Swedish Pakistani Institute of Technology

SWEDISH PAKISTANI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
AT 322 INDUSTRIAL FLUID MECHANICS TLR
INDEX Page #
COURSE CONTENTS 2
COURSE GOALS 5
LAB PROJECT 5
RECOMMENDED TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES 5
PNEUMATIC EQUIPMENT LIST 6
HYDRAULIC EQUIPMENT LIST 7
LAB MARKOFF SHEETS 8
LESSON 1. Introduction to Pneumatics 9
LESSON 2. Purpose and Types of Valves 10
LESSON 3. Introduction to Hydraulics 11
LESSON 4. Elements of a Hydraulic System 12
LESSON 5. Electron-pneumatics/Electro-hydraulics 13
LAB PROCEEDURES 14
PRACTICAL EXERCISES 15
INDUSTRIAL FLUID MECHANICS PROJECT 20
PROJECTS AND PROJECT REPORTS 25
TLR LESSON 1 26
TLR LESSON 2 44
TLR LESSON 3 54
TLR LESSON 4 61
TLR LESSON 5 83
APPENDIX A SYMBOLS FOR HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 85
APPENDIX B FLUID POWER DATA 93
COURSE CONTENTS
Total Contact Hours

Theory 32 T P C
Practical 96 1 3 2
AIMS: At the end of this course the students will be able to:
1. Explain the fundamental principles of pneumatics and use pneumatic circuits.

2. Explain fundamental principles of hydraulics and use hydraulic circuits.
3. Explain principles of electro-pneumatic and electro-hydraulic circuits and interface these circuits to a
controller.
COURSE CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION TO PNEUMATICS 6 Hours

1.1 Gas Laws:
1.1.1 Boyle's Law
1.1.2 Charless Law
1.1.3 Gay-Lussac's Law
1.1.4 Universal Law
1.2 Kinetic Theory of Gases
1.3 Calculation the followings:
1.3.1 Pressure
1.3.2 Area
1.3.3 Force
1.4 Types of Compressors:
1.4.1 Displacement Compressor
i) Reciprocating Piston Compressor
ii) Diaphragm Compressor

iii) Multistage Compressor
iv) Vane Compressor
v) Helical Compressor
1.4.2 Dynamic Compressor
1.5 Purpose of Intake Filters
1.6 Function of Aftercoolers
1.7 Purpose of Receiver Tank
1.8 Use of Pressure Switch
1.9 Why a Safety relief valve is included in a system
1.10 Purpose and types of Desiccant Dryers
1.10.1 Deliquescent Dryer
1.10.2 Chemically Regenerative Dryer
1.10.3 Heat Regenerative Dryer
1.11 Types of Pneumatic Actuators
1.11.1 Linear Actuators
1.11.2 Rotary Actuators
1.12 Pneumatic Flow Controls
1.13 Use of Pressure Regulators
1.13.1 Pilot Operated Regulator
1.13.2 The FRL
1.14 Operation of Directional Control Valves
1.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Pneumatic Systems
1.16 Difference between Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems
2. INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULICS 6 Hours

2.1 Principle of Hydraulics:
2.1.1 Hydrostatics
2.1.2 Hydrodynamics
2.2 Terms used in Hydraulics:
2.2.1 Flow
2.2.2 Pressure
2.2.3 Ideal/Laminar Flow
2.2.4 Turbulent/Nonlaminar Flow
2.2.5 Non-Ideal Flow
2.2.6 Corona Effect
2.2.7 Vena Contacta
2.2.8 Unbalanced System
2.2.9 Balanced System
2.2.10 Mechanical Advantage
2.2.11 Friction
2.2.12 Pressure Differential
2.3 Calculation of the followings:
2.3.1 Pressure
2.3.2 Force
2.3.3 Area
3. ELEMENTS OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEM 6 Hours

3.1 Types of Hydraulic Tanks, Filters and Baffles
3.1.1 Vented Tanks
3.1.2 Pressurized Tanks
3.1.3 Purpose and Maintenance of Filters
3.1.4 Purpose of Baffles

3.2 Various types of Hydraulic Pumps in common use
3.2.1 Nonpositive Displacement Pumps
3.2.2 Positive Displacement Pumps
3.2.3 Fixed and Variable Displacement Pumps
3.2.4 Pump Volume
3.2.5 Pump Displacement
3.2.6 Gear Pumps
3.2.7 Vane Pumps
3.2.8 Piston Pumps
3.2.9 Calculation of Pump Output
3.3 Purpose and types of Accumulators:
3.3.1 Purpose of Accumulators
3.3.2 Types of Accumulators
i) Spring Loaded
ii) Weighted
iii) Gas Pressurized
3.4 Purpose and various types of Actuators:
3.4.1 Purpose of Actuators
3.4.3 Cylinder Design
i) Single Acting
ii) Double Acting Single Rod
iii) Double Acting Double Rod
iv) Cushion Ended Cylinders
v) Telescoping Cylinders
3.4.4 Rotary Actuators (Hydraulic Motors)
i) Gear Motor
ii) Vane Motor
iii) Piston motor
iv) Rack and Pinion Actuator
v) Slot and follower motor
4. PURPOSE AND TYPES OF VALVES 6 Hours

4.1 Purpose of Valves
4.2 Flow Control Valves
4.2.1 Needle Valve
4.3 Pilot Operated Relief Valves
4.4 Pressure Compensated Flow Control Valves
4.5 Check Valves
4.5.1 Pilot Operated Check Valves
4.5.2 Counterbalance Valve
4.6 Directional Control Valves
4.6.1 Open Center Closed Port Valve
4.6.2 Closed Center Closed Port Valve
4.6.3 Open Center Open Port Valve
4.6.4 Closed Center Open Port Valve
4.7 Servo Control Valves
4.7.1 Spool-Type Servo Valve
4.7.2 Single Flapper Servo valve
4.7.3 Double Flapper Servo valve
4.7.4 Jet Pipe valve
5. INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC/ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC INTERFACING 8 Hours
5.1 Review the followings:

5.1.1 Difference between Polled I/O and Interrupt I/O
5.1.2 Operation of the SDK85
5.1.3 Operation of the 8255
5.2 Review the operation and appropriate use of the following;
5.2.1 Transistors
5.2.2 FETS
5.2.3 UJT
5.2.4 BJT
5.2.5 SCRs
5.2.6 TRIACS
5.2.7 Thyristors
5.2.8 MOVs
5.2.9 Diodes (surge suppression)
5.3 Describe the principle of:
5.3.1 Isolated Grounding
5.3.2 Common Point Grounding
5.4 Explain the operation of the following;
5.4.1 Reed relays
5.4.2 Control relays
5.4.3 Solid state relays
5.5 Describe the following Isolation Techniques:
5.5.1 Galvanic
5.5.2 Optical
5.5.3 Opto22
INDUSTRIAL FLUID MECHANICS COURSE GOALS
1. To enable the student to explain the fundamental principles of pneumatics.
2. To enable the student to connect pneumatic circuits.
3. To enable the student to use pneumatic circuits.
4. To enable the student to troubleshoot pneumatic circuits.
5. To enable the student to explain the fundamental principles of hydraulics.
6. To enable the student to connect hydraulic circuits.
7. To enable the student to use hydraulic circuits.
8. To enable the student to troubleshoot hydraulic circuits.
9. To enable the student to explain principles of electro-pneumatic and electro-hydraulic circuits.
10.To enable the student to interface these circuits to a controller.
11. To enable the student to troubleshoot these circuits to a controller.
LAB PROJECT
ASSIGNMENT: Build a Cylindrical Co-ordinate Robot (Motion Machine) using pneumatic actuators, and
directional control valves studies in Industrial Fluid Mechanics. Using sensors and interfacing
this motion machine to the SKD-85 Microprocessor trainer demonstrate real-time control.
TEXT/REFERENCE BOOKS
1. VICKERS Industrial Hydraulic Manual, Vickers Incorporated, 1989

2. Technology of Fluid Power, William W. Reeves, Delmar publishers, Inc.
PNEUMATIC EQUIPMENT LIST
EQUIPMENT CHECKOFF
1. Pilot operated directional control valve

(2 position with detente)
2. Solenoid operated directional control valve

(2 position,24 volt with detente)
(24 volt, 2 position 3 connection)
4. Manually operated directional control valve

(3 position, with detente)
5. Lever operated directional control valve (3)
6. Pressure control valve
7. Pressure release valve
8. Pressure gauge (2)
9. Flow control valve
10. Check valve (2)
11. Muffler
12. Single acting cylinder with spring return
13. Double acting cylinder
14. Double acting cylinder with reed switches
15. Bidirectional rotary actuator (motor)
HYDRALIC EQUIPMENT LIST
EQUIPMENT CHECKOFF
1. Pilot operated directional control valve

(2 position with detente)

(2 position,24 volt with detente)

(24 volt, 2 position 3 connection)
4. Manually operated directional control valve

(3 position, with detente)
5. Lever operated directional control valve (3)
6. Pressure control valve
7. Pressure release valve
8. Pressure gauge (2)
9. Flow control valve
10. Check valve (2)
11. Muffler
12. Single acting cylinder with spring return
13. Double acting cylinder
14. Double acting cylinder with reed switches
15. Bidirectional rotary actuator (motor)
LAB MARK-OFF SHEET NAME: _____________________________________
LAB 1:
LAB 2:
LAB 3:
LAB 4:
LAB 5:
LAB 6:
LAB 7:
LAB 8:
LAB 9:
LAB 10:
LAB 11:
LAB 12:
LAB 13:
LAB 14:
LAB 15:
LAB 16:
LAB 17:
LAB 18:
LAB 19
LAB 20
LAB 21
LAB 22
LAB 23
PROJECT
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION TO PNEUMATICS
1.1 Explain the following Gas Laws:

1.1.1 Boyle's Law
1.1.2 Charless Law
1.1.4 Universal Law
1.2 Describe Kinetic Theory of Gases
1.3 Calculate the followings:

1.3.1 Pressure
1.3.2 Area
1.3.3 Force
1.4 Explain different Types of Compressors:

iv) Vane Compressor
v) Helical Compressor
1.5 Explain the purpose of Intake Filters
1.6 Describe the function of Aftercoolers
1.7 Explain the purpose of Receiver Tank
1.8 Describe the use of Pressure Switch
1.9 Explain why a Safety relief valve is included in a system
1.10 Describe the purpose and types of Desiccant Dryers

1.11 Explain the types of Pneumatic Actuators

1.12 Describe Pneumatic Flow Controls
1.13 Explain the use of Pressure Regulators

1.13.2 The FRL
1.14 Describe the operation of Directional Control Valves
1.15 Explain Advantages and Disadvantages of Pneumatic Systems
1.16 Describe the difference between Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems
LESSON 2
INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULICS
2.1 Differentiate between categories of Hydraulics:

2.1.1 Hydrostatics
2.1.2 Hydrodynamics
2.2 Explain the following terms used in Hydraulics:

2.2.1 Flow
2.2.2 Pressure
2.2.6 Corona Effect
2.2.7 Vena Contacta
2.2.11 Friction

2.3.1 Pressure
2.3.2 Force
2.3.3 Area
LESSON 3
ELEMENTS OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
3.1 Describe the types of Hydraulic Tanks and explain Filters and Baffles
3.1.1 Vented Tanks
3.1.2 Pressurized Tanks
3.2 Explain various types of Hydraulic Pumps in common use

3.2.4 Pump Volume
3.2.6 Gear Pumps
3.2.7 Vane Pumps
3.2.8 Piston Pumps
3.3 Describe purpose and types of Accumulators:

i) Spring Loaded
ii) Weighted
3.4 Explain purpose and various types of Actuators:

i) Single Acting
3.4.4 Rotary Actuators (Hydraulic Motors)
i) Gear Motor
ii) Vane Motor
iii) Piston motor
v) Slot and follower motor
LESSON 4
EXPLAIN PURPOSE AND TYPES OF VALVES

4.2.1 Needle Valve
4.5 Check Valves



LESSON 5
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC/ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC INTERFACING


5.2.1 Transistors
5.2.2 FETS
5.2.3 UJT
5.2.4 BJT
5.2.5 SCRs
5.2.6 TRIACS
5.2.7 Thyristors
5.2.8 MOVs


5.4.1 Reed relays

5.5.1 Galvanic
5.5.2 Optical
5.5.3 Opto22
LAB PROCEDURES
PRIOR TO LAB:
1. Read the complete lab procedure.
2. Prior to the START of a lab session, you must:

1. read the theory to be covered by the lab
2. draw any required piping/wiring or schematic diagram
3. have access to data sheets
4. get the needed components
5. get the required tools and test equipment
DURING LAB:
1. Connect/Wire the circuit neatly, ALWAYS according to a piping/wiring diagram.
2. Be careful with positive and negative voltages.
3. Test equipment and circuit must share a common ground. DO NOT use isolation transformers OR any
equipment missing a ground prong.
4. If a circuit requires an extra component, ask the instructor.
5. ALWAYS ask the instructor to approve any circuit before applying power.
6. Use the Front Section of your Lab Log Book for your final results ONLY use the Back Section of your Lab Log
Book for your initial diagrams, calculations, etc...
7. Use Pneusim or Hydrasim to test your circuits before connecting any pneumatic or hydraulic circuits.
8. Use Pneusim or Hydrasim to print the final version of your circuits.
PROBLEMS:
1. Most problems are piping/wiring errors; by using a piping/wiring diagram and neat piping/wiring, most
problems are eliminated.
2. The next common source of problem is lack of lab preparation; PREPARE all your labs and DON'T start a lab
unless you understand it.
3. The instructor will verify your diagram on request.
4. If you require assistance from the instructor, make sure you can describe the problem.
5. Ultimately, YOU are responsible for debugging your own labs.
AFTER THE LAB:
1. The labs are designed for you to experiment with various devices. Lab preparation is done PRIOR to lab time
and lab reports AFTER lab time.
PRACTICAL EXERCICES
LAB 1
TOPIC: Introduction to Pneumatics
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Mount the pneumatic devices onto the sheet of plywood provided.

NOTE: the components must be able to interact!
2. Sketch using ANSI symbols the layout of your pneumatic board.
LAB 2
TOPIC: Pneumatic Circuits
NOTE: For all labs a completely labled circuit diagram must be included using ANSI symbols!
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Using a manually operated DCV, make a cylinder extend and retract.
LAB 3
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Using a manually operated DCV, make a cylinder extend, then another cylinder extend, then both retract
simultaneously.
LAB 4
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Using a manually operated DCV, make a cylinder extend, make another cylinder extend, and a third cylinder
extend sequentially. All cylinders are to retract simultaneously.
LAB 5
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Using a manually operated DCV, make two cylinders extend simultaneously, and the third retract.
LAB 6
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Using a manually operated DCV, make one cylinder extend which will cause the motor to turn clockwise.
When the DCV is switched the first cylinder is to retract and a second cylinder will extend, which will cause
the motor rotate counter clockwise.
LAB 7
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Use the manually operated DCV to operate the Pilot operated DCV, to cause one cylinder to extend rapidly
and retract slowly.
LAB 8
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Use the manually operated DCV, to operate two cylinders. As one cylinder extends the other is to retract and
vice versa. The direction of rotation of the motor is to be controlled by a pilot operated DCV and the motor is
to go faster in on direction and slower in the other.
LAB 9
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Using a Solinoid operated DCV, extend and retract 2 cylinders, simultaneously. The second cylinder is to
cause the motor to change direction of rotation .
LAB 10
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Using solinoid operated DCV's, and a pilot operated DCV. Cause the motor change direction of rotation when
one cylinder extends and the other retracts.
LAB 11
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Extend and retract two cylinders using solinoid operated DCV's, but limit the stroke to half extention using the
reed switches in the cylinder. You can use micro switches as well.
LAB 12
TOPIC: Introduction to Hydraulics
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Mount the hydraulic devices onto the sheet of plywood provided.

NOTE: the components must be able to interact!
2. Sketch using ANSI symbols the layout of your hydraulic board.
LAB 13
TOPIC: Hydraulic Circuits
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Using a manually operated DCV, make a cylinder extend and retract.
LAB 14
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Using a manually operated DCV, make a cylinder extend, then another cylinder extend, then both retract
simultaneously.
LAB 15
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Using a manually operated DCV, make a cylinder extend, make another cylinder extend, and a third cylinder
extend sequentially. All cylinders are to retract simultaneously.
LAB 16
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Using a manually operated DCV, make two cylinders extend simultaneously, and the third retract.
LAB 17
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Using a manually operated DCV, make one cylinder extend which will cause the motor to turn clockwise.
When the DCV is switched the first cylinder is to retract and a second cylinder will extend, which will cause
the motor rotate counter clockwise.
LAB 18
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Use the manually operated DCV to operate the Pilot operated DCV, to cause one cylinder to extend rapidly
and retract slowly.
LAB 19
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Use the manually operated DCV, to operate two cylinders. As one cylinder extends the other is to retract and
vice versa. The direction of rotation of the motor is to be controlled by a pilot operated DCV and the motor is
to go faster in on direction and slower in the other.
LAB 20
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Using a Solinoid operated DCV, extend and retract 2 cylinders, simultaneously. The second cylinder is to
cause the motor to change direction of rotation .
LAB 21
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Using solinoid operated DCV's, and a pilot operated DCV. Cause the motor change direction of rotation when
one cylinder extends and the other retracts.
LAB 22
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Extend and retract two cylinders using solinoid operated DCV's, but limit the stroke to half extention using the
reed switches in the cylinder. You can use micro switches as well.
LAB 23
TOPIC: Electro-pneumatic/Electro-hydraulic Interfacing
ASSIGNMENT:
Using the SDK85 as a controller develop a program that will extend a cylinder for 5 seconds, and
retract it for 5 seconds . Another cylinder is to extend for 3 seconds and retract for 3 seconds. Each
cylinder is to complete 10 cycles and the system is to stop. The process is to be controlled by a
Start/Stop station. There is to be an E-stop facility
that is interrupt controlled.
INDUSTRIAL FLUID MECHANICS PROJECT
In your group, you are to assemble a Cylindrical Co-ordinate Robot as per the attached drawings. This robot
is to have the following features:
i) THE PROJECT IS TO USE THE PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS FOR ENDSTOP TO ENDSTOP MOTION.
ii) POSITIONAL FEEDBACK MUST BE USED TO CONFIRM ALL MOTIONS. IF THE COMPLETED MOTION IS
NOT EXECUTED, AN APPROPRIATE ERROR CODE MUST BE GENERATED FROM THE
CONTROLLER AND THE ROBOT MUST CEASE ALL MOTION.
iii) THERE MUST BE AN EMERGENCY STOP FACILITY THAT IS INTERRUPT DRIVEN. UNDER THIS CONDITION
ALL I/O POWER MUST BE REMOVED.
iv) THE SDK85 WILL ACT AS THE CONTROLLER AND AN APPROPRIATE INTERFACE MUST BE ASSEMBLED.
v) THE USER INTERFACE IS TO DISPLAY THE STAUS OF THE SYSTEM AND INDICATE AN APPROPRIATE
ERROR CODE OR EMERGENCY STOP IF IT HAS OCCURRED.
vi) ALL NECESSARY TOOLING AND FIXTURING IS TO BE ASSEMBLED IN ORDER TO PERFORM THE
DESIRED ROUTINE WITH THE APPROPRIATE SENSOR FEEDBACK.
vii) THE MOTION MACHINE (ROBOT) IS TO PERFORM THE FOLLOWING ROUTINE:
1. GO UP FROM THE BASE

2. EXTEND UPPER ARM
3. ROTATE AT THE BASE
4. GO DOWN TO THE BASE
5. GRIP A WORKPIECE
6. GO UP FROM THE BASE
7. RETRACT UPPER ARM
8. ROTATE AT THE BASE
9. GO DOWN TO THE BASE

10. UN-GRIP THE WORKPIECE
viii.
THE CONTROLLER IS TO MONITOR THE STATUS OF THE INPUT MAGAZINE AND OUTPUT
MAGAZINE. IF NO PART IS PRESENT AT THE INPUT MAGAZINE THE MOTION IS TO CEASE AND AN
APPROPRIATE ALARM MUST BE SET. IF THE OUTPUT MAGAZINE IS FULL, THE MOTION IS TO CEASE
AND AN APPROPRIATE ALARM IS TO BE SET. UNDER AN EMERGENCY STOP CONDITION THE
ROBOT IS TO CEASE ALL MOVES AND AN APPROPRIATE ALARM MUST BE SET.
viii.
THE ROBOT IS TO EXECUTE ITS MOTION CONTINUOUSLY UNDER NORMAL CONDITIONS. IT IS
TO HAVE A CONTROLLED START AND STOP. IT MUST ALSO RESPOND TO THE CONDITIONS
OUTLINED IN VIII ABOVE.
CYLINDRICAL CO-ORDINATE ROBOT DRAWINGS
C
YLINDRICAL CO-ORDINATE ROBOT DRAWINGS
PROJECTS and PROJECT REPORTS
All Projects are to have a Formal Report. These reports are an exercise in technical writing as well as a
record of what the group built. The evaluation of any report will be based on:
- A cover page
- A table of contents
- A list of figures/diagrams
- An Introduction/Purpose
- A parts list
- Block diagrams
- Mechanical diagrams (dimensioned) if appropriate
- Electrical diagrams (fully labled)
- Observations
- Recommendations
- Conclusions
Project reports will be evaluated using the following criteria:
- Spelling/syntax 20%
- Presentation 20%
- Intro/Conclusion 20%
-.Main body 20%
- Flowcharts/diag's 20%
All reports are to word processed using MS-WORD, and the spelling and grammar will be evaluated. The
reports are to have a professional appearance so Layout and image are very important. Content is to be
complete and remember the reader may or may not be Technically competent. As a result don't leave any
detail out. All plots are to be done using MS-EXCEL and drawings to be done using Electronic Workbench
or CAD.
Projects will be evaluated using the following criteria:
20% Presentation
20% Functionality
25% Report
15% Lab Performance
10% Assistance Required
10% Overall
The purpose of the project is to integrate all previous courses and illustrate how a Pneumatic Motion Machine
can be used in real time.
LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION TO PNEUMATICS
1.1 Explain the following Gas Laws:

1.1.1 Boyle's Law
This law is established by British scientist Robert Boyle. It states that the volume of an enclosed gas
varies inversely with its absolute pressure, if the temperature remains constant. Boyle's law deals
with absolute pressure (psi or Kpa) or the reading from a pressure gauge plus atmospheric pressure.
Although atmospheric pressure will vary according to weather conditions and elevation, it is
standardized to be 14.7 psi ( 101 Kpa).
The formula for Boyles Law is:
(constant)
Where:
P is the pressure
V is the volume
Alternately, Boyles Law can be written under constant T (in absolute degrees K)
Where:
At constant Temperature
P1 is the pressure at V1
P2 is the pressure at V2
1.1.2 Charles Law

This law states that if the pressure on a confined gas is held constant, the volume of the gas will
change in direct proportion to its change in absolute temperature. As a result, the loss of volume
when temperature decreases will cause a vertical load to somewhat retract. The degree to which this
contraction occurs is a function of the cross-sectional area of the cylinder's piston.
The formula for Charles Law is:
(constant)
Where:
V is the volume
T is the temperature in Degrees Kelvin
Alternately, Charles Law can be written under constant Pressure (P):
Where:
V1 is the volume at T1
V2 is the volume at T2

This law states that if the volume of a gas contained within a cylinder is held constant, the absolute
pressure exerted by the gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature. Absolute temperature
is defined as degrees Rankine and may be calculated by adding the constant 460 to degrees
Fahrenheit, or as degrees Kelvin and may be calculated by adding the constant 273 to degree
Celsius. Each increment of pressure rise within the closed receiver tank will result in increased
temperature.
The formula for Gay-Lussacs Law is:
(constant)
Where:
P is the pressure
T is the temperature in Degrees Kelvin
Alternately, Gay-Lussacs Law can be written under constant Volume (V):
Where:
P1 is the pressure at T1
P2 is the pressure at T2
1.1.4 Universal Law
Can be written as:
Where:
P is the pressure
V is the volume
T is the temperature (in absolute degrees K)
m is the mass of the gas
R is the characteristic gas constant for a particular gas
This equation can be re-written as:
For a given mass of gas:
mR = constant
Thus for a given mass of gas, if there is a change of state from conditions noted by suffix 1 to those
shown by suffix 2, then:
1.2 Describe Kinetic Theory of Gases

The kinetic theory of gases states that molecules of a gas
move rapidly and in a straight line until theycollide with
something (the wall of the container) which causes changes in
the direction in which and speed at which they are traveling.
Figure 1.1 shows two views of a piston inside a cylinder. If the

piston is pushed downward, the space inside the container is
reduced. The cylinder still contains the same number of air
molecules as it did before the piston was pushed downward,
but the volume inside the cylinder has been reduced. Since
the space inside the cylinder is reduced, the molecules will
strike the walls of the cylinder more often than they did before
the piston was pushed downward. This causes the pressure
inside the cylinder to be greater than that outside the cylinder.
The air inside the cylinder is said to be compressed.
Not only has the pressure inside the cylinder gone up as a

result of the piston being pushed downward, but the
temperature has also gone up. When the molecules strike the
wall of the container, some of their energy is converted to
heat. When the piston returns to its original position, the air
inside the cylinder cools rapidly because inside surface area
of the cylinder is no longer being struck as often by the
molecules. This temperature change can be dramatic. In some situations, the temperature can drop below
freezing, and ice can form on the cylinder.
Figure 1.1 Effects of compression on

pressure and temperature of gas molecules.
1.3 Calculate the following:
1.3.1 Pressure
T
his is defined as force per unit area. Pressure = Force (newtons)/Area (square metres)
The SI unit, N/m2, is called a Pascal (Pa), therefore 1 N/m 2 = 1 Pa. This is a very small unit
of pressure and in pneumatics the bar is more commonly used, where 1 bar = 10 5 N/m2.
The megapascal or mPa is also being increasingly used for higher pressure systems where:
1 mPa = 10 bar = 106 N/m2
The imperial system uses lb/in2 and ton/in2 to measure pressure, while in the metric system
kg/cm2 are the units used. The relationship between these units is shown in Table 1.1.
Atmospheric pressure
This is the pressure on the surface of the earth caused by the weight of the air in the
atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure varies from place to place and with time. For most
pneumatic calculations atmospheric pressure may be considered constant and equal to 1 bar
or 105 N/m2. When pressure is measured above atmospheric pressure it is referred to as
gauge pressure.
Absolute pressure
Should the pressure be measured above absolute vacuum it is known as absolute pressure,
i.e. Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
The vast majority of pressure gauges are calibrated with atmospheric pressure as the zero
point. In this system it is possible to have negative pressures up to minus 1 bar, indicating
vacuum conditions.
Note that all calculations involving the gas laws require values of pressure and temperature
to be in absolute units. In all other calculations gauge pressures are used.
1
.3.2 Area
1.3.3 Force
See above example.
1.4 Explain different Types of Compressors:
There are two basic types of compressors: displacement compressors and dynamic compressors.
Displacement compressors are similar to the positive displacement pumps. Dynamic compressors are similar
to the nonpositive displacement pumps.

The reciprocating piston compressor is the most common

type of compressor. Figure 1.2 shows the operation of the
reciprocating compressor. Starting with the piston at the
top of the cylinder, the crankshaft pulls the piston
downward, creating a vacuum in the expanding area
above the piston. As the piston is pulled downward, the
intake valve is opened. Air from the atmosphere quickly
rushes in to fill the vacuum. When the piston reaches the
bottom of the cylinder, the intake valve closes and the
crankshaft pushes the piston upward. The area above the
piston is reduced, and the air in the cylinder is compressed.
Figure 1.2 Operation of a reciprocating
piston compressor.
When the piston nears the top of the cylinder, the outlet valve opens and the compressed air
rushes out of the cylinder. When the piston reaches the top of the cylinder. the outlet valve closes
and the inlet valve opens. The piston begins its downward travel and the process is repeated.
A diaphragm compressor operates in much the

same way as a reciprocating piston compressor
(Figure 1.3).The diaphragm is pulled downward
and pushed upward by a crankshaft and
connecting rod, but instead of sliding up and down
inside the cylinder as the piston does, the
diaphragm is simply distorted by the movement of
the connecting rod and the crankshaft. When the
crankshaft and the connecting rod push upward on
the diaphragm, the diaphragm forms a concave
surface, which reduces the volume inside the
compressor. When the connecting rod and the
crankshaft pull downward on the diaphragm, the
diaphragm becomes convex, which increases the
volume inside the compressor.
When the diaphragm is pulled downward, air

rushes into the compressor. When the diaphragm
is pushed upward, the air is compressed and exits through the outlet valve of the compressor. The
diaphragm compressor is often smaller than the reciprocating piston compressor and cannot
compress as large a volume of air as most reciprocating piston compressor can.
Figure 1.3 Operation of a diaphragm compressor.
The temperature of a gas rises as the gas is compressed. As the gas is heated, it expands, which
makes the process of compressing the gas even more difficult. For this reason, industrial systems
that require compressed air at more than 100 psi normally incorporate multistage compressors.
To illustrate the operation of multistage compressor we will use a two-stage compressor shown in
F
igure 1.4. The compressor has two cylinders, one larger than the other. The piston in both cylinders are connected to
a single crankshaft. While the
piston in the larger cylinder is
being pulled downward, the
piston in the smaller cylinder is
being pushed upward. The
operation of the two-stage
compressor begins by pulling the
larger piston downward while the
intake valve is open. The larger
cylinder fills with air from the
atmosphere. as the crankshaft
continues to turn, the larger
piston is pushed upward and the
air in the cylinder is compressed. As the piston approaches the top of the cylinder, the outlet valve opens and the
compressed air exits.
Figure 1.4 Two stage compressor.
The compressed air is much hotter than the ambient temperature ( the temperature of the air
outside the compressor). Therefore, the air leaving the larger cylinder is directed through an
intercooler. The purpose of the intercooler is to cool the air before it is drawn into the smaller cylinder.
After the air has cooled, it can be further compressed more easily by the second stage of the
compressor. After the compressed air from the larger cylinder has been cooled, it flows into the
smaller cylinder as the piston is pulled downward. When the piston in the smaller cylinder is pushed
upward, the air in the cylinder is further compressed.
Multistage compressors are more efficient than single-stage compressors. Less energy is
required to turn a multistage compressor because the heat from compression is removed between
each stage of compression.
iv) Vane Compressor

A vane compressor is similar in
design to the vane pump used in
hydraulic systems (Figure 1.5).
Atmospheric air rushes in to fill the
vacuum created by the rotor. As the rotor turns, the air is carried into chambers which reduce its
volume and thus compress it.
Figure 1.5 Operation of a vane compressor.
The major advantage of the vane compressor over the reciprocating piston compressor is its
constant delivery of compressed air. The major disadvantage of the vane compressor is its limited
output pressure. It is possible to get much higher
output pressure from a multistage reciprocating
compressor.
v. Helical Compressor
A helical compressor (Figure 1.6) compresses air through the action of two meshing motors
resembling screws. Atmospheric air enters at one end of the compressor, flows past the turning
rotors, and exits as compressed air at the other end.
Figure 1.6 Helical (screw) compressor.

An example of a dynamic compressor is a fan. The air is accelerated by the spinning blades. The
fast-moving air is converted to pressure. In a displacement compressor, on the other hand, pressure
is created by moving a piston in a cylinder to reduce the volume of air in the cylinder.
1.5 Explain the purpose of Intake Filters

Air entering a compressor carries with it dirt from the atmosphere.
Most compressors have tightly fitting parts in a housing. Airborne dirt
drawn into the compressor will scratch cylinder walls, destroy
bearings, and significantly reduce the life of the compressor. An intake
filter will trap much of the dirt before it enters the compressor. The air
filter on an automobile engine serves the same purpose as the intake
filter on a compressor. The intake filter on a compressor traps like air
filter the dirt before it can enter the compressor (Figure 1.7). The
location of the filter should be chosen carefully i.e., a cleaner location
should be selected for the filter.
Figure 1.7 Intake filter.
1.6 Describe the function of Aftercoolers
The major purpose of an aftercooler is to do as its name implies, to cool the gas after it has been
compressed. An aftercooler also removes much of the entrapped water vapor in the compressed air. The
water carried in hot compressed air can be substantial, as much as 1.4 quarts of water in 1000 cubic feet of
air. An industrial compressor of moderate size can produce as much as 50 gallons of water in a 24-hour
period.
Figure 1.8 Aftercooler.
The construction of an aftercooler is similar to that of the intercooler . The compressed gas is passed through
a fin tube. The gas may be cooled by radiation of heat from the fin tube to the surrounding air, or the tube
may be encased in a housing and cooled by passing water over it (Figure 1.8).
If more vapor must be removed than can be removed with a simple water-type aftercooler, a refrigeration unit
can be added. The refrigeration unit cools the water that is passing over the fin tube, thus lowering the
temperature of the compressed air. More water vapor turns into water and can be drained from the system.
1.7 Explain the purpose of Receiver Tank
A receiver tank is always included in a pneumatic system. It performs the same function as the accumulator
in a hydraulic system. It stores the compressed air for use by the system (Figure 1.9). When the components
in a pneumatic system are turned on, they demand a
constant supply of high-pressure air to operate. Because the
compressor alone may not be able to meet the demand, the
receiver tank tales up the slack, supplying air as needed.
The receiver tank also performs another function. Many

compressors do not supply an even flow of compressed air.
The piston compressor supplies air only while the piston is
moving upward. When the piston is moving downward the
compressor is drawing air in from the atmosphere, preparing for the next compression stroke. The uneven air
flow from the compressor can damage pneumatic components and cause the system to operate erratically.
The receiver tank absorbs the pulses from the compressor and supplies the system with a constant flow of
high-pressure air.
Figure 1.9 Receiver tank.
1.8 Describe the use of Pressure Switch
The receiver tank stores the compressed air from the compressor until it is needed by the system. If the
system does not need air, the receiver tank stores the compressed air, and the pressure in the tank rises. For
safety, the pressure in the tank cannot be allowed to continue to rise. A pressure switch is used to turn off the
compressor when the rank has reached a preset pressure. When the system begins to operate, the
compressed air flows out of the receiver tank and the pressure in the tank goes down. When the pressure
gets low enough, the pressure switch turns the compressor switch turns the compressor back on to refill the
tank.
Figure 1.10 shows a pressure switch. It is normally mounted on the receiver tank. As the pressure in the tank
rises, the piston is pushed up. When the pressure is high enough the piston overcomes the spring tension
and turns the pressure switch off, thus cutting the power to the compressor. As the compressed in the tank is
used by the system, the pressure in the tank begins to drop. After the pressure in the tank drops far enough
so that the spring pushes the piston down, the compressor switch turns on. The spring can be adjusted with a
bolt. As the bolt is turned the spring is compressed further, and the pressure in the tank must be higher
before it can overcome the spring tension and turn the compressor off.
Figure 1.10 Pressure switch.
1.9 Explain why a Safety relief valve is included in a system

The pressure switch should keep the pneumatic system operating within safe limits, however, should the
pressure switch fail and not turn the compressor off, the pressure in the tank will continue to rise. If the
pressure should become too high the receiver tank or other component in the system may explode. For this
reason a safety relief valve is always included in the system. Figure 1.11 shows a safety relief valve along
with its schematic symbol. As the pressure in the system rises, the poppet is pushed upward. If the poppet is
pushed up far enough, the exhaust port is opened and the pressure in the tank is vented to the atmosphere.
Figure 1.11 Safety relief valve.
1.10 Describe the purpose and types of Desiccant Dryers
Not all systems require an aftercooler for cooling the air and removing moisture. Often the simpler desiccant
dryer will give the desired results. Even systems that utilize an aftercooler may include a desiccant dryer as a
final attempt to trap all of the moisture in the system. The filter contains a chemical that converts the water
vapor into water. Three types of desiccant dryers are used in industry.

In this type of dryer (Figure 1.12), water vapor in the compressed air is passed through a chemical
called a deliquescent drying agent. As water vapor passes through the chemical it is absorbed.
These chemicals include
lithium
chloride
and
calcium chloride.
There are some problems

with this type of dryer. The
deliquescent agents are
corrosive.
As
the
compressed air is passed
through
the
corrosive
chemical it picks up some
of the chemical and carries
it throughout the system.
In the long run this can
cause maintenance problems; however, this type of dryer has the lowest initial cost and operating
cost and is a popular choice in the industry.
Figure 1.12 Deliquescent dryer.
In a chemically regenerative dryer, two desiccant dryers are used. As one of the dryers becomes
saturated, the incoming air is delivered to the other canister while the first canister is being renewed.
To review the desiccant in the saturated canister, a small portion of the dried air exiting the second
canister is diverted to the saturated canister (Figure 1.13). The dry air coming from the second
canister quickly dries the desiccant in the saturated canister, which then can be used again. The
switching from one dryer to the other is controlled by a timer and may occur several times each
minute.
Figure 1.13 Chemically regenerative dryer.

T
he heat regenerative dryer is similar to the chemically regenerative dryer. There are two canisters as in chemically
regenerative dryer.
When one of the
canisters becomes
saturated,
the
system
automatically
switches to the
other canister. The
difference
between the two
systems is that in
the
heat
regenerative dryer
the desiccant is dried by passing heated air through it (Figure 1.14), rather than by simply diverting dried air from the
other canister as in chemically regenerative dryer.
Figure 1.14 Heat regenerative dryer.
1.11 Explain the types of Pneumatic Actuators
The actuators that produce work in pneumatic systems are similar to those used in hydraulic systems.
Although the actuators look similar from outside, they are not identical. Normally, they cannot be
interchanged. They differ in the types of seals and glands used.
The linear actuators (cylinders) are also available for

pneumatic systems. These cylinders are the single
acting cylinder, the double acting cylinder, and double
acting, double rod cylinder. Another type of cylinder
that is often used in pneumatic systems but rarely
found in hydraulic systems is the single acting spring
return cylinder (Figure 1.15).
Figure 1.15 Single acting spring return cylinder.
The single acting spring return cylinder has a single input just as do other single acting cylinders.
When air is pumped into the blind end of the cylinder until the pressure exceeds the spring tension,
the rod extends. As long as the pressure
behind the piston is higher than the spring
tension, the rod remains extended. When
the pressure is reduced behind the piston, the piston and rod retract. The schematic symbol for a
single acting spring return cylinder is shown in Figure 1.16. Cushioned pneumatic cylinders are also
available. They operate the same as the hydraulic cushioned cylinders.
Figure 1.16 Schematic symbol for a single
acting spring return cylinder.
Pneumatic rotary actuators are very similar to hydraulic rotary actuators.

One of the first pneumatic rotary actuators was the piston motor. It is of a
radial design (Figure 1.17). This type of motor is a low speed motor. Its
normal operating speed is below 1000 rpm. It is almost relatively expensive.
For these reasons it is not a very popular choice.
Figure 1.17 Piston motor.
The more common choice is the vane motor. The design of the pneumatic vane motor is similar to
the design of the hydraulic motor. Most vane motors are bidirectional. This means that the vane
motors can run in either direction. If the air is pumped into the port on the left, the motor will turn
clockwise (Figure 1.18). If air is pumped into the port on the right, the motor will turn clockwise
(Figure 1.19). The speed at which a vane motor turns is controlled by the volume of air pumped to
the motor. The torque developed by a vane motor is determined by the pressure and the area of the
vanes. The vane motor is the most popular of the rotary actuators because of its relatively low cost,
its power, its variable speed, and its safety.
Figure 1.18 Vane motor (clockwise rotation). Figure 1.19 Vane motor (counterclockwise rotation).
Another type of rotary actuator is the turbine motor. High pressure air is directed through a nozzle. As
the air exits the nozzle it expands rapidly. This expanded air is directed across a turbine (fan). The
turbine spins at a very high speed. Because of the high speed and the difficulty of gearing it down to
a usable speed, turbine motors are limited to special applications such as high-speed grinders.
1.12 Describe Pneumatic Flow Controls
Pneumatic systems require some means of regulating the flow rate to the components to their speed.
Pneumatic flow controls are similar to the flow controls found in hydraulic systems. Flow control can be as
simple as a needle valve or as complex as a pressure flow compensator.
1.13 Explain the use of Pressure Regulators

Different actuators in a system require different pressures. Pressure regulators are used throughout the
system to regulate the pressure delivered to the various actuators.
Figure 1.20 shows a cutaway view of a pressure regulator. A spring pushing against a diaphragm pushes a
poppet (spool) down. Air entering the regulator passes through the orifice created by the open poppet. As
back pressure begins to build due to the load on the actuator, the diaphragm is pushed up, partially closing
the poppet and reducing the flow of air to the actuator. As back pressure builds, the poppet is pushed further
closed. Finally, when the back pressure becomes high enough, the poppet is fully closed and no more air
flows to the actuator. Pressure at the actuator is at a maximum (Figure 1.21).
Figure 1.20 Pressure regulator (with poppet open). Figure 1.21 Pressure regulator (with poppet closed).
If the actuator should move the load, the volume in the actuator increases and the pressure drops (Figure
1.20). As the pressure drops, the spring pushes the diaphragm and the poppet downward, opening a
passage for air. The pressure again begins to build in the actuator and the cycle repeats itself. The pressure
being supplies to the actuator is controlled by the setting of the spring. As the screw on the top of the
regulator is turned in, the tension on the spring increases. The higher the tension on the spring, the higher
the back pressure must be for the diaphragm to overcome the spring tension and close off the valve (Figure
1.21).
Figure 1.21 Back pressure in a pressure regulator.
The pilot operated regulator is made up of two separate regulators. One of them is called the slave
regulator and the other is called the pilot regulator (Figure 1.22). The slave regulator operates the
same as the standard regulator. The only difference is the absence of the main spring. Air is directed
to the top of the piston or the diaphragm from a pilot line. There is still a small spring that opens the
poppet. Pilot pressure from another regulator is directed to the top of the diaphragm, and back
pressure from the actuator pushes upward to close the valve. The balance between pilot pressure
and back pressure controls the final pressure. The pilot regulator is identical to the regulator that was
described earlier.
igure 1.22 Pilot operated regulator.
The advantage of the pilot operated regulator is that the slave regulator can be located wherever it is
needed, even if it is in an inconvenient location for adjustment. The pilot regulator can be placed in a
location where it can be conveniently adjusted. Adjustment of the pilot regulator adjusts the slave
regulator.
1.13.2 The FRL
O
ften a regulator is combined with other elements and installed as a package. The package consists of a filter, a
regulator, and a lubricator (FLR) (Figure 1.23). The filter removes rust, dirt, scale,
and water that still remain in the system. The regulator controls the operating
pressure of the actuator. The regulator controls the operating pressure of the
actuator. The lubricator introduces a mist of oil into the air to lubricate the valves and actuators downstream. The FLR
also includes a pressure gauge to show the regulated pressure. The schematic system for an FRL is shown in Figure
1.24.
Figure 1.23 FRL. Figure 1.24 Schematic symbol for an FRL.
1.14 Describe the operation of Directional Control Valves
The directional control valves used in pneumatic systems are similar to

those used in hydraulic systems. The major difference in their design is the
use of O rings. The schematic symbols for directional control valves are
shown in Figure 1.25. We will analyze the operation of the blocked center
directional control valve shown in Figure 1.25. All directional control valves
can be analyzed in the same way.
The center block shows the inlet and the exhaust ports on one side and the
connections to the actuator on the other side. The center port on the inlet
side is connected to system pressure (Figure 1.26). The other two
connections are for exhaust. In a pneumatic system, fluid does not have to
be returned to the tank as it does in a hydraulic system. The air is simply
exhausted to the atmosphere. In this valve all ports are blocked in neutral.
When the spool is shifted to the right, air is directed to the blind end of the cylinder and the air in the rod end
of the cylinder is exhausted to the atmosphere (Figure 1.27). Figure 1.25 Schematic symbols
for directional control valves.
Figure 1.26 Center block of symbol for a blocked center directional control valve, showing inlet and exhaust
ports and connection to actuator.
Figure 1.27 Blocked center directional control valve

with spool shifted to the right.
Pneumatic directional control valves can be operated by levers, pedals, or solenoids, or can be pilot
operated.
1.15 Explain Advantages and Disadvantages of Pneumatic Systems
The system for pumping air into a pneumatic cylinder is much simpler than the hydraulic pumping system.
This is mainly because there is no point in recirculating used air. Air expelled from the cylinder is released to
the atmosphere through a valve. Sudden changes in pressure are prevented by having an air receiver, that is
a pressurized tank connected to the high pressure side of the pump. The pump then only has to be powerful
enough to ensure that the pressure in the receiver is maintained. A pressure-sensitive switch ensures that the
pump is only working when the pressure in the receiver falls below some predetermined value. Pneumatic
systems offer a number of advantages over hydraulic systems as follows:
(i) A pneumatic system is generally less expensive than an equivalent hydraulic system. Many factories have
compressed air available and one large compressor pump can serve several robots.
(ii) Whereas a leak in a hydraulic system will require prompt attention to prevent loss of liquid and the
introduction of air in the cylinder, a small amount of air leakage from a pneumatic system can usually
be tolerated.
(iii) The compressibility of air can also be an advantage in some applications. Think about the automatic
doors of buses and trains which are operated pneumatically. If you are unfortunate enough to be
caught in the doors you will not be crushed. In addition, a pressure relief valve can be incorporated to
release the pressure when a certain force is exceeded. This principle can be used in the gripper of a
robot to protect the robot both from damaging itself and from damaging the equipment with which it is
working.
(iv) Finally, that fact that air is light means that a mass of air can be accelerated quickly. Therefore pneumatic
drives are faster to respond than their hydraulic counterparts.
The main disadvantage of pneumatic system is that they cannot produce the enormous forces
characteristics of hydraulic systems. A second disadvantage concerns the accurate positioning of the
piston. Since air is compressible, heavy loads on the robot arm may cause the piston to move, even
when all the valves on the cylinder are closed. For this reason, pneumatic actuators are generally
only suitable for pick and place robots.
1.16 Describe the difference between Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems
The difference between a hydraulic system and a pneumatic system is the fluid that is used to transmit
energy. A hydraulic system uses oil or other liquid to transmit force whereas a pneumatic system uses a gas.
A gas is also a fluid. It will flow from a high pressure area to a low pressure area. Because of the similarity
between hydraulic systems and pneumatic systems, many of the components in a pneumatic system are
similar to those found in a hydraulic system. Consider for example, a hydraulic directional control valve and a
pneumatic directional control valve. They are almost identical. The only difference is the addition of rubber
seals around the spool of the pneumatic valve to keep it from leaking. Seals are not necessary in the
hydraulic valve because the molecules that make up the oil are too large to leak between the spool and the
valve body. The much smaller gas molecules in a pneumatic system will leak between the spool and the
valve body if O rings are not included in the design.
Another difference between hydraulic and pneumatic systems is the greater compressibility of the air in a
pneumatic system. Hydraulic fluid compresses very little. The compressibility of gas can be both an
advantage and disadvantage. The advantage of the compressibility of gas is that it acts as a natural shock
absorber. If the load should suddenly increase, the air in the system will compress like a spring, absorbing
the load. A disadvantage is that air can compress when it is not desirable. The arm of a pneumatic robot will
sag as the load is increased. The sagging of the arm impairs the repeatability of the robot.
Another difference between hydraulic and pneumatic systems is the way in which the return fluid is handled.
In a hydraulic system the return fluid (oil) is directed back to the tank whereas in a pneumatic system the
return fluid (air) is simply exhausted to the atmosphere.
LESSON 2
PURPOSE AND TYPES OF VALVES
Valves start, stop, and control the direction of fluid flow. If the positive displacement pump is being turned by
an electric motor, fluid will be pumped and the cylinder will move. After the piston in the cylinder has moved
through its total stroke and the accumulator has been filled, the hydraulic fluid will continue to be pumped.
Pressure in the system will quickly rise, and if the electric drive motor is not turned off the pressure will cause
something in the system to explode. If a valve is added to the system to allow fluid to be returned to the tank
when the system pressure has reached a maximum, the system will be protected.
There are three factors that affect the flow of hydraulic fluid. They are the size of the restrictor, the pressure
differential across the restrictor, and the temperature of the fluid. In our discussion of flow control valves we
will ignore temperature as a factor, however, you should be aware that more fluid will pass through a
restrictor when the fluid is hot than when it is cold.
2.2.1 Needle Valve
The needle valve is shown in Figure 2.1, along with its schematic symbol. To adjust the flow through
the restrictor, the knob can be turned in one direction to reduce the size of the orifice and in the other
direction to increase the size of the orifice.
Figure 2.1 Needle valve.

The pilot operated relief valve, which is shown in Figure 2.2 along with its schematic symbol, is similar to the
standard relief valve but has several extra parts. It has a main spool. There is a small hole bored through the
center of the spool. This forms an orifice. There is also a smaller spool called a pilot spool. There is a spring
that holds the main spool closed. The spring tension on this spool cannot be adjusted. There is also a spring
that holds the pilot closed. The tension on this spring can be adjusted by a screw in the top of the valve.
Figure 2.2 Pilot operated relief valve with pilot closed (normal pressure).
When the pump is turned on, fluid begins to flow in the system and the load causes pressure to rise in the
system. Fluid also passes through the hole bored in the main spool. This small opening forms an orifice. The
pressure that is created in the chamber between the main spool and the pilot spool forces the main spool to
seat. The main spool spring also helps to keep the main spool seated. System pressure continues to rise,
and the pressure in the chamber also rises. Finally, the pressure in the chamber becomes so high, that the
pilot opens. When the pilot opens, fluid flows through a small passage to the tank. The pressure in the
chamber goes down. The system pressure pushing on the bottom of the main spool is higher than the
pressure in the chamber, and the main spool opens. A large passage is opened to the tank to relieve the
system pressure. The main spool will move only enough to balance the chamber pressure and system
pressure.
Pressure differential affects flow. If the load on a system is increases, the pressure differential decreases and
the load moves more slowly. This problem can be overcome by using a pressure compensated flow control
valve (figure 2.3).
Figure 2.3 Pressure compensated flow control valve.
The valve is made up of a valve body, a spool, a spring, and a needle valve. The spring pushes the spool to
the left. This opens a passage for fluid through the valve body to the needle valve and finally to the load.
As pressure increases in front of the needle valve, pressure in the pilot line increases. This increases the
pressure on the spool end. If this pressure becomes huge enough, the spool will slide to the right,
compressing the spring and partially closing off the main passage to the needle valve. This reduces the flow
of liquid to the needle valve, and the pressure drops. The spool modulates (slides back and forth), keeping
the pressure in front of the needle valve constant.
In order to control the pressure differential across the needle valve, it is necessary to add one more pilot
passage (Figure 2.4). If the load increases, the pressure caused by the increased load puts a higher
pressure on the right side of the spool, through the new pilot passage, pushing the spool to the left. This
opens the passage from the pump to the needle valve, allowing more flow and increasing the pressure on the
front side of the needle valve. The pressure increase on the front side of the needle valve is exactly the same
as the pressure increase on the output of the needle valve caused by the increased load, and the pressure
differential is maintained. Maintaining the pressure differential maintains the flow rate.
The schematic symbol for a pressure compensated flow control valve is also shown in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4 Pressure compensated flow control valve with

additional pilot passage and schematic symbol.
2.5 Check Valves
Another very common valve in hydraulic systems is the check valve. The check valve allows fluid to flow in
only one direction (Figure 2.5). Fluid coming in from the left side exerts pressure against the spool. When the
pressure becomes high enough, the spool compresses the spring that is holding it closed and fluid flows
through the opening. If fluid attempts to flow in the reverse direction (from right to left), the fluid exerts
pressure on the spool, forcing the spool tighter into the seat, and no fluid can flow. The schematic symbol for
a check valve is also shown in the figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5 Check valve with schematic symbol.
The pilot operated check valve is similar to a normal check valve. The only difference is a pilot line
and pilot piston (Figure 2.6). When fluids attempts to flow from left to right it is blocked by the check
valve. If pressure is applied to the pilot passage, the main spool is forced open and fluid can flow
back through the valve.
Figure 2.6 Pilot operated check valve.

The counterbalance valve is a special form of the pilot operated check valve. It can be placed
anywhere in the system but normally is mounted directly on an actuator.
Figure
2.7
shows
a
counterbalance valve mounted
on the base of a cylinder. When
fluid is pumped through line A,
the pressure in the line opens
the check valve and fluid flows
into the blind end of the
cylinder. When the pump is
turned off, the fluid is blocked
from flowing out of the cylinder
by the check valve. Even if the
cylinder is supporting a 1000-lb
load and line A breaks, the load will not fall because the check valve blocks flow from the blind end of
the cylinder.
Figure 2.7 Counterbalance valve mounted
on a cylinder.
To get the cylinder to move downward, fluid is pumped into line B. Notice that there is a pilot line
connecting line B to a spool in the counterbalance valve. When fluid is pumped into line B, pressure
builds at the rod end of the cylinder and in the pilot line. The pressure in the pilot line forces the spool
downward. This opens a passage for fluid to flow from the blind end of the cylinder through line A to
the tank. The schematic symbol for a counterbalance valve is also shown in Figure 2.7.

In the discussion of counterbalance valves, we said that fluid was pumped into line A and returned to the tank
through line B. We also showed what happens what happens when fluid is pumped into line B and returns to
the tank through line A. The switching of fluid
flow is done with a directional control valve.
A directional control valve has two major

parts: the valve body and the spool. Many
directional control valves have two inlets and
two outlets (Figure 2.8). The inlets to a
directional control are called the center. The
outlets of a directional control valve are
called the ports. If the fluid is blocked by the
spool, the valve is said to have a closed
center. If the fluid can enter the valve and
return to the tank, the valve is said to have
an open center (Figure2.9).
Figure 2.8 Directional control valve with two inlets and two
outlets. (pump input is labeled P, tank inlet T, and valve
outlets are labeled A and B).
When the valve is in neutral, fluid may be blocked at the port or it may be able to flow through the valve and
back out the other port line. If fluid is blocked by the port, the valve is called a closed port valve. If fluid is
allowed to pass through the valve it is said to be an open port valve. Combining either an open center or a
closed center with an open port or a closed port yields the various types of valves that are available. There
are four possible combinations.
(a) Closed center valve. (b) Open center valve.
Figure 2.9 Open and closed center valves.

The first type of directional control valve is the open center, closed port valve (Figure2.10). When this
valve is in neutral, fluid from the pump can pass through the valve and back to the tank. Also, fluid in
the cylinder cannot move from either the rod end or the blind end of the center. A partial symbol for
an open center, closed port valve is also shown when the valve is not in the neutral position. The fluid
from the pump can pass through the valve and return to the tank. This is shown as a connection from
line P to line T in the block. The fluid is blocked at the port. Lines A and B are not connected together.
Figure 2.10 Open center, closed port directional control valve with schematic symbol.

The second type of valve is the closed center, closed port valve (Figure 2.11). When this valve is
neutral, fluid coming from the pump is blocked at the valve (it cannot enter the valve). The fluid in the
cylinder cannot move between the rod and blind ends.
Figure 2.11 Closed center, closed port directional control valve with schematic symbol.

The third type of valve is the open center, open port valve (Figure 2.12). When this valve is neutral,
fluid from the pump can move through the valve and back to the tank. Also, fluid can move between
the rod and blind ends of the cylinder through the valve.
Figure 2.12 Open center, open port directional control valve with schematic symbol.
The fourth type of valve is the closed center, open port valve (Figure 2.13). When this type of valve is
neutral, fluid from the pump is blocked by the valve. Fluid can flow between the rod and blind ends of
the cylinder through the valve. When the valve is not in neutral position, the fluid from the pump is
blocked at the valve (P and T are blocked). Fluid in the cylinder can flow between the blind end and
the rod end.
Figure 2.13 Closed center, open port directional control valve with schematic symbol.

A servo control valve is an electrically controlled valve. The servo valve can be opened a small amount by
applying a small voltage. As the voltage is increased the valve opens farther. This differs from a solenoid
valve in that a solenoid valve either fully open or fully closed.
A simple servo valve is shown in Figure 2.14. When voltage is applied to the torque motor, it moves the
spool, opening a passage through which fluid can flow from the pump to the cylinder. If the voltage is
reversed, the spool moves in the other direction. The direction in which the spool moves is a function of the
direction in which the voltage is applied to the motor, and the amount the spool moves is a function of the
amount of voltage that is applied to the motor. The size of simple servo valves is limited by the amount of
torque that can be developed by a torque motor. As the size of the valve is increased to allow for greater flow,
more power is needed to move the spool. A solution to this problem is the two stage servo valve. Four types
of two-stage valves are in common usage: the spool, single flapper, double flapper, and jet pipe valves.
Figure 2.14 Single stage spool type servo valve.
A two-stage spool-type servo valve is shown in Figure 2.15. The valve has a main spool and a pilot spool.
The small pilot spool is moved by a torque motor. By moving the small pilot spool, fluid is directed to
the main spool. When the pilot spool is moved to the right, fluid is directed to the right side of the
main spool while fluid on the left side of the spool is allowed to drain to the tank. The increased
pressure on the right side of the main spool shifts it to the left. Fluid from the pump is directed to port
A.
Figure 2.15 Two stage spool-type servo valve.
If the voltage applied to the torque motor is reversed, the pilot spool is pushed to the left by the
motor. Fluid is directed to the leftside of the main spool, and the main spool shifts to the right. Fluid
from the pump is directed to port B. In
addition to the pilot spool and the main
spool, the valve also contains a
feedback linkage. The feedback linkage
prevents the main spool from shifting too
far. The feedback linkage senses the
excessive movement of the main spool
and shifts the pilot spool to equalize the
pressures on the main spool, thereby
stopping the movement of the main
spool.
The single flapper servo valve is similar to the spool-type servo valve. The difference lies in the first
stage (pilot stage). A single flapper has one fixed orifice (Figure 2.16). When the flapper is away from
the port there is a large pressure drop and no pilot pressure is directed to the main spool. As the
flapper moves closer to the port, pressure is directed to the main spool, and the spool shifts.
Figure 2.16 Single flapper servo valve.
The double flapper servo valve has

two fixed orifices (Figure 2.17). The
flapper is centered between the ports.
When the flapper is pushed toward
the port on the right side, pressure on
the right side of the main spool
increases and pressure on the left
side of the main spool is reduced. The
spool shifts to the left. When the
flapper is moved to the left, pressure
on the left side of the main spool
increases and pressure on the right
side of the spool drops. The main
spool shifts to the right.
Figure 2.17 Double flapper servo valve.
The jet pipe servo valve is shown in Figure 2.18.

Pilot fluid is fed through a nozzle. When the nozzle
is pulled to the left by a torque motor, pilot fluid
pressure is directed to the left side of the main
spool. When the nozzle is pushed to the right, fluid
is directed to the right side of the main spool.
Figure 2.18 Jet pipe servo valve.
LESSON 3
INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULICS
The word hydraulic is derived from the Greek word for water. Therefore, the study of hydraulics can be
considered to be the study of water flow. However, the hydraulic systems in robotic manipulator drives do not
use water, rather, they use oil. The oil is placed under pressure so that the energy from the oil is transferred
to the movement of the manipulator.
Oil is the second-most plentiful liquid on Earth, surpassed only by water. water is denser and cheaper, while
oil is a superior lubricant. Water promotes oxidation of metal surfaces. Water retards fire, while oil promotes it
when exposed to flame or high temperature. The oil used in modern hydraulic circuitry is referred to as
hydraulic fluid.
3.1 Differentiate between categories of Hydraulics:
3.1.1 Hydrostatics
Hydrostatics is based on the principle that a contained fluid, under pressure, transmits pressure
equally in all directions. If a pressure is applied to the water in the container by placing a piston in the
top and placing a weight on top of the piston, the pressure in the container will be equal throughout.
There will be the same pressure pushing against the sides, bottom and top. This is known as
Pascal's Law.
It is important to remember that fluids are not compressible. The volume of water in the container
does not change as the pressure in the system is increased. The principle of pressure being equally
distributed in a container is used in automobile jacks, industrial cranes, industrial robots, and many of
the machine tools that are common in the industry.
3.1.2 Hydrodynamics
Hydrodynamic systems use the principle that fluid in motion transmits force. Hydroelectric power
plants use this principle to generate the power to turn the electric generators. The water falling over a
dam turns the water wheel. The water wheel is connected to the generator with a shaft, and the
generator is turned.
Although hydrodynamic systems can be used to produce usable energy they are not common in
industry. One application that has become commonplace is the torque converter.
3.2 Explain the following terms used in Hydraulics:
3.2.1 Flow
The pressure developed in the robotic hydraulic system transforms the hydraulic energy into
movement of the manipulator. This movement is caused by the flow of fluid through the various pipes
in the hydraulic system. Velocity of fluid is the average speed at which the fluid's particles pass a
given point, or the average distance the particles travel per unit of time. The measurement of velocity
is either in feet per minute (fpm), in feet per second (fps), or in inches per second (ips)
Flow rate of a fluid is a measure of the volume of a fluid passing a point in a given time. Large
volumes are measured in gallons per minute (gpm). small volumes are measured in cubic inches per
minute
Flow in hydraulic system is measured in two ways: as velocity of the fluid and as flow rate of the fluid.
Velocity of a fluid is the average speed at which the fluid's particles pass a given point, or the
average distance the particles travel per unit of time. The measurement of velocity is either in feet
per minute (fpm), in feet per second (fps), or inches per second (ips). Flow rate of a fluid is a
measure of the volume of a fluid passing a point in a given time. Large volumes are measured in
gallons per minute (gpm). Small volumes are measured in cubic inches per minute.
3.2.2 Pressure
Pressure is developed in a system when the fluid used encounters some type of opposition. The
pressure can be developed in two ways: through the use of a pump and through the use of a weight
placed on the fluid. Pressure is the amount of push that is applied on a given area. It is expressed as
a force on a unit area of the surface acted upon, and is usually measured in pounds per square inch,
abbreviated as psi. Knowing the pressure and the area on which it is being exerted, one can readily
determine the total force as equal to pressure multiplied by the area.
Whenever a fluid is flowing, there is a condition of unbalance to cause the motion. Therefore, when
fluid is flowing through a pipe, the pressure is always greatest at the point closest to the input of the
fluid. As the distance from the input increases, the pressure decreases. As the fluid flows through the
pipe, the friction in the pipe causes the pressure to decrease. The differences in pressure along the
pipe are called pressure drops.
Ideally, when the particles of a fluid move through a pipe, they will move in a straight, parallel flow
paths. This condition is called laminar flow and occurs at low velocity in straight piping. With laminar
flow, friction is minimized.
Turbulence is the condition where the particles do not move smoothly parallel to the flow direction.
Turbulent flow is caused by abrupt changes in direction or cross section, or by too high velocity. The
result is greatly increased friction, which generates heat, increases operating pressure and wastes
power.
3.2.6 Corona Effect
This is when the fluid when passing through a chamfered surface, sticks to that surface, causing
restriction to flow. See above figure under Non-ideal Flow.
3.2.7 Vena Contacta
This is when the fluid when flowing through an abrupt change in pipe diameter, will flow backwards.
See above figure under Non-ideal Flow.
The principle of Mechanical Advantage can be seen from the previous discussion on Balanced and
Un-balanced systems. If there is significant difference in the piston areas, a small force acting on a
small piston can move a large force coupled to a large piston. Therefore a small force can move a
large force, hence mechanical advantage.
3.2.11 Friction
Friction is the result of fluid flowing through a pipe and the hydraulic fluid interacting with the walls of
the pipe. This friction is a source of heat. As seen previously, if the volume is a constant, and heat is
introduced to the system, the system pressure will increase. The use coolers to maintain system
temperature is recommended.
When ever there is a pressure differential, fluid will flow from the volume of High Pressure to the
volume of Low Pressure.

3.3.1 Pressure
Pressure equals the force of the load divided by the piston area. We can express this relationship by
the general formula: P = F / A
In this relationship:
P is pressure in psi (pounds per square inch)
F is the force in pounds
A is the area in square inches
From this it can be seen that an increase or decrease in the load will result in a like increase or
decrease in the operating pressure. In other words, pressure is proportional to the load, and a
pressure gauge reading indicates the work load (in psi) at any given moment. Pressure gauge
readings normally ignore atmospheric pressure. That is, a standard gauge reads zero at atmospheric
pressure. An absolute gauge reads 14.7 psi sea level atmospheric pressure. Absolute pressure is
usually designated psia.
3.3.2 Force
When a hydraulic cylinder is used to clamp or press, its output force can be computed as follows:
F=PxA
where
P is pressure in psi
F is the force in pounds
As an example, suppose that a hydraulic press has its pressure regulated at 2000 psi and this
pressure is applied to a ram area of 20 sq. in. The output force will then be 40,000 lb.
3.3.3 Area
The area of a piston or ram can be computed by the formula:
A = 0.7854 x d2
where
d is the diameter of the piston in inches
LESSON 4
ELEMENTS OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
4.1 Describe the types of Hydraulic Tanks and explain Filters and Baffles
4.1.1 Vented Tanks
Hydraulic tanks can be either vented or pressurized. A vented tank allows air from the atmosphere to
enter and leave the tank. As the hydraulic oil in the tank heats up it expands. Air in the tank also
expands and contracts. The heated oil warms the air and the air expands (Figure 4.1). As the oil and
air expand, air is forced out of the tank through the tank vent. When the oil cools, the air and oil both
contract, and air is drawn back into the tank through the vent. To keep dirt from entering the tank
through the vent, the vent normally has filter material in the cap. The fill pipe for the tank also has a
strainer to keep dirt from entering the tank while it is being refilled with oil.
Figure 4.1 Cutaway view of a vented tank.
2. Pressurized Tanks
A pressurized tank does not have a vent, but rather has a cap much like the cap on an automobile
radiator. As the hydraulic fluid heat during operation, the air pressure in the tank is not allowed to
escape to the atmosphere. This raises the pressure in the tank a few pounds. The added pressure
forces oil out of the tank to the hydraulic pump, ensuring that there is always an adequate supply of
oil at the pump.
The pressure cap of a pressurized hydraulic tank is shown in Figure 4.2. The cap contains a spring.
Should the pressure in the tank rise above a safe level, the spring is compressed, opening a vent
which allows some of the pressure to escape to the atmosphere. There is also another valve in the
pressure cap. It is called an atmosphere valve. When the oil in the hydraulic system cools, it
contracts, causing a vacuum in the tank. The atmosphere valve opens and allows air to flow back
into the tank.
Figure 4.2 Cutaway views of a pressurized tank cap.
Hydraulic systems cannot tolerate dirt. Dirt causes the close-fitting parts of the hydraulic pumps,
motors, and valves to wear quickly. To prevent damage due to dirt, hydraulic systems have filters.
The filter may be mounted inside or outside the tank. The filter not only filters out dirt that may have
entered the system through the atmosphere but also filters out steel or brass particles that wear off
the pumps, motors, and valves.
Filters are related according to the amount of pressure they can handle and the size of the smallest
particle they will trap. When replacing a filter, be certain to replace the old filter with the one
recommended by the manufacturer. Most robot manufacturers recommend that filter be replaced
routinely after a specified number of hours of operation. Filters are important and should not be
ignored, and electronic systems should not be relied upon for indication of filter failure.

The hydraulic tank contains baffles. The baffles perform two functions. First, the baffles prevent the
oil that enters the tank from going directly to the outlet of the tank. The incoming hot oil mixes with
the cooler oil in the tank, ensuring that the oil will not overheat. Second, the baffles reduce turbulence
in the tank. If there were no baffles, the incoming oil would cause waves in the tank. This churning
would mix air into the oil. If air becomes mixed with the hydraulic oil the system becomes spongy. If
air should become mixed in with the hydraulic oil of a robot, the manipulator will sag when it is
picking up a heavy load and it will jerk as it moves the load.
4.2 Explain various types of Hydraulic Pumps in common use

In a hydraulic system, the pump converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy by pushing fluid
into the system. All pumps work on the same principle, generating an increasing volume on the
intake side and a decreasing volume at the discharge side.; but the different types of pumps vary
greatly in methods and sophistication.
T
his pump design is used mainly for fluid transfer in systems where the only resistance is created by the weight of the
fluid itself and friction. Most nonpositive displacement pumps (figure 4.3) operate by centrifugal force. Fluids entering
the center of the pump housing are thrown to the outside by means of a rapidly driven impeller. There is no positive
seal between the inlet and outlet ports, and pressure capabilities are a function of drive speed. Although it provides a
smooth, continuous flow, the output from this type of pump is reduced as resistance is increased. In fact, it is possible
to completely block off the outlet while the pump is running. For this and other reasons, these pumps are seldom
used in power hydraulic systems today.
Figure 4.3 Nonpositive displacement pumps.
The positive displacement is most commonly used in industrial hydraulic systems. It delivers to the
system, a specific amount of fluid per stroke, revolution, or cycle. The principle of positive
displacement pumps is demonstrated in figure 4.4. This type of pump is classified as fixed or variable
displacement.
igure 4-4 Demonstrating the principle of positive displacement pump.
Fixed displacement pumps have a displacenebt which cannot be changed without replacing certain
components. With some, however, it is possible to vary the size of the pumping chamber ( and the
displacement ) by using external controls. These pumps are known as variable-displacement pumps.
4.2.4 Pump Volume

Theoratically, a pump delivers an amount of fluid equal to its displacement during each cycle or
revolution. In reality, the actual output is reduced because of internal leaksge or slippage. As
pressure increases, the leakage from the outlet back to the inlet (or to the drain) also increases,
causing a decrease in volumetric efficiency. Volumetric efficiency is equal to the actual output divided
by the theoratical output. It is expressed as a percentage.
As an example, if a punp presumably delivers 10 gpm but actually delivers 9 gpm at 1000 psi, the
volumetric effeciency of that pump at that speed and pressure is:
Efficiency = 9 / 10 = 0.9 or 90 percent

The flow capacity of a pump can be expressed as displacement per revolution or output in gpm.
Displacement is the volume of the liquid transferred in one revolution. It is equal to the volume of one
pumping chamber multiplied by the number of chambers taht pass the outlet per revolution.
Displacement is expressed in cubic inches per revolution.
4.2.6 Gear Pumps
A gear pump develops flow by carrying fluid between the teeth of two meshed gears. Powered by the
drive shaft, the drive gear turns the second gear, which is called the driven or idler gear. The
pumping chamber formed between the gear teeth are enclosed by the pump housing, or center
section, and side plates (often called wear or pressure plates).
Gear pumps are referred to as unbalanced because high pressure at the pump outlet imposes an
unbalanced load on the gears and the bearings. Large bearings incorporated into the designs
counteract these loads. The gears can handle a hydraulic pressure of up to 3600 psi. Gear pumps
are of two types, the external and internal gear pumps.
As shown in figure 4.5, in the external gear pumps, the gears are placed side by side. A partial
vaccum is created at the inlet as the gear teeth unmesh, drawing fluid into the chambers formed
between the teeth. The chambers carry the fluid around the outside of the gears, where it is forced
out as the teeth mesh again at the outlet. External gear pumps are available as single, multiple, or
through drive versions as shown in figure 4.6.
F
igure 4.5 External gear pump operation.
Figure 4.6 Multiple versions of the external gear pump.
Figure 4.7 illustrates a typical internal gear pump. This pump design consists of an external gear that
meshes with the teeth that are on the inside of a larger gear. The pumping chambers are formed
between the gear teeth. Like the external type, internal gear drives are fixed displacement and are
available in single and multiple configurations.
Figure 4.7 Internal gear pump operation.
4.2.7 Vane Pumps
The operating principle of a vane pump is illustrated in Figure 4.8. A slotted rotor is splined to the
drive shaft and turns inside a cam ring. Vanes are fitted to the rotor slots and follow the inner surface
of the ring as the rotor turns. Generally, a minimum starting speed of 600 rpm throws the vanes out
against the ring, where they are held by centrifugal force and pump outlet pressure. Pumping
chambers are formed between the vanes and are enclosed by the rotor, ring, and two side plates.
Figure 4.8 Vane pump operation (unbalanced).
Because the ring is offset (eccentric) from the rotor center line, the chambers increase in size,
creating a partial vacuum that collects fluid entering the inlet port. As they cross over the center, the
chambers become progressively smaller, facing the fluid to be expelled at the pump outlet. The
displacement of the pump depends on the widths of the ring and rotor and on the distance the vane
is allowed to extend from the rotor surface to the ring surface.
Vane pumps cover the low to medium-high volume ranges with operating pressure up to 3000 psi.
They are reliable, efficient, and easy to maintain. Along with this high efficiency, vane pumps have a
low noise level and a long life.
4.2.8 Piston Pumps

All piston pumps operate on the principle that a piston reciprocating in a bore will draw fluid in as it is
retracted and expel it as it moves forward. The basic designs are radial and axial, both available as
fixed- or variable-displacement models.
Piston pumps are highly efficient units, available in a wide range of capacities. They are capable of
operating in the medium- to high-pressure range (1500 - 3000 psi), with some going much higher.
Because of their closely fitted parts and finely machined surfaces, cleanliness and good quality fluids
are vital to long service life.
(i) Radial Piston Pumps.
A radial pump has the pistons arranged radially in a cylinder block (figure 4.9). The cylinder block
rotates on a stationary spindle inside a circular reaction ring or rotor. As the block rotates, centrifugal
force, charging pressure, pr dome form of mechanical action causes the pistons to follow the inner
surface of the ring, which is offset from the centerline of the cylinder block.
Pump displacement is determined by the size and number of pistons, and the length of their stroke.
In some models, the displacement can be varied by moving the reaction ring to increase or decrease
piston travel.
Figure 4.9 Operation of radial piston pump.
(ii) Axial Piston Pumps.
In the axial piston pumps, the piston reciprocates parallel to the axis of rotation of the cylinder block.
The simplest type of axial piston pump is the swash plate in-line design (figure 4.10). The cylinder
block in this pump is turned by the drive shaft. Pistons fitted to bores in the cylinder block are
connected through piston shoes and a shoe plate, so that the shoes bear against an angled swash
plate.
F
igure 4.10 In-line design piston pump.
As the block turns, the piston shoes follow the swash plate, causing the pistons to reciprocate. The
ports are arranged in the valve plate so that the pistons pass the inlet as they are pulled out and pass
the outlet as they are forced back in.
Like radial piston pumps, the displacement of axial piston pumps is determined by the size and
number of pistons, as well as the stroke length. Stroke length is determined by the angle of the
swash plate.
A Job To Be Done
All circuit design must start with the job to be done. There is a weight to be lifted, a tool head to be
rotated, or a piece of work that must be clamped.
T
he job determines the type of actuator that will be used.
Perhaps the first step should be the selection of an actuator.
If the requirement were simply to raise a load, a hydraulic cylinder placed under it would do the job.
The stroke length of the cylinder would be at least equal to the distance the load must be moved. Its
area would be determined by the force required to raise the load and the desired operating pressure.
Let's assume an 8000 lb weight is to be raised a distance of 30 in. and the maximum operating
pressure must be limited to 1000 psi. The cylinder selected would have to have a stroke length of at
least 30 in. and with an 8 sq. in. area piston it would provide a maximum force of 8000 lb. This,
however, would not provide any margin for error. A better selection would be a 10 sq. in. cylinder
permitting the load to be raised at 800 psi and providing the capability of lifting up to 10,000 lb.
T
he upward and downward travel of the piston rod would be controlled by a directional valve. If the load is to be
stopped
at
intermediate
points in its
travel,
the
directional
valve should
have
a
neutral
position
in
which oil flow
from
the
underside of
the piston is
blocked
to
support the
weight on the
cylinder. The
rate at which
the load must
travel
will
determine the
pump size. The 10 sq. in. piston will displace 10 cu. in. for every inch it lifts. Extending the piston rod 30 in. will
require 300 cu. in. of fluid. If it is to move at the rate of 10 in. per second, it will require 100 cu. in. of fluid per second
or 6000 cu. in. per minute. Since pumps are usually rated in gallons per minute, it will be necessary to divide 6000 by
231 (cubic inches per gallon) to convert the requirements into gallons per minute.
6000 231 =26gpm.
The hp needed to drive the pump is a function of its delivery and the maximum pressure at which it
will operate. The following formula will determine the size of the electric motor required:
Hp = gpm x psi x 0.0007

Hp = 26 x 1000 x 0.0007 = 18.2
To prevent overloading of the electric motor and to protect the pump and other components from
excessive pressure due to overloads or stalling, a relief valve set to limit the maximum system
pressure should be installed in the line between the pump outlet and the inlet port to the directional
valve.
A reservoir sized to hold approximately two to three times the pump capacity in gallons per minute,
filters, and adequate interconnecting piping would complete the system.
4.3 Describe purpose and types of Accumulators:
High volumes of fluid are sometimes required in hydraulic systems. If this sudden requirement for
fluid is more than the pump can supply, it can be made up on a temporary basis if the system
includes an accumulator. An accumulator can be thought of as a small pressurized tank. Figure 4.11
shows an accumulator plumbed to a pump. The outlet of the pump is also plumbed to a cylinder. As
the pump pumps the fluid, some of the fluid is directed to the cylinder while the excess output of the
pump fills the accumulator. If there is a sudden need for more fluid to move the load faster, and the
pump volume is not high enough to supply the demand, the accumulator takes over for the pump and
supplies the required amount of fluid.
Figure 4.11 Hydraulic system with accumulator.
An accumulator can also be used as a shock absorber. If there should be a sudden increase in the
load, the excess fluid will flow back into the accumulator (Figure 4.12).
Figure 4.12 Illustration of how an accumulator can act as a shock absorber.
There are three types of accumulators: spring loaded, weighted, and gas pressurized accumulators
(Figure 4.13). All of these perform the same function. The only difference among the three types of
accumulators is the method of supplying pressure. The schematic symbols for these accumulators
are shown in Figure 4.14.
Figure 4.13 Cutaway views different accumulators.
Figure 4.14 Schematic symbols for accumulators.
i) Spring Loaded
The spring loaded accumulator can be mounted in any direction. It functions as well upside
down as it does when mounted upright. The disadvantage of the spring loaded accumulator
is its uneven pressure. When fluid is first pumped into the accumulator, the spring is easily
compressed. As more fluid is pumped into the accumulator, the spring exerts more and more
pressure. When the accumulator is supplying fluid to the system, the pressure varies. At first
the accumulator supplies fluid under high pressure, then as the spring extends, the output
pressure of the accumulator drops.
ii) Weighted
The weighted accumulator delivers an even pressure throughout its entire stroke. The
pressure required to fill the accumulator is the same when it begins to fill and remains the
same as it continues to fill. When the weighted accumulator is delivering fluid to the system,
its fluid pressure is always the same. The weighted accumulator has two major
disadvantages. First, if it is necessary to have an accumulator that can deliver a high
pressure, the weight must be very large. The second disadvantage is the requirement that it
must always be mounted upright since the weight is supplying the pressure.
The third type of accumulator is the gas pressurized accumulator. It is the most popular type.
Since gas is used to exert the pressure, the output pressure will be almost even throughout
the entire stroke. It can be mounted in any direction. At times it is necessary to replace the
gas charge in a gas pressurized accumulator. Never charge the gas pressurized accumulator
with any gas except dry nitrogen. If acetylene, oxygen, or any other gas that is not alert is
used, you may be creating a bomb. An accumulator charged with acetylene or oxygen can
explode with a tremendous force.
4.4 Explain purpose and various types of Actuators:

Power output devices in hydraulics are known, collectively, as actuators. Hydraulic actuators are
classified as linear, rotary, and combination. Many of the unique characteristics of hydraulic power
that result in advantages over other power-transmission devices result from the unique design,
operation, and application of hydraulic actuators.

Linear actuation in hydraulics is produced by devices commonly known as cylinders. Cylinders
produce movement in hydraulic circuitry similar to the linear movement of solenoids in electrical
circuitry or beams in mechanical devices. Cylinder design varies according to size, features, and
manufacturers; however most cylinders contain a sleeve, caps on both ends of the sleeve, a piston
fitted inside the sleeve, a rod or rods that attach to the piston and extend through the end cap or
caps, a port or ports to allow fluid input or expulsion, and various seals and bearing surfaces.
(Figures 4.15)
Figure 4.15 Typical construction of hydraulic cylinder.
i) Single Acting
Single-acting cylinders, or rams, typically act under pressure only during extension. Gravitational
forces acting on the load or other external forces may be used to cause retraction. Since hydraulic
power is not necessary during retraction, rods in the ram-type cylinder are generally large in size
relative to sleeve inside diameter, compared to other cylinder designs. This allows for uses of rams in
circuitry where heavy loads require mechanical support from the cylinder rod (figure 4.16).
F
igure 4.16 Single-acting cylinders or rams.
The
force
output in
the ram
cylinder
during
extension is a function of piston area and system pressure, while speed of actuation may be
determined by piston area and system delivery.
A
cylinder that has the capability to allow hydraulic pressure to act upon both sides of the cylinder's piston is referred to
as a double acting cylinder. In the
double acting single rod cylinder, the
effective area for power transmission is
reduced during retraction by the
reduction of piston area due to the rod
being attached. The annular area, as it
is known, may be determined by
subtracting the cross-sectional area of
the rod from the area of the piston. The
net effect is that under a specified load
and at a constant delivery, this cylinder
will require more pressure to operate in
retraction than extension. However,
increased velocity is evident in
retraction as compared to extension
because of the reduced effective area
(Figure 4.17).
Figure 4.17 Single end rod, double acting cylinder.
T
he double acting double rod cylinder has rods extending through both end caps attached to both faces of the cylinder
piston.
Standard
designs call for both
cylinder rods to be
of
the
same
diameter
(Figure
4.18).
Therefore,
under a specific
load and constant
delivery,
this
cylinder will operate with equal speed and pressure on both extension and retraction. This type of cylinder may be
used to move and position a feed table for a machining operation. In this application, the end rods serve not only to
transmit power but also to activate other controls that automatically change direction at the end of the stroke. In
another application, the end rods may be used as a sensing mechanism in combination with other hydraulic,
pneumatic, or electronic devices to accurately locate and position a feed table.
Figure 4.18 Double end rod, double acting cylinder.
Cylinder cushions (figure 4.19) are often installed at either or both ends of a cylinder to slow down
the movement of the piston near the end of its stroke to prevent the piston from hammering against
the end cap. The figure shows the basic elements: plunger, adjustable cushion orifice and a check
valve. This cushion configuration is used when the cylinder is retracting.
Figure 4.19 Cylinder cushions, rod retracting.
Figure 4.20 shows the construction when the rod is extending. In this situation, if the adjusting screw
is closed it is possible to generate a pressure greater than the system relief setting.
Figure 4.20 Cylinder cushions, rod extending.
The telescoping cylinder is a specially design ram that affords a maximum extension stroke from a
foreshortened sleeve. It is constructed of a series of rod-type sleeves fitted into the cylinder sleeve.
In operation, the rod sleeve having the largest effective cross-sectional area will extend first under
pressure. The pressure will attempt to rise within the linear circuit to overcome load encountered. As
pressure rises, it will attain a value needed to overcome the loads using a larger area before a
smaller area. after this rod sleeve has fully extended, the other rod sleeves will extend in order of
descending cross-sectional area. The net effect will be a total stroke nearly equal in length to the
length of the cylinder sleeves multiplied by the number of rod sleeves.
Under a given load, the telescoping cylinder will require incrementally increasing pressure to cause
displacement resulting from the reduction in effective area of each rod sleeve. Furthermore, when
supplied with a constant delivery, the telescoping cylinder will extend with increasing velocity as each
rod sleeve decreases in volumetric capacity. Since velocity may be expressed as supply rate divided
by area, the velocity will increase as area decreases.(Figure 4.21).
F
igure 4.21 Telescoping cylinder.
4.4.4 Rotary Actuators (Hydraulic

Motors)
The second type of

hydraulic actuator is the
hydraulic motor, which is
given its name because it
is a rotational hydraulic
actuator. The hydraulic
motor resembles the
hydraulic pump. The
major difference is that a
pump applies pressure to the hydraulic fluid, while a motor receives pressure from the fluid. This pressure
causes the rotation of the motor. The rotating motor then develops a torque, providing a continuous rotational
motion. The common types of motors are the gear motor, the vane motor, and the piston motor.
i) Gear Motor
The gear motor is similar to the gear pump. As fluid is pumped into the inlet of the gear motor, the
gears are turned by the flow of the hydraulic fluid. Fluid is carried around the outside of the case,
flows out the outer port, and returns to the tank (Figure 4.22). The identity of the inlet and outlet ports
of most gear motors is arbitrary. If fluid is pumped into the outlet port, the motor will turn in the
opposite direction.
One of the gears in the gear motor is connected to a shaft, and the shaft drives the load. The
schematic symbol for a gear motor is also shown in the figure. This symbol is the same as that for a
gear pump except for the arrowhead (the arrowhead points outward for a pump and inward for a
motor).
Figure 4.22 Gear motor.
ii) Vane Motor

Another common hydraulic motor is the vane motor. The vane motor is very similar to the vane
pump. Fluid is pumped into the motor. The exposed area of the vanes is greater at the top of the
motor. Since the area exposed to the flow of fluid is greater near the top of the pump, the force is
also greater. The force against the vanes drives the motor. The rotor is connected to a shaft, and the
shaft is connected to the load (Figure 4.23 Robert). The schematic symbol for a vane motor is the
same as that for a gear motor.
Figure 4.23 Cutaway view of a vane motor with pressure passages.
iii) Piston motor
Another common type of hydraulic motor is the piston motor. It is similar to the variable displacement
piston pump (Figure 4.24). Some piston motors have the capability to be reversed without reversing
the inlet and the outlet. To reverse the direction of a piston motor, the swash plate can be tipped past
center. When the swash plate is tipped in one direction the motor rotates in one direction, and when it
is tipped in the other direction the shaft direction reverses. The schematic symbol for a piston motor
is also shown in Figure 4.24.
Figure 4.24 In-line axial piston motor.
A
nother very common type of rotary actuator is the rack-and-pinion actuator (Figure 4.25). The rack-and -pinion
actuator gives uniform
torque in both directions. It
also has the advantage of
delivering high torque. It
can be operated at a low
speed without the need for
additional
reduction
gearing.
These
advantages make it an
excellent
choice
for
powering the base rotation
of a robot.
Figure 4.25 Rack and pinion actuator.
LESSON 5.
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC/ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC INTERFACING

Refer to AT 225, Microprocessor TLR



5.2.1 Transistors
Refer to El.T 214 TLR or any Electronics Textbook
5.2.2 FETS
5.2.3 UJT
5.2.4 BJT
5.2.5 SCRs
5.2.6 TRIACS
5.2.7 Thyristors
5.2.8 MOVs
Isolated grounding is a technique used where the grounds of different electrical componets are not
connected at one point. This method of grounding permits the formation of ground loops.
In Common Point Grounding, all ground conductors are terminated at a common point, therefore no
ground loops can occur between different elctrical devices.
5.4.1 Reed relays

Refer to AT 132 and AT 232 TLRs

Refer to AT 132 and AT 232 TLRs

Refer to AT 132 and AT 232 TLRs.
5.5.1 Galvanic
Galvanic isolation uses relays to isolate the controller from the process. The output of the controller is
connected to the coil of the relay and the process field devices (solinoids) are connected to the
contacts of the relays. If a short or a voltage spike occurs on the field device the controller is
unaffected.
5.5.2 Optical
Optical Isolation uses Opto-couplers instead of relays for isolation of the controller from the process.
5.5.3 Opto22
Opto22 isolation is a form of optical isolation, but Opto22 Standard devices are used in the interface.
ACCC/Semiotics Consultancy
December 1999
Page 171

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SWEDISH PAKISTANI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

AT 322 INDUSTRIAL FLUID MECHANICS TLR

RECOMMENDED TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES 5

PNEUMATIC EQUIPMENT LIST 6

HYDRAULIC EQUIPMENT LIST 7

LAB MARKOFF SHEETS 8

LESSON 1. Introduction to Pneumatics 9

LESSON 2. Purpose and Types of Valves 10

LESSON 3. Introduction to Hydraulics 11

LESSON 4. Elements of a Hydraulic System 12

INDUSTRIAL FLUID MECHANICS PROJECT 20

PROJECTS AND PROJECT REPORTS 25

APPENDIX A SYMBOLS FOR HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 85

APPENDIX B FLUID POWER DATA 93

Total Contact Hours

1. Explain the fundamental principles of pneumatics and use pneumatic circuits.

1. INTRODUCTION TO PNEUMATICS 6 Hours

ii) Diaphragm Compressor

2. INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULICS 6 Hours

3. ELEMENTS OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEM 6 Hours

3.1.4 Purpose of Baffles

4. PURPOSE AND TYPES OF VALVES 6 Hours

5. INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC/ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC INTERFACING 8 Hours

5.1 Review the followings:

INDUSTRIAL FLUID MECHANICS COURSE GOALS

1. To enable the student to explain the fundamental principles of pneumatics.

2. To enable the student to connect pneumatic circuits.

3. To enable the student to use pneumatic circuits.

4. To enable the student to troubleshoot pneumatic circuits.

5. To enable the student to explain the fundamental principles of hydraulics.

6. To enable the student to connect hydraulic circuits.

7. To enable the student to use hydraulic circuits.

8. To enable the student to troubleshoot hydraulic circuits.

9. To enable the student to explain principles of electro-pneumatic and electro-hydraulic circuits.

10.To enable the student to interface these circuits to a controller.

11. To enable the student to troubleshoot these circuits to a controller.

1. VICKERS Industrial Hydraulic Manual, Vickers Incorporated, 1989

PNEUMATIC EQUIPMENT LIST

1. Pilot operated directional control valve

2. Solenoid operated directional control valve

4. Manually operated directional control valve

5. Lever operated directional control valve (3)

6. Pressure control valve

7. Pressure release valve

8. Pressure gauge (2)

9. Flow control valve

10. Check valve (2)

12. Single acting cylinder with spring return

13. Double acting cylinder

14. Double acting cylinder with reed switches

15. Bidirectional rotary actuator (motor)

HYDRALIC EQUIPMENT LIST

1. Pilot operated directional control valve

2. Solenoid operated directional control valve

3. Solenoid operated directional control valve

4. Manually operated directional control valve

5. Lever operated directional control valve (3)

6. Pressure control valve

7. Pressure release valve

8. Pressure gauge (2)

9. Flow control valve

10. Check valve (2)