Theories of Emotion

What is Emotion?
The word emotion literally means a stirred-up or excited state. Psychologists
usually distinguish three components of any emotion:
1. A characteristic feeling or subjective experience
The subjective component is conveyed in the labels we attach to our
emotions, such as fear, anger, joy, or sadness.
2. A pattern of physiological arousal
The physiological component includes all of bodily changes that occur in
emotion. Our language contains many phrases that express these bodily
accompaniments. For example, we speak of butterflies in the stomach
when fearful, a lump in throat when sad, or tingling with pleasure. Such
sensations derive from changes in the internal visceral organs, such as heart
and stomach, that accompany emotions.
3. A pattern of overt expression
The expressive component includes the body postures and facial expressions
characteristic of different emotions. For example, stooped shoulders and a
downcast expression often betray sadness, while tense muscles and a wideeyed stare often express fear. Sometimes emotional feelings can be induced
simply by assuming the characteristic posture and facial expression:
compare how you feel when you tense your body and facial muscles with the
feeling induced by relaxed muscles and a broad smile.

Reference:
Psychology by Andrew B. Crider, George R. Goethals, Robert D. Kavanaugh and Paul R. Solomon. P.
144

Theories of Emotion

A classification of emotion provides a road map of the subject, but it does not
attempt to explain or analyze emotion. This is the role of theories of emotion. More
specifically, most theories of emotion attempt to specify exactly how emotionprovoking events and physiological arousal interact to produce subjective
emotional experience or emotions as we feel them. This question has been
debated by psychologists for over a century.
Our discussion begins with the classic theory of emotion proposed by William
James in his Principles of Psychology (1890). We then consider criticisms of this
theory, as well as research relating to important issues raised by it. Finally, we
examine a contemporary theory known as the two-factor theory of emotion. To
fully appreciate the issues dealt with by theories of emotion, we must first
understand how the nervous system regulates physiological arousal.

Reference:
Psychology by Andrew B. Crider, George R. Goethals, Robert D. Kavanaugh and Paul R. Solomon. P.
145

The Autonomic Nervous System

http://www.google.com.ph/imgres?
imgurl=http://33.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_loqn8drDgY1qbub56o1_500
.gif&imgrefurl=http://houseofmind.tumblr.com/post/7986644415/theautonomic-nervous-systemdivide&h=521&w=500&tbnid=3anqA1iPNkBYZM:&zoom=1&docid=9W
zaWH3d18qEIM&ei=jozPVN7xA4PamgWDwYDoBQ&tbm=isch&ved=0C
CEQMygHMAc

The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (the brain and
spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (the nerves outside the CNS). The
Peripheral Nervous System, in turn was divided into the somatic nervous system
and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system controls the
activity of the skeletal muscles. The autonomic nervous system, or ANS,

controls the construction of small blood vessels throughout the skin and muscles,
as well as the activity of the sweat glands. The ANS is thus a communication
network linking the brain and spinal cord with the visceral organs, blood vessels,
and sweat glands. When we speak of the physiological component of emotion, we
are referring to the body systems controlled by the ANS. Thus when our hands are
cold and clammy in fear, or when we blush with embarrassment, it is because the
ANS has been activated.
Notice that the ANS has two major divisions, the sympathetic division and the
parasympathetic division. The neurons of the sympathetic division leave the
central nervous system from the middle portion of the spinal cord. The neurons of
the parasympathetic division connect with the central nervous system either at the
lowest segment of the spinal cord or at the brainstem. The prefix para means
outside of, meaning that the parasympathetic division lies outside the
sympathetic division.
Most of the visceral organs are controlled by both sympathetic and
parasympathetic neurons. The exceptions are the sweat glands and blood vessels,
which receive only sympathetic control. Because the sympathetic and the
parasympathetic divisions tend to have opposing effects, the activity of the
visceral organs can be rather finely tuned, or modulated. Important examples of
this are seen in the pupil, the heart, and the intestines. Sympathetic activity acts
to dilate pupils, accelerate heart rate, and decrease intestinal activity. On the other
hand, parasympathetic activity will cause constriction of the pupils, deceleration of
the heart, and increased intestinal activity. In general, sympathetic activity
increases physiological arousal in order to prepare the organism for vigorous
activity while parasympathetic activity tends to reduce physiological arousal and
return the organism to homeostatic balance.

Reference:
Psychology by Andrew B. Crider, George R. Goethals, Robert D. Kavanaugh and Paul R. Solomon.
Pp. 145-146

James-Lange Theory

Introduction to Psychology by Aggie Carson-Arenas P.297

The first comprehensive theory of emotion was formulated by William James in the
late nineteenth century. As we have previously noted, James work continues to be
a source of many stimulating ideas for psychologists. James theory of emotion is
sometimes known as the James-Lange Theory because a similar theory was
introduced about the same time by Carl Lange (1887).
James-Lange theory says that our brains interpret specific physiological changes as
feelings or emotions and that there is a different physiological pattern underlying
each emotion.
Heres how the James-Lange Theory explains what happens during a dog attack.
1. Physiological changes
Your perception of a dog affects the hypothalamus, a part of the brain that
controls the ANS. One division of the ANS, called the sympathetic division,
causes specific changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing,
secretion of various hormones, and other changes.
2. Interpretation of changes
Your brain analyzes the specific pattern of physiological changes and
interprets this physiological pattern as a specific emotion. The James-Lange
theory assumes that there is a different pattern of physiological changes for
each different emotion.

3. Emotional Feeling
According to the James-Lange theory, you feel fear during a dog attack
because you experience a specific pattern of physiological responses that
your brain interpreted as the specific emotion, fear. In addition, you may also
show overt behaviors, such as a fearful facial expression. Notice that the

James-Lange theory emphasizes a pattern of physiological response as the

primary cause of emotions.
4. Sequence for emotions
Before the James-Lange theory people thought that the sequence for feeling
an emotion was that we see a dog, become afraid, and run frantically. JamesLange theory reversed the sequence: we see a dog, experience physiological
change (because of running frantically), and as a consequence feel fear. In
James words, We feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid
because we tremble (1897, p. 1066). In other words, an emotionally
arousing event triggers a specific pattern of visceral activity that is then
experienced as a specific emotion.

References:
Psychology by Andrew B. Crider, George R. Goethals, Robert D. Kavanaugh and Paul R. Solomon.
Pp. 146-147
Introduction to Psychology by Aggie Carson-Arenas. Pp.297-298
Psychology ninth Edition by David G. Myers. P498

Cannon-Bard Theory

Introduction to Psychology By Aggie Carson-Arenas P.297

James Lange theory of emotion contains two major assumptions: 1) each emotion
is accomplished by its own specific pattern of visceral arousal, and 2) people label
their emotional states by perceiving the patterned feedback from their visceral
activity. These assumptions were severely criticized a generation later by Walter B.
Cannon, a prominent physiologist. Cannon, and later Psychologist, Philip Bard,
concluded that our physiological arousal and our emotional experience occur
simultaneously: the emotion-triggering stimulus is routed simultaneously to the
brains cortex, causing the subjective awareness of emotion, and to the
sympathetic nervous system, causing the bodys arousal.

Cannon (1927) argued first of all that the anatomy of the ANS did not allow for the
possibility of patterned visceral arousal. He believed that the sympathetic division
of the ANS was so constructed that only a generalized state of arousal was possible
in any and all emotional situations. In other words, Cannon believed that the ANS
would not respond in a unitary manner to any emotional stimulus and, therefore,
that patterned arousal could not be the basis of emotional experience. Cannon
thought that all emotions would be accompanied by a similar pattern of visceral
activity.
Secondly, Cannon argued that the activity of the visceral organs was extremely
difficult to perceive accurately. To emphasize his arguments, Cannon chose an
extreme case, pointing out that most people have only the vaguest knowledge of
the spleen and, even if aware of this anatomical fact, are unlikely to recognize
changes in its activity.
This Cannon-Bard Theory implies that your heart begins pounding as you
experience fear; one does not cause the other. Our physiological response and
experienced emotion are separate.

References:
Psychology by Andrew B. Crider, George R. Goethals, Robert D. Kavanaugh and Paul R. Solomon. P.
147
Psychology ninth Edition by David G. Myers. P498

Schachter-Singer Theory

Introduction to Psychology By Aggie Carson-Arenas P.297

Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer (1962) proposed a third theory: that our
physiology and our cognitions-perceptions, memories, and interpretations-together
create emotion.
The Scachter-Singer cognitive theory says that some stimuli cause a person to feel
physiologically aroused and the person explains the arousal feeling by interpreting
environmental cues as causing the emotional feeling.
1. Physiological Arousal

Schachter and Singer injected some of their subjects with hormone,

epinephrine (adrenaline) that causes physiological arousal, such as increased
heart rate and blood pressure. Subjects were told, however, that the
injections were vitamins and were not told that they would experience
physiological arousal.
2. Interpretation of Cues
After the injection, subjects were placed in a different situation- a happy one
or an angry one.
In the happy situation a confederate of the researchers created a happy
atmosphere and throwing paper airplane around. In the angry situation,
another confederate created a n angry atmosphere by complaining about
filling out a long questionnaire.
3. Emotional Feeling
Subjects in the happy situation often reported feeling happy and their overt
behavior were smiles, while those in the angry situations are often reported
angry and their overt behaviors were angry facial expression. Schachter and
Singer explained that subjects did not know that their physiological arousal
was caused by hormone injections, and looked for other causes. Subjects
interpreted environmental cues, such being in a happy or angry situation, as
the cause of their arousal and thus reported feeling happy or angry.

4. Sequence for Emotion

The Schachter Singer Theory assumes that our interpretation or appraisal of
a situation is the primary cause of emotions. This sequence is shown below:
Current Appraisal Theory (Magda Arnold & Richard Lazarus)

For the past several decades, appraisal theory has developed and evolved as
a prominent theory in the field of communication and psychology by testing
affect and emotion. In history, the most basic ideology dates back to the
some of the most notable philosophers such as Aristotle, Plato, the Stoics,
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Arnolds_appraisal_theory_of_emotion.png

Spinoza and Hume, and even early German psychologist Stumph (Reisenzein
& Schonpflug, 1992). However, in the past fifty years, this theory has
expanded exponentially with the dedication of two prominent researchers:
Magda Arnold and Richard Lazarus, amongst others who have contributed
appraisal theories.
The cognitive appraisal theory assumes that your interpretation or appraisal
of situation is often the primary cause of emotions.
1. The stimulus could be an event, object, or thought. In this example the
stimulus is a winning lottery ticket.
2. You appraise the stimulus according to your well-being; in this case your
appraisal is extremely positive since you have won 50 million.
3. Your appraisal of having won 50 million results in your emotional feeling
of happiness and joy.
4. Your bodily responses include physiological arousal and overt behaviors,
such as smiling.

Affective-Primacy Theory (Robert Zajonc)

The Affective Primacy Theory, postulated by Robert Zajonc. He says that, in
situation, we feel an emotion before we have time to interpret or appraise
the situation.
1. The stimulation of the winning lottery ticket.

2. Seeing the winning lottery ticket elicits an emotional experience, feeling

happy, so quickly that there seems to be little or no thinking preceding
your feeling.
3. You already feel happy and may now think about how you will spend the
money.
4. Your bodily responses include physiological changes and overt behaviors,
such as smiling.

References:
Introduction to Psychology By Aggie Carson-Arenas. Pp.300-301
Psychology ninth Edition by David G. Myers. P498
http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affective%20Primacy
%20Theory#ixzz3RXVHdmgF
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appraisal_theory