz et al. (1996) found that k(h) at
40 kPa was
greater for ZT than that for CT, and they explained that
this trend was due to more continuous pores under ZT.
Higher k(h) values under ZT and MT systems than
under CT and in SP rotation than in SL and SW
rotations were probably due to greater volume fraction
of pores <7.5 mm in diameter, which, in turn, resulted
faster transmission of water across a matric pressure
gradient than larger pores (Azooz et al., 1996). Few
differences in k(h) values were observed between
tillage regimes at matric pressures greater than

40 kPa (Fig. 4), especially at sub-surface soil layers.
This observation was a result of more large pores and
lower b value under CT than those under ZT. These
opposing effects on k(h) suggest that in zero-tilled
plots, water transmission through small pores contributes a great deal under both near-saturated and dry
conditions in this type of soil (Azooz et al., 1996).
The larger difference in k(h) in different tillage and
cropping systems also suggests that the pores under
reduced tillage and SP/SL rotation may be more
continuous than under CT and SW system, resulting
in greater water movement with ZT. Tillage can
disrupt pore continuity, especially within the tilled
zone and between the tilled and untilled zone (Kay,
1990). Our calculated results of greater k(h) under ZT
and MT systems than that under CT at different soil
layers are consistent with the findings of Azooz et al.
(1996). But the observed greater k(h) values under SP
and SL rotations than those under SW at 0300 mm
soil depth in sandy clay loam soils have rarely been
found previously.

4. Conclusions
These findings indicate that conservation tillage
may be more desirable than conventional tillage in
terms of water flow, both saturated and unsaturated. In

R. Bhattacharyya et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 86 (2006) 129140

this sub-temperate climate of the Indian Himalayas, a

sandy clay loam soil can effectively be managed with
conservation tillage to increase water storage and
transmission properties. Soybeanlentil or soybean
pea cropping system managed with conservation
tillage in this area may be better suited to tolerate
water scarcity than soybeanwheat rotation managed
with conventional tillage. The superiority of the above
mentioned system is due to more effective water
storage within numerically more numbers of fine pores
and better rearrangement of pore size classes for faster
water transmission both under saturated and unsaturated conditions.
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