Q1. What do you mean by Research? Explain its objectives and types.

Research is composed of two syllables a prefix Re and a verb Search. Re means again,
anew, over again. Search means to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, to probe. The
two words form a noun to describe research as a careful and systematic study in some field of
knowledge, undertaken to establish facts of principles. In another words Research is a
purposeful, precise and systematic search for new knowledge, skills, attitudes and values, or for
the reinterpretation of existing knowledge, skills, attitude and values.
2. Define Management/Business Research
The research directed towards solving management/organizational problems is termed as
Management/Business research. Business Research is a systematic enquiry that provides
information to guide managerial decisions in all aspects of marketing, production, finance and
personnel. In another words Research is an art of scientific investigation which provides a
systematic design, collection, analysis, reporting, findings and solution for the marketing
problems.
3. Objectives of Business Research

To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group.

To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.

Promotes better decision making.

Research is the basis for innovation.

Research identifies the problem areas.

Research helps in forecasting, which is very useful for managers.

Research helps in formulation of policies and strategies.

Research helps in the development of new products and in understanding the competitive
environment

It helps in optimizing resources.

It helps in marketing opportunities and constraints.

It helps in evaluating market plans.

Types of Research: The following are the types of Research
1) Descriptive Research
2)
Analytical Research
3) Applied Research
4)
Fundamental Research
5) Quantitative Research
6) Qualitative Research
7) Conceptual Research
8)
Empirical Research
Descriptive Research
Descriptive Research includes surveys and fact finding enquiries of different kinds. In social
science and business research it is also called Ex post facto research. In this type of research the
researcher has no control over the variables. He can only report what has happened or what is
happening. E.g. trends in the consumption of soft drinks with respect to socio economic
characteristics such as age, family, income, education etc.
Analytical Research
In analytical research the researcher has to use facts of information already available and
analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
Applied Research
Applied Research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization. The Marketing Research and Evaluation research are examples
of applied Research.
Fundamental Research
Fundamental Research is concerned with generalization and with the formulation of a theory.
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research
Quantitative Research
Quantitative Research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. E.g. height or
weight..
Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research is concerned with qualitative Phenomenon. E.g. Study of human behavior is
an important type of qualitative Research.
Conceptual Research
Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or interpret existing ones.
Empirical Research
Empirical Research relies on experience or observation alone often without due regard for system
and theory. It is data based research. It is necessary to get facts at firsthand, at their source.
Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variable can affect other
variables in some way.
Q2. What are the qualities of Good Research?
Ans:- Following are the characteristics of Good Research
1. A good research should be Systematic
2. Purpose clearly defined
3. A good research should be logical
4. A good research should be Empirical
a. Empirical means factual investigation is possible. Its validity can be checked through
reliable resources.
5. A good research should be Replicable
a. Replicable means Research conducted can be repeated any number of times.
6. Research process should be detailed.
7. Research design should be thoroughly planned
8. Limitations should be frankly revealed
9. High ethical standards should be applied
Q3. What do you mean by Research Process? Explain it in detail.
Ans: Research Process: Research Process consists of series of actions necessary to effectively
carry out research. The following order concerning various steps provides useful procedural
guidelines regarding the research process.
1. Formulating the Research Problem
2. Extensive Literature Survey
3. Development of working hypotheses.
4. Preparing the research design
5. Determining Sample Design
6. Collecting Data
7. Execution of the project
8. Analysis of Data
9. Hypothesis Testing
10. Generalizations and Interpretations
11. Preparation of the report for the thesis
Formulating the Research Problem
Problem formulation is the key to research process. The Researcher must single out the
problem he wants to study i.e. he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a
subject matter that he would like to inquire into. The problem may be stated in a broad
general way and then the ambiguities if any must be resolved.
Extensive literature Survey
Once the problem is formulated, the researcher should undertake the extensive
literature surveys connected with the problem. For this purpose the abstracting and
indexing journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc. must be tapped
depending on the nature of the problem
Development of working Hypothesis
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis. Working hypothesis is tentative assumptions made in order to draw out and
test its logical empirical consequences. Hypothesis should be specific and limited to the
piece of research in hand. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by
delimiting the area of research and to keep him on right track.
Preparing Research Design
In the next step the researcher is required to prepare a research design. i.e. he will
have to state the conceptual structure within which research should be conducted.
Function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. There are several research designs, such
as experimental and non experimental hypothesis.

Experimental designs can be either informal (such as before and after without control,
after-only with control, before and after with control) or formal designs (such as completely
randomized design, randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and complex
factorial design)
Determining the Sample design
All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a universe or
population. As it is possible to study all the items in a population so quite often we select a
few from not the universe. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a
sample.
The important sample designs are:
Deliberate Sampling

Simple Random Sampling

Systematic Sampling

Stratified Sampling

Quota Sampling

Cluster Sampling

Multi-Stage Sampling

Sequential Sampling

Collecting the Data

There are several ways of collecting data. Primary data can be collected either
through experiment or through surveys. If the researcher conducts an experiment, he
observes some quantitative measurement or the data. But in the case of a survey, data
can be collected by any one or more or the following ways:
By Observation
Through personal interviews
Through telephone interviews
By mailing of questionnaires
Through Schedules
Execution of the project
Execution of the process is very important step in the research. The researcher should
see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time.

Analysis of Data
After the data have been collected the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them.
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment
of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation
and then drawing statistical inferences. Researcher can analyze the collected data with the
help of various statistical measures.
Hypothesis Testing
After analyzing the data the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis. Do the
facts supports the hypothesis or happen to be contrary? Various tests such as Chi-square
test, t-test, F-test have been developed by statisticians for the purpose.
Generalization and Interpretation
After testing the hypothesis, it is possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization
i.e. to build a theory.
Preparation of the report or the thesis
Finally the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. The Layout of
the report should be as follows:
The preliminary pages
The main Text
The End matter
The preliminary pages of the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgements and forewords.
The main text of the report should have the following parts
Introduction
Summary of findings
Main Report
Conclusion
At the end of the report appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography i.e. list of books, journals, reports etc. consulted should be given in the end
Q4. What do you mean by Research Design? Explain its types.

Ans: Research Design

Research design is simply a plan for a study. It can be called a blue print for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data. William Zikmund has described research design as a master
plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed information.
The research design addresses the following questions:
What is the study all about?
Why is the study being made?
Where will be the study carried out?
What type of data is required?
Where can the required data be found?
What periods of time will the study be included?
What will be the sample design?
What techniques of data collection will be used?
How will the data be analyzed?
In What style the report will be prepared?
Types of Research Design
Research designs are broadly classified as Exploratory design and Conclusive designs.
Where as primary purpose of an Exploratory design is to provide insight into unexplored areas,
Conclusive designs is prepared with specific problem in mind. Hence conclusive designs would be
more specific than exploratory designs.
1. Exploratory Research
An exploratory Research Design employs three different techniques.
Secondary Data Analysis: Secondary data refers to literature published or unpublished,
as a result of studies made by others for their own purposes. A researcher may review the
literature with the purpose of framing hypothesis. Or he may review hypothesis already
developed for further study to see their applicability.
Expert Surveys: Often Called experience surveys, these involve an interaction between
people who are expert in the area under study.
Case Studies: Also referred to as insight stimulating examples. These involve a study of all
the cases which are relevant to the area of study. This method is particularly suited in
situations where the researcher is working on relatively unformulated or uncharted problems
and there is little experience to serve as a guide.
Conclusive Research Design
Conclusive research designs are further classified into Descriptive, Diagnostic Research
studies and
Experimental Research studies.
Descriptive and Diagnostic Design
Descriptive research is used when the purpose of the study is to learn who, what, when,
where, and how of a topic. Descriptive research is conducted with the following intention:
To describe the characteristics of a particular individual or group.
To study or estimate the proportion of people in a particular population who hold certain
specific attitude, opinion.
To make predictions related to particular phenomena.
On the other hand diagnostic research is conducted to
Establish whether two or more variables are associated
Determine the degree to which the variables are associated
Experimental Research Design
Experimental Research is conducted to study the cause and effect relationship between
variables under study. An attempt is made by the researcher to maintain control and
manipulates the variables that affect study.
Following steps are involved in conducting an experimental study
Identification and definition of the problem
Formulation of hypothesis
Developing an experimental design
Select the sample subjects
Group or pair subjects
Identify and control non experimental factors
Construct and validate an instrument to measure
Determine place, time and duration of experiment
Conduct the experiment
.Analyze the data and test the hypothesis
Report the findings.

Q5. Explain Different types of Experimental Research Design.

Ans: Experimental Designs can be classified in two broad categories:
1. Informal experimental design
2. Formal Experimental Design.
1. Informal Experimental Designs
1) Before- and- after without control design
2) After-only with control design
3) Before-and-after with control design
2. Formal Experimental Design
1)
2)
3)
4)
a)

Completely Randomized Block Design (C. R. Design)

Randomized Block Design (R.B. Design)
Latin Square Design (L.S. Design)
Factorial Design
Before-after-without control design
In such a design a single test group or area is selected and the dependent variable is
measured before the introduction of the treatment. The treatment is then introduced.
The main difficulty of such a design is that with the passage of considerable extraneous
variations may be there in its treatment effect.
b) After-only with control design
InTEST
this design
two groups or areas Level
(Test area
control area) are selectedTreatment
and the treatment
AREA
of and
Phenomenon
is introduced into the test area only. The dependent variable is measured in both the areas at the
sameLevel
time. of Phenomenon

Before treatment (X)

Test Area
Treatment introduced
treatment (Y)
after treatment(Y)
Control Area
without treatment (Z)

introduced
after
Level of Phenomenon

of Phenomenon
Treatment Effect Level
= (Y)
(X)

Treatment
= (Y)
(Z) are identical with respect to behavior
The basic assumption in such
a design Effect
is that the
twoareas
towards phenomenon. If this assumption is not true then, there is a possibility of extraneous
variation entering into the treatment affect. This design is superior to before and after without
control design
c) Before-after-with control design
In this design two areas are selected and dependent variable is measured in both the areas for
an identical time period before the treatment. The treatment is then introduced into test area
only, and the dependent variable is measured in both
Time period I
Test Area
Phenomenon

Level of Phenomenon
Treatmen
t
before treatmentintroduc
(X)

Time Period II
Level

of

after

treatment (Y)
Control Area
Phenomenon

Level of Phenomenon
without treatment (A)

Level
without

of

This design is superior to both the above design because it avoids extraneous variation resulting
both from non-comparability of the test and
Formal Experimental Design
1. Completely Randomized Design

It involves only two principles 1) the principles of replication 2) Principle of randomization.

The essential characteristic of this design is that subjects are randomly assigned to experimental
treatments. E.g. if we have 10 subjects and if we wish to test 5 under treatment A and 5 under
treatment B, the randomized process gives every possible group of 5 subjects selected from a
set of 10 an equal opportunity being assigned to treatment A and treatment B. One way analysis
of variance is used to analyse such a design. Such a design is used when experimental areas
happen to be homogenous.
Types of Completely Randomized Design
1) Two group simple randomized block design
2) Random Replication Design
1) Two group simple randomized design
In a two group randomized block design, first of all the population is defined and then from the
population a sample is selected randomly. Then from that sample items are randomly assigned to
the experimental and control groups. Such randomly assignment of items of two groups is
technically described as principle of randomization. The merit of such design is that it is simple
and randomizes the differences among the sample items. But the limitation of this design is that
it does not control the extraneous variable
2) Random Replication Design
The limitation of the two group randomized design is usually eliminated within the random
replication design. The effect of individual differences is minimized b providing a number of
repetitions for each treatment. Each repetition is technically called replication.
2. Randomized Block Design
This design is an improvement over the C.R. Design. In R.B. design the principle of local control
can be applied along with the other two principles. In the R.B design subjects are first divided
into groups known as blocks, such that within each group the subjects are relatively homogenous
in respect to some selected variables. The number of subjects in a given block would be equal to
the number of treatments and one in each block would be randomly assigned to each treatment.
The main feature of the R.B. design is that in this each treatment appears the same number of
times in each block. The R.B design is analyzed by the two way analysis of variance (two ways
ANOVA)
3. Latin Square Design: The Latin squares design (L.S design) is an experimental design which is
very frequently used in agricultural research. In this design, the treatment is so allocated among
the plots that no treatment occurs more than once in any one row or any one column. For
example, an experiment has to be made through which the effect of fertilizers on the yield of a
certain crop, say wheat, is to be judged. In this situation, the varying fertility of the soil in
different blocks in which the experiment has to be performed must be taken into consideration;
otherwise the results obtained may not be very dependable because the output happens to be
the effects of not only of fertilizers, but also of the effect of fertility of soil. Similarly there may be
the impact of varying seeds of the yield. In order to overcome such difficulties, the L.S. design is
used when there are two major extraneous factors such as the varying soil fertility and varying
seeds.
4. Factorial Design: Factorial designs are used in experiments where the effects of varying
more than one factor are to be determined. These designs are used more in economic and social
matters where usually a large number of factors affect a particular problem. Factorial designs are
usually of two types: (i) Simple factorial designs and (ii) Complex factorial designs. In
simple factorial design, the effects of varying two factors on the dependent variable are
considered but when an experiment is done with more than two factors, complex factorial
designs are used. Simple factorial design is also termed as a two-factor-factorial design,
whereas complex factorial design is known as multi-factor-factorial design.
Q6. What do you mean by Sampling Design? What are the characteristics of Good
Sample? Explain sampling design process.
Ans:
Sample: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a universe or
population. As it is not possible to study all the items in a population so quite often we select a
few from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is
technically called a sample.
Sampling Design: The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample which is popularly
known as sampling design. Sampling design is a definite plan determined before any data are
actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.
Characteristics of a Good Sample

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Representativeness: It means that the sample should possess the characteristics of the
population.
Adequacy: Since the results of the entire study are governed by the sample therefore the
size of the sample should be adequate.
Un-biasedness: The sample units should be free from all bias and prejudices.
No Substitution: While conducting a sample surveys the chances of non response are very
high. The researcher should take care that there is no substitution of the original unit.
High Precision: A good sample should have a high degree of precision. Precision is
measured by the standard error estimate.
Sampling Design Process
Defining the population: The researcher has to give an operational definition for his
relevant population.
Defining the sample unit: The sampling unit is the person, place or object about which or
from which the information is required for research.
Determining the sample frame: Also referred to as source list. It is a comprehensive
listing of all the members of a population. E.g. a telephone directory is a good sampling frame.
As association directory NASSCOM will have a listing of all the firms in the industry.
Selecting the Sampling Technique: The researcher must decide on the type of sample i.e.
probability of non probability based sampling techniques
Determining the sample size: The next step involves the decision regarding sample size. It
is assumed that a large sample size is more representative sample. However there is no rigid rule
that is used although a formula does exist. A sample size is considered optimum if it fulfills the
requirement of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility.

Q7. What do you mean by Census Surveys and Sample Surveys? Write advantages and
Limitations of Sample surveys in comparison to Census Surveys.
Census Surveys and Sample Surveys

Under the census or complete enumeration survey all the units of a population are
included and the data is collected from each and every unit A census survey is suited in
situations where the population size is small of the objective of the research is complete
enumeration.
Advantages of Sample Surveys
1)
Speed and Timeless: A Major advantage of using a sample is that the researcher spends
less time in collecting data than if the census method was used. The data collected under this
method remains current and relevant unlike census survey which may take a long time and
because of change in conditions it would become redundant and historical.
2)
Economy of Cost and Effort: Sampling require fewer people to be covered for getting
responses hence field staff required would be less than a census study.
3)
3) Accuracy of Results: In sampling method, it becomes possible to give more attention to
every aspect of our study. It becomes possible to conduct a detailed and intensive study. Hence
the results are generally accurate.
4)
4) Scope of further Studies: In sampling scope of further is retained.
5)
5) Feasibility: In some situations the entire population may not be available for
measurement or may be very large. In such situations there is no alternative except to collect
the data from sample.
Limitations
1.
The sample needs to be drawn through a well planned methodical and scientific
approach. Sometime these designs may become much more complicated than conducting a
complete population surveys.
2.
Sampling is always prone to errors of bias and prejudices
3.
Sampling method presupposes that the researcher possesses specific and specialized
knowledge to develop a sample,
Note:- Despite these drawbacks, sampling continues to be the preferred method of study
Q: Define Measurement. Explain various Measurement Scales.
Ans: Measurement, technically speaking is a process of assigning numbers to objects and
observations. The numbers are assigned to the object in such a manner that numbers are
reflective of the relationship that exists between the two objects with respect to the
characteristics involved. For Eg: if we want to obtain male and female classification among
genders then if domain appears to be a male assign zero and if female then assign one. Similarly
we can record a person marital status as 1, 2, 3, and 4 depending upon weather person is single,
married, widow or divorced. Similarly we can record answer zero and one.

1.
2.
3.
4.
1.

2.

3.

4.

Measurement Scales: Measurement scales can be considered in terms of their mathematical

properties. The most widely used classification of measurement scales are: Nominal scale
Ordinal scale
Interval scale
Ratio scale
Nominal Scale is the most elementary form of measurement. It is simply a system of assigning
numbers, symbols to events in order to label them. For Eg : Political support in USA can be
classified as democrats and republican. The only possible operation on these data is counting of
each number of groups. Nominal Scale is a least powerful of four scales because it has no order,
no distance and no arithmetic relationship.
Ordinal data introduces the concept of order it is the lowest level of ordered scale. Ordinal data
is possible if the transitivity postulate is fulfilled. This postulate states if A is greater than B and B
is greater than C than A is greater than C. This scale ranks the objects or individuals from one
largest to smallest or 1st to last and so on. The use of ordinal scale implies greater than or less
than relationship between objects being measured without stating the degree of greater or less
e.g. If the respondent is asked to rank 3 books on the content matter he may give the following
ranks.
Books
Rank
A
1
B
2
C
3
This implies that book C is better than A and book B is better than book C. Thus an ordinal scale
has placed them in the order of good or bad however. It does not imply that distance between
ranks 1, 2, and 3. In other words it does not show extent each is better than the other.
Interval Scale has all the characteristic of nominal scale and has the property of equality of
interval i.e. the distance between I and II is the same as the distance between II and III. This
condition is satisfied by the existence of common and constant unit of measurement e.g. If we
are measuring the performance of 3 students A, B and C on an interval scale. We get the score
1, 3 and 7. Then it can be graphically depicted as
A
B
C
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Comparing the performance of these three students on these intervals, it can be said that the
difference in performance of B and C is twice the difference in the performance of A and B.
E.g. Consider the following e. g. of the temperature of four cities that is
Shimla
15 C
Delhi
30 C
Bangalore
22 C
Jaipur
37 C
It can be said that the difference in the Shimla and Delhi is the same as the difference in the
temperature of jaipur and Bangalore however we can not say that Delhi is two time warmer than
Dhimla. This is because interval data does not have an arithmetic origin rather they posses
arbitrary origin that is number zero of Fahrenheit and centigrade scale is not indicative or the
absence of whatever quantity it is trying to measure
Ratio Scale is characterised by the presence of order distance and origin it measures the
absolute amount of variable. It is the most powerful of four scales as it has the unique origin,
weighing machine is a good example of ratio scale. It has an absolute zero a person weighing
80kg twice as a person weighing 40kg.
All statistical technique applicable to the previous three scale can be applied on
ratio scale also.

Q. What is Scaling? Differentiate between Measurement and Scaling? Explain various

types of scales.
Ans: Scaling is an extension of Measurement. It can also be said that the result of the
measurement is the scale which comprises a set of numerals on which an objects score is placed
using a certain rule of assignment. The difference between measurement and scaling is that,
Measurement is the assignment of number to objects or respondents and Scaling is the process
of placing them on a continuum with respect to the number scored by them. Scale is like a
continuum where one end indicates the lowest level and the other end represent the highest and
the intermediate points shows the degree between these two points. Scale classification can be
classified on the basis of 6 key decision areas:
a. Objective of the study
b. Nature of response

c.
d.
e.
f.

Degree of subjectivity involved

Number of dimensions against which responses are noted
Scale properties
Scale construction technique
Types of Scales:
1. Rating Scales: Rating Scale is most common form of scales. In this scale the respondent places
the person or object that is being evaluated along a continuum where each point on continuum
signifies score value. Examples of Rating Scales are Likert Scale, Semantic Differential Scale, and
Staple Scale.
In a rating scale the object or person is judged without any reference to some other object or
person. It may have a 2 point, 3point, 5pointor more scoring positions. This scale can be
represented in a graphic form or in a statement form.
a) Graphic Rating Scale: Under this a graphic representation usually aligns with various point
help the respondent to indicate his response to a particular question by placing a work at the
appropriate point on the line.
(1)

1.
2.
b)
2.
a)

b)

(5)

(10)

Very bad
Neutral
Excellent
This is five pint graphic rating scale. Such a rating scale has its limitations
The respondent instead of marking on the specified points may mark anywhere on the line and
makes the analysis difficult.
The meaning of words like very bad,, like very much etc holds different intensity and meaning for
each respondent.
The itemized Rating Scales: This scale removes some deficiencies of graphic rating scales by
using a series of statement which have been ordered progressively in items of more of less of
some property. The respondent tick marks on the statement that best reflects his opinion.
Ranking Scales: Ranking Scales are used to tap preferences between two or more objects or
persons i.e. the objects are ranked after comparing one against another or more. The popular
ranking scales are Paired Comparison Scale, Rank order Scale, Constant Sum Scale etc.
Paired Comparison Scales: In this scale the respondent compares two items at a time among
a list of items. The numbers of comparisons to be done is given by the formula:
N
= n (n 1)
Where
N = No of judgement
2
n = no of stimuli or items to be
judged
The paired comparison data is ordinal in nature but it can be converted into interval data using
the method of Law of Comparative Judgment developed by L.L. Thurstone.
Rank Order Scale: In this scale the respondents are given a set of items simultaneously and
asked to order or rank those according to some criteria e.g. respondent may be asked to rank
five brand and rank 5 to least preferred.
Q. Explain various Scaling Construction Techniques.
Ans:
LIKERT SCLAE: This scale is a summated scale based on item analysis approach. In this each
statement is evaluated on its ability to discriminate between respondents between high and low
scores. The steps involved in this scale are:a) Researcher starts with a large number of statements which are relevant to the survey topic.
Each of these statements should be clear and unambiguous with discriminating power. Care
should be taken that the favorable statements are equal to unfavorable statements. Also such
items should not be included which are neutral or it is sure that nearly everybody will respond to
them similarly.
b) After the statements are compiled and collected they are administrated to a sample of
subjects who are taken from the target population. They are asked to indicate their response to
each statement against the category which best expresses their position e.g. a question on
standard of living can be asked in the following manner
1. A person standard of living is judged
Strongly Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly Disagree

from his material possession.

_

2. Standard of living of a person can be

Agree

c) Each response is given a numerical score e.g. five point scale the following scores could be
assigned to each category.
Strongly Agree (5)
Agree( 4)
Undecided(3)
Disagree(2)
Strongly Disagree( 1)

1.
2.
3.

5.

These scores are assigned in such a way that the division of attitude (favorable to unfavorable) is
consistent all the time.
D) Each respondents total score is calculated by adding his item score. If an instrument contains
20 items then a person who has marked all his items as strongly agree would get a score of 100
and one who has marked as strongly disagree would get a score of 20:
20*5= 100 most favorable response possible
20*3= 60 a neutral response
20* 1= 20 most unfavorable response possible
E) In the next step the discriminatory power value is computed for each item. The Researcher
selects some proportions say, 25% of the highest and lowest scores since these two groups
represent the most favorable and unfavorable responses. These groups are then used to
evaluate individual statements.
F) The final selection of the statements is done in a manner that those statements which
correlate with test score are retained .These statements have consistently shown co- relation
with low favorability or with high favorability.
ADVANTAGES
Easier and simpler to construct as doesnt involve panel of judges. Time and cost involved is less.
Having clear categories of response avoid ambiguities arising from respondents answering like
sort of degree, pretty much agree etc.
Respondents have to give response to all the statements; it results in a more complete
evaluation.
4. It is more comprehensive because it includes statements that may not be directly related to the
attitude under study even though it has indirect relationship and hence definitive
discriminatory power.
It can be used in response centered studies where the objective is to find how responses differ
between individuals. It can also be used is to study how responses differ between stimuli.
LIMITATIONS
1.It gives total score but not pattern of responses. Many patterns may result in the same
score.
There is no consensus on the optimum number of categories. In certain cases having a fewer
categories 3 or 5 point scale may lead to respondents power of discrimination.
There is no way of ascertaining that the distance between strongly agree and agree is the same
as between agree and undecided.
We may be able to establish whether a respondent is favorable or unfavorable to the survey
topic but the degree i.e. how much more or less cannot be established.
It has been always observed that respondent often answer on a Likert scale on the basis of what
should be than on what actually is.
Despite this Likert scale is popular in social research as well as business research.
2. THURSTON DIFFERENTIAL SCALE
The differential scales are based on consensus approach where the items to be included in the
scale are decided by a panel of judges. The most commonly used differential scale is the L.L.
Thurstones Differential Scale. It is based upon the method of equal appearing intervals. The
steps involved in the scaling are as follows:a) A large number of statements twenty or more are collected. These statements, relevant to the
topic of survey range, from one extreme of favorableness to other. The researcher carefully shifts
through each of these statements and eliminates the ambiguous and duplicate statements.
b) Next, a large panel of judges, around 50 or 80, are asked independently evaluate each item.
They are asked to sort the statements into a set number of piles (usually eleven but seven and
nine are also used) according to their assessment of each statements degree of favorableness to
the survey topic. Often the first pile will have statements which are unfavorable to the topic and
the last pile will have statements most favorable. These piles are so formed that the judges
perceive them to be equally spaced along the attitude continuum.

c) Now scoring the piles from 1 to 11 (or 7 or 9) for each item a median value is calculated
alongwith the inter quartile range which measures the scatter i.e. the extent to which various
judges place the items at different parts of the scale.
d) The final selection of items is then made by first discarding items which have a high scatter
value, since these items did not find consensus among the judges on its position and second
selecting from the remainder around twenty or so items, which cover the entire attitude and
appear to be equally spaced as gathered from their median values.
e) These items are then included in the form of a questionnaire and are randomly arranged in order
of scale value.
f) The respondent is asked to endorse or tick all the items with which agrees.
The score of each respondent is worked out by calculating the average (mean or
median) of the median value of all those items with which he has shown an agreement.
The scale is a popular scale used for measuring the attitude of the people towards
issues like casteism, war, government etc. The scale works best when only a single attitude is to
be measured. Further this scale from the respondent point of view is simple to attempt, requiring
no scoring or ranking but merely checking items with which he agrees. However on the downside
this scale is difficult to construct and expensive. It requires a lot of time in first discriminating
statements and then choosing a panel of judges who are willing to work on it. Another weakness
is that the values assigned by judges may not be based on objective evaluation but a reflection
of their own views.
3. SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE: Semantic scale is particularly useful in bringing out the
latent feelings of respondents. It is a bipolar scale with seven rating points. The polar ends have
objectives which are opposite in meaning. Osgood and his associates observed that three factors
1) Evaluation 2) Potency 3) Activity contributed most to meaningful judgments by respondents.
PROCEDURE
a) In the first step we chose the concept like noun , noun phrases or verbal stimuli which
reflect the research topic e.g. if we are evaluating multiple candidates for their suitability
in a top level executive position then the concept would be a candidate.
b) Next we select bipolar word pairs depending on the factors that are to be evaluated e.g.
we may use the three factors of Evaluation, Potency and Activity developed by Osgood.
c) Arrange these word pairs randomly on a seven point scale where score for each pair
ranges 7 to 1. Further the pairs are reversed to minimize halo effect.
d) The results are analyzed by averaging the score for values all the factors i.e. Evaluation (E)
Potency (P) and Activity (A).
e) The data can then be presented graphically taking care that items representing the three
factors are grouped together.

E) OPTIMISTIC
(7)
. 1) PESSIMISTIC
P) TENACIOUS
(7)
. 1) YIELDING
A ) PASSIVE
(1)
. 7)ACTIVE
E) PUNCTUAL

(7)

The primary advantage of SD scale is that it uncovers the latent or underlying

.
1) UNPUNCTUAL
dimensions
that have not been identified. This
scale is popularly used in psychological studies
and marketing research. This scale is effective in measuring both intensity and direction of
response.
The chief drawback of this scale is that it cannot be assumed that the intervals are equal and the
ratings for respondents are additive. It has been observed that the responses are truer if they are
attempted quickly and honestly without reflecting too much on the items. This requires that the
method of personal interview be used which makes it very expensive and time consuming.
Q. Explain Various Sampling Techniques.
Sampling techniques or designs can be grouped into two different types of designs as:
1. Probability Sampling
2. Non Probability sampling

Probability sampling is also known as random sampling, in which every item of the universe
has an equal chance of being included in the sample. It is used by the researchers when the
generalisation about the sample results is required.
In NonProbability sampling, all the items dont have the equal or pre - determined chance of
inclusion into the sample. It is used when the factors like cost, time and convenience are
important rather than generalised concept.
When an element is drawn individually without any restriction then it is known as unrestricted
sample and when the element is drawn, subject to some constraints or conditions then it is
termed as restricted sample.
Below is the diagram showing the 2 different types of sampling designs and their further
classification is as follows:
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING:
1. Simple Random Sampling It is the one in which each element has an equal and independent
chance of being selected. It can be drawn using random number tables and lottery method.
a) Lottery method-Under this method units are selected on the basis of random draws. Each
member or element of the population is assigned a unique number and then are placed in a
basket. Slips are drawn from the basket randomly. The number of slips drawn is equal to the
sample size required.
But the major drawback in this method is that the shuffling of slips of huge population is
difficult. It also includes human bias while choosing the slips.

2.

a)
b)
c)
a)
b)
c)
3.

b) Random number tables-These consist of columns of numbers which have been randomly
prepared. Here also we assign a unique number to the member of population and hence random
sampling is followed.
Thus, a simple random sampling can be drawn using either of the two above
stated methods. It involves lots of time and effort is impractical.
Systematic Sampling: In systematic sample every n th item within a defined population is
selected. It involves beginning with a random start of an element in the range of 1 to n. In this
case every nth item is chosen.e.g every 20th person in list could be chosen as a part of the
sample.
Advantages:
The major advantage of using this sample design is that there is no need to assign the unique
number o each element.
It is statistically more efficient if the population has similar characteristics.
It is easier, less costly and convenient to use this technique.
Limitations:
The two major drawbacks that it faces are in periodicity and monotonic trend.
The data collected with such design may not be that much reliable.
This is convenient only when the lists of population are available and they are lengthy.

Stratified Sampling: This technique is applied in order to obtain a representative sample. It is

used where the population can be easily divided into groups or strata which are distinctly
different from each other, but the elements within a group are homogeneous in nature.
E.g. students of college are divided into strata on the basis of gender, age etc.
In this method the whole population is divided into the strata and then the random sampling is
taken for each stratum.
Stratified sampling is of two types:
1.Proportionate stratified sampling
2.Disproportionate sampling
4. Cluster Sampling-this technique is convenient when the total area of interest is big and in this
sample is taken by dividing the area into a number of smaller non overlapping areas and then
to randomly select a number of these smaller areas (called as clusters).In other words, when the
population is divided into a number of small divisions which are known as clusters of still smaller
units and then some of these clusters are randomly selected for inclusion in the sample.
The advantages of using this technique is cost reduction and less precise. It is also more reliable
per unit cost.
5. Area Sampling: It is that sampling where the clusters are formed on geographic basis as
sectors or blocks. Randomly one block or sector is taken up and all the elements of that area are
studied for the sample. It is a single stage area sampling. The major drawback of this is that the
clusters are rarely heterogeneous.
6. Multi-stage Sampling: This type of sampling is also similar to that of the cluster sampling but
here the whole population is divided in such a geographical manner like the whole country is

divided into states and then further into cities, districts and then smaller areas. It is used
because it is easier to administer than most single stage designs.
7. Sequential Sampling: It is complex form of sampling, it involves drawing samples in a
sequence and data collection and analysis is done at each stage. The ultimate sample size under
this technique is not fixed in advance but is determined by the decision rule, stated before the
sampling design. In other words when the number of samples is more than two but it is neither
certain nor decided in advance, this system is referred to as sequential sampling.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING DESIGNS:
1. Convenience Sampling: The most common type of non probability sampling done without any
restrictions is convenience sampling. In this the researchers has the freedom of choosing any
respondent based on convenience. It is an economical method and is used in exploratory phase
of a research project. The sampling units are cooperative, easily accessible and reachable. But, it
suffers from many drawbacks like bias, less precision and lack of proper representation of the
population.
2. Judgment Sampling: It is a purposive sampling where those respondents are deliberately made
a part of sample, which meet research purpose based on researchers own judgment. This
method is particularly suitable when only limited number of people have access to the
knowledge or information required for research. It does not allow for generalizability to a specific
population as it is not a representation of the population explicitly.
3. Quota Sampling: This method is used when a researcher needs certain group to be adequately
represented. Here groups are created which are homogeneous within and a quota is fixed for
each group. This technique tries to make the sample representation at a low cost.
4. Snow Ball Sampling: In this method a set of respondents are selected initially and interviewed
and they are further recommend the names of other people. This technique has an advantage of
locating right people with the desired characteristics al low cost.

1.
2.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Q What is Data Collection? What are the methods of collecting Data?

Ans : The task of data collection begins after a Research problem has been defined and
Research design has been prepared. While deciding about the methods of data collection, the
Researcher should keep in mind two types of data i.e.
Primary Data
Secondary Data
Primary data: These are those which are collected a fresh and for the first time and thus
happen to be original.
Secondary data: These are those which have already been collected by someone else and
which have been passed through statistical process.
Collection of primary data is:
Primary data can be collected through i.e.
Observation method
Interview method
Questionnaires method
Trough Schedules
Observation method:
Observation method is the most commonly used method. Under the observation method the
information is sought by way of investigators own observation without asking from the
respondent. For e.g. In a study relating to consumer behavior the investigator instead of asking
brand of wrist watch used by the respondent may himself look at the watch.
Advantages
Subjective bias is eliminated. If observation is done accurately.
The information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening. It is not
complicated by past behavior or attitude.
The method is independent of respondent as happens to be in the case of interview or
questionnaire.
This method is suitable for respondent who are not capable of giving verbal reports.

Limitations:
Observation method is an expensive method.

Information provided by this method is very limited.

Sometimes, unforeseen factors may interfere with observational task.
Sometimes, some people are not accessible to direct observation which creates obstacles for this
method.
Types of observation method
Structured observationIn case the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the
units to be observed and the style of recording observed information is standardized then the
observation is called structured observation.
Unstructured observationWhen observation is to take place without characteristics to be
thought of in advance, is termed as unstructured observation.
Controlled observationWhen observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plan
such observation is called controlled observation.
Uncontrolled observationIf the observation takes place in the natural setting it may be termed
as uncontrolled observation.

a)
b)
c)
d)

Interview Method
Interview is a verbal conversation between two people with the objective of collecting research
relevant information from the respondent. Interview can be classified into various categories:
Personal Interview
Telephonic Interview
Focus group Interview
Depth Interview

a) Personal Interview: Personal Interview is a face to face two way communication between the
interviewer and the respondent. Personal Interview can be conducted in many forms.
Foreg: Door to door interviewing where the respondents are interviewed in their homes or as a
planned formal executive meeting, most commonly used to interview officials and business
persons or as a small intercept survey where respondents are interviewed at selected places
where the chances of finding respondents are maximum.
Steps for conducting an interviewed:
1. Rapport building.
2. Introduction.
3. Probing.
4. Recording.
5. Closing.
Types of Personal Interview:
a) Structured and Unstructured Interview
Structured Interview: It involves the use of a set of pre-determined questions and highly
standardized technique of recording. The interviewer follows a rigid procedure in asking
questions in a form and order prescribed.
Unstructured Interviewed: It does not follow a system of pre-determined questions and
standardize technique of recording information. In non-structured interview, the interviewer is
allowed much greater freedom to ask in case of need, supplementary questions or at times he
omits certain questions.
b) Focused Interview: It is meant to focus attention on the given experience of the respondent.
Under it the interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence in which the
questions would be asked and has also the freedom to explore reasons and motives. Such
interview is used generally in the development of the hypothesis.
c) Clinical Interview: it is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the
course of individuals life experience. The method of getting information is generally left to the
interviewer discretion.
d) Depth Interview: Depth interview is non-directive in nature where the respondent is given
freedom to answer within the boundaries of topic of interest.
Merits:
a) Good Co-operation from the participants.
b) Interviewer can ask questions about survey prove for answers, use follow up questions and
gather information about observation.
c) In interview specials visual aids and scoring devices can be used.

d)
e)
f)
g)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
e)

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

a)
b)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

With the help of interviewer method illustrate participants can be reached.

In this method there is an opportunity to restruct questions.
Personal information can be obtained very easily under this method.
The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent.
Disadvantages:Interviewer method is a very expensive method.
Highly trained interviewers are required.
The method is more time consuming specially when the sample is large.
There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer.
It is very difficult to supervise and controlling the interviews.
Telephonic Interview: In this interview the information is collected from the respondent by
asking the questions on phone. The conduct of this type of interview may be computer assisted
commonly known as Computer Assisted Telephonic Interviewing (CATI).
Advantages:Low cost.
Faster collection of data.
It reduces biases.
Expanded geographic coverage.
Uses fewer but highly skilled interviewer.
Completion time is very fast.
Disadvantage:Response rate is lower than personal interview.
Interview length must be limited.
Sometimes many phone numbers are unlisted or not working making directories unreliable.
Some target groups are not available on phone.
Illustration cannot be used.
Questionnaire: This is a form containing a set of questions which are filled by the respondents.
The objectives of the questionnaire are
To collect information from respondent scattered is a wide area.
To achieve success in collecting reliable and dependable information in short span of time.
Merits:Low cost even when population is large and is widely spread geo-graphically.
It is free from bias of the interviewer.
Respondents have adequate time to give well thought of answers.
Respondents who are not easily approachable can also be reached conveniently.
Large samples can be made use of and results can be more dependable and reliable.
Demerits:Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires.
It can be use only when respondents are educated and co-operative.
The control over questionnaire may be lost ones it is send.
There is also a possibility of ambiguous replies.
It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
Collection of Data trough Schedules
This method of data collection is very similar to the collection of data through
Questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules(Performa containing a
set of questions) are being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the
purpose. These enumerators along with the schedule go to the respondent put to them the
questions from the performa in the order. The questions are listed and record the replies in the
space for the same in the performa. The enumerators are selected and trained to perform their
job well. This method of data collection is very useful in extensive inquiries and can yield to fairly
reliable result. However it is very expensive and is usually adopted census survey is conducted
through this method.
SECONDARY DATA
Secondary data is the data that are already available i.e. they refer to the data which have
already been collected and analyzed by someone else. When the researcher utilizes secondary
data then he has to look into various sources from where he can obtain that data. This data may
either be published or unpublished data.

Published data are available in1. Various publications of the local, central and state government.

2. Various publications of foreign Government or International bodies.

3. Technical and Trade journals.
4. Books, magazines and newspapers.
5. Reports and publications of various associations connected with business and industry, banks,
stock exchanges etc.
6. A reports prepared by research scholars, Universities, Economists etc.
7. Public records and statistic, historical documents and other sources of published information.
Unpublished data are available inDiaries, letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies and also may be available with
Scholars and Research workers, trade association, labour bureaus and other public/private
Individuals and organizations.
Advantages of Secondary data
1.The most significant advantage of this data is it saves time and money when the required
information is available then what a researcher has to do is to excess the source and this will
take no more than a few days and involve little cost.
2. The secondary data at times may provide enough information to solve the problem
completely.
3. This data helps the researcher to better state the problem under investigation. It helps
In defining the problem and formulating the hypothesis.
4.Secondary data helps in interpreting the primary data will more insight.
Disadvantages of Secondary data
1. The main drawback of this method is that there is mismatch between the original purpose and
the purpose of current study. Secondary data is the data which has been conducted in the past
for a purpose other than the current study.
2. Since secondary data has been collected in the past, the findings may not be that relevant in the
present time. The data may become redundant.
3. The data may have been analysed in a` different unit of measurement than what is required.
4. The accuracy of secondary data is difficult to judge. In case, inaccurate data are incorporated
into the research than the entire result will be adversely affected.
SOURCES/TYPES OF SECONDARY DATA
The secondary data is of 2 types
1. Internal Data
2. External Data
1. Internal Data refers to the data that has been generated from within the organization for which
research is being done. For e.g. Companies annual reports are internal data for the company. The
main advantage of data is that is easily available and greater reliance can be placed on the
degree of accuracy and relevance to the study.
2. External Data refers to the data that is generated outside the organization for which the
research is being done. It can be classified as
(i)

Published data. These are the most popular of the external sources of data. Different sources
of published data are:
Guides-They are a source of standard recurring data. These guides act as good starting point for
the research. Some useful guides are Asian Social Science Bibliography which covers an annual
bibliography of selective English language publication. Indian National Bibliography prepares the
monthly list of documents, both official and non official that are published in India.
Directories-They generally contain a list of all the related organizations or sources of further
data e.g. the Directory of Social Science Research Institutions and Directory of Professional
Organization in India. There is the National Register of Social Scientist in India which contains
information on scholars who have contributed through teaching and research in social science.
Government sources like census data, Economic Survey data are also good sources of external
published data. The government periodically brings out information on various economic and
social indices of the country which can provide valuable data to the researcher.

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Computerised Database. This refers to the data which is available in an electronic form.
Computer database can be classified in various types as:
Online database: This refer to data which is lying in a central data bank and can be accessed
from anywhere through a telecommunication network.
Internet database: This refers to the data which can be accessed, searched and retrieved
from the internet.
Offline database: This is the data which available on various storage media like diskettes CDs
and DVDs.
Computer database can be in the form of:
Bibliographic Database: They are composed of citation to articles in journals,
magazines/newspapers, marketing research studies, government documents and the like.
Generally these databases have information available in an abstract form or a summary form.
Numeric Database: They are the numerical and statistical database. They may be economic
data that is provided in a time series form e.g. the census data is a type of numeric data.
Full text database: They contain the complete text of document. Generally archives of
newspapers lie in a full text form.
Directory Database: It provides a complete listing of individuals, organization or services e.g.
manufacturing association of various industries provides online as well as offline listing of all the
members firms.
Syndicated Services: These refer to companies that collect and sell data to various clients
having information needs. Myers and Mead have stated that `syndicated services are provided
by certain organizations which collect and tabulate marketing information on a containing basis.
The data collected by them has the ability to suit the requirements of a large number of
individuals or organizations, e.g. in India, Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy(CMIE) is an
organization that collects large amount of economic data and any individuals or firm can avail
the use of this data by paying a certain charge.
Other than the syndicated sources, there are several research agencies like Ernst & Young,
who undertake research activities exclusively for a client on his behalf. This data although
collected by an outside agency is the sole property of the client. However the cost of this data
wills relatively more than that provided by syndicated services.
Q. What do you mean by Hypothesis? Explain Characteristics of Hypothesis? Also
explain types of Hypothesis.
Ans: The term hypothesis literally means an assumption or a supposition about the state of
affairs of a certain thing. In the terminology of statistics, it means estimation or a set of inference
that is drawn about certain values of a population. Before taking any final decision on any
statistical problem through a detailed analysis, it is proposed in the form of quantitative
statement
Characteristics of Hypothesis
It is proposed at the outset in some quantitative form about certain population parameter like
Mean, Standard Deviation and variance etc.
It is drawn in a logical manner on the basis of past experience, intuition, theory of probability or
theory of estimation
It is put to test through certain test techniques like t-test, Z-test, 2 test and F-test.
It leads us to quick decision about the population parameter.
Types of Hypothesis
There are 4 different types of hypothesis:Simple hypothesis
Composite Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
Alternate Hypothesis
Simple Hypothesis
A simple Hypothesis is one that completely specifies a population with regard to its both central
value and dispersion. Such hypothesis is expressed as follows:
H: = 0 and 2 = 02
Where stands for the mean of the sample, 0 for the mean of the universe, 2 for the variance
of the sample and 02 for the variance of the universe.
Composite Hypothesis
A composite hypothesis is one that does not completely specify the distribution of a population.
It specifies either the central value or the dispersion of a population. Such a hypothesis is
expressed in any one of the following forms:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

H : = 0 [ When 2 not specified, or 2 > 02 , 2 < 02 ]

H : 2 = 02 [ When is not specified, or > 0 or < 0]
H: < 0 [When 2 = 02 or 2 > 02]
H: > 0 [When 2 = 02 or 2< 02]
Alternative Hypothesis
Any hypothesis that stands as an alternative or a complementary to a null hypothesis is called an
alternative hypothesis. It is symbolically denoted by H1. Such a hypothesis is always explicitly
stated in relation to a null hypothesis. Thus when null hypothesis runs, Ho: o the alternative

i.

hypothesis runs in any of the following manner:

Ho : o [ i.e. > o or < o, a two tailed alternative ]

ii.

Ho :

> o [ a one tailed alternative i.e right tailed]

iii.

Ho :

< o [ a one tailed alternative i.e. left tailed]

Q. What do you mean by Type-I and Type-II Errors?

Ans: In the process of hypothesis we usually come across some sort of errors, since there is
every possibility of rejecting a null hypothesis which is true, and of accepting a hypothesis which
is false and there is no guarantee that we always accept a null hypothesis which is correct and
reject a null hypothesis which is wrong. These type of hypothesis are called errors in hypothesis
testing which are grouped into two types
1. Type I Errors
2. Type II Errors
Type I Errors
An error which is committed through a test by rejecting null hypothesis which is true in fact is
called Type I Error. It is analogous to that convicting a person under the legal system, who is
actually innocent. This type of errors is denoted by
Type II Errors
An error which is committed through a test by accepting null hypothesis which is false in fact is
called Type II Error. It is like that letting a guilty person go free under the legal system. This type
of error denoted by
Reality of the State
Ho is true
Ho is false

Decision
To Accept
No Error, p = 1-
Type II Error, p =

To Reject
Type I Error, p =
No Error, p = 1-

Q. What do you mean by Confidence Level and Significance Level?

Ans: Confidence level tells us about the likelihood of the sample statistics values falling within
the precision range e.g. if the confidence level is 99% it means that out of 100 there 99 chances
that the sample will give answers that truly represent the population and will be within the
precision range. Significance level indicates the chances of answers falling out of precision
range. E.g. if confidence level is 99%, then significance level will be (100-99) i.e. 1%. In other
words there are 1 out of 100 chances of the answers falling outside the precision range.
Q. What do you mean by Degree of Freedom?
Ans: By the term degree of freedom we mean the number of observations which we can freely
estimate to get a set of expected data that satisfies the relevant constraints viz total of
frequency, arithmetic average and standard deviation of the actual observations.
In other words the degree of freedom may be considered as number of n independent
observations in the sample in the sample minus the number of m parameters (required to
compute the statistics) which must be estimated by sample observations.
So Degree of freedom is
=nK
Where n in the number of observation or frequencies,
K is the number of independent
constraints in the concerned distribution.
Q. What is the procedure for Hypothesis Testing?
Ans: The detailed procedure of hypothesis testing in a chronological order as follows:
1. First, set up the set of two complementary hypotheses viz: Null hypothesis (H0), and the
Alternative hypothesis (H1) in the appropriate manner.
Thus, if it is required to test the significance of the difference between a statistic and parameter,
or between the two sample statistics, then we should set up the two hypotheses as under:
a) Null Hypothesis, H0: The difference is not significant, and that the same is due to fluctuation of
sampling.

b) Alternative Hypothesis H1: The difference is real, and that the same is not due to fluctuation of
sampling.
But, if it is required to test any statement about the population, e.g, the population has a
specified Mean (0), and then we should set up the two hypotheses as under:
Null Hypothesis, H0; =0
Alternative Hypothesis, H1; 0 (i.e, > 0 or < 0),
or > 0,
or < 0,
2. Next, determine the level of significance, or confidence at which the hypothesis is to be relied
upon and tested. In the absence of any specific instruction, it should be normally fixed at 5%
level. If more precision is needed, the same may be tested at 1% level in which case, the chance
of our going wrong in the conclusion would be only 1%.
3. Next, decide and determine the appropriate test statistic through which the hypothesis is to be
tested. There are many types of test statistics viz : S.E. statistic, Z statistic, t statistic, and F
statistic etc. which are applicable in their respective suitable situations.
4. Lastly, draw the appropriate conclusion as to whether the Null Hypothesis is acceptable or not. A
Null Hypothesis will be rejected if the sample statistic falls within the rejection region of the curve
i. e, 5% or 1% as the case may be according to the level of confidence reposed. If, on the other
hand, the sample statistic falls within the acceptance region of the curve, say 95% or 99% the
Null Hypothesis is to be marked as accepted and it is to be concluded that the difference
between the sample statistic and the population statistic could be due to chance, and hence, the
sample statistic could be taken equal with the parameter value.

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Q. What do you mean by Classification? Explain Characteristics, Objectives and Types

of Classification.
Classification of Data: After the data are collected and edited, the next step to be taken up by
a statistician is the classification of the data. Classification means arrangement of data into
various groups, or categories of homogeneous character. Unless this is done, the next step
towards the analysis of data i.e. tabulation, cannot be taken up. Thus, classification of data is a
prerequisite for tabulation, and further analysis, and interpretation of the data.
Characteristics of classification
1) Clarity: Classification of data should be clear so that everyone can easily read and
understand.
2) Stability: Classification should remain stable for a reasonable period.
3) Flexibility: The process of classification should remain flexible to adjust the changes in
course of time.
Objectives of Classification
The chief objectives of Classification are as follows:
To reduce hugeness of the collected data by dividing them into a number of classes on a certain
basis.
To facilitate comparison between the related variables.
To make data easily understandable and fit for further analysis and interpretation.
To provide a basis for preparation of data either through tabulation, diagrams or graphs.
To unravel the significance of the information that remains hidden in the data.
To provide a ground for studying the relationship between certain variables through certain
measures.
Rules of classification
Exhaustibility: The classification should be made in an exhaustive manner so that each and
every item of the data must belong to any one of these classes without leaving any item to be
shown under any class.
Exclusiveness: The classification of data should be in such a manner that every item should be
confined to a particular class and no item should be included in more than one class.
Homogeneity: In this classification of data, it must be seen that all the data included in a
particular class are of homogeneous, or similar in nature, and accordingly each of the different
classes must include the data of homogeneous nature.
Consistency: The classification of data should be maintained all through not only for the same
variable but also for all its related variables, else, it should be difficult to make a comparative
study of the data.
Flexibility: The manner of classification of data should be such that it should allow for changes
in time and situation. The old and outdated classes should be removed and the new fresh classes
of data should be added.

6) Appropriateness: The basis of classification decided, should be appro-priate to the nature of

the data, else, the very purpose of the classification may be defeated.
Types of classification
1) Geographical Classification: Under this type of classification, the data are classified on the
basis of area or place, and as such, this type of classification is also known as areal or spatial
classification. The areas may be in terms of countries, states, districts, or zones according as the
data are distributed.
However, this type of classification is suitable for those which are distributed geographically
relating to a phenomenon viz. population, production, sales, students of university etc.
2) Chronological Classification: Under this type of classification, the data are classified on the
basis of time of their occurrence. As such, the series obtained under this classification is purely
known as a time series. This type of classification is suitable for those data which take place in
course of time viz. population, sales, results, production etc.
3) Qualitative Classification: Under this type of classification, the data obtained are classified
on the basis of certain descriptive character or qualitative aspect of a phenomenon viz. beauty,
literacy, honesty, intelligence, religion, eye-sight etc. As such, this sort of classification is also
otherwise known as descriptive classification.
4) Quantitative Classification: Under this type of classification, the collected data are
classified on the basis of certain variable viz. mark, income, expenditure, profit, loss, height,
weight, age, price, production etc. which is capable of quantitative expression and measurement.

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Q. What do you mean by Tabulation of Data? Explain characteristics, Objectives and

components of tabulations.
Meaning: Tabulation means a systematic arrangement of statistical data in columns and
rows. It is done for making meaningful analysis, comparison and interpretation of the data
collected and classified.
Characteristics of tabulation
Systematic arrangement of quantitative data.
Data must be related to each other on some logical basis.
Data are arranged in some columns and rows.
There must be explanatory notes that make the data clear.
This is done after the data are classified.
Objectives of tabulation
To simplify the complexity of the data and avoid unnecessary details.
To facilitate comparative analysis of the data in the form of columns and rows.
To ensure economy of space and time i.e. without spoiling the quality and utility of the data.
To indicate the trend and patterns of the data.
To facilitate computation of various factors like average, dispersion, correlation etc.
Easy to detect errors.
To facilitate references.
Components of a table
Identifying number: A number is assigned to every table to identify itself, and refer the same
as and when necessary.
Title or Heading: An appropriate heading or title is given to every table indicating briefly the
nature of the data displayed in the table.
Head note, or prefatory note: A note explaining briefly the terms of the heading or title is
given just as a preface to the table. Generally, the unit of measurement is indicated through this
note.
Captions: A caption means a heading given to a column of the table for identification, and ready
reference of the data inserted therein.
Stubs: A stub means a heading given to a row of a table for identification, and ready reference
of the data presented through it.
Body of the table: This is the main part of the table in which the numerical figure are put
coordinating the respective columns and rows of the table.
Totals: The figures of each of the columns and subcolumns, and those of each of the rows
should be totaled.
Foot notes: A foot note means an explanation, or elaboration made briefly at the foot, or end of
a statement.
Source note: The data presented in a table cannot be relied upon unless the sources from
which they have been collected are indicated properly.
Q. Explain various Types of table.

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These tables contain a variety of information in detail for use, or

references by the public in general. These tables are also otherwise called Repository or
Reference Tables as they serve as the repository of a lot of information and the researchers very
often make reference to them.
Specific Purpose Table: A specific purpose table, on the other hand, contains data relating to a
particular problem. Such tables are, also, otherwise called Text Tables, Summary Tables or
Analytical Tables.
Primary or Original Table: A table that presents the data collected originally for some purpose
is called a Primary, or Original Table.
Secondary, or Derived Table: A table that presents the secondary data, or the results derived
from the original data is called a Secondary or derived table. Thus, the tables presenting the
average values, square roots, reciprocals etc. are examples of Derived table.
Simple table: A simple table is one in which the data are presented on the basis of one
characteristic of the data only. Such tables are also called as one way table.
Complex table: When the data are classified on the basis of more than one element, or
characteristics of the data, the table thus constructed is called Complex Table. A complex table
may be two-way table, three way tables, or manifold table.
Q. What is Report Writing? Explain various steps in report writing?
Meaning: Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the
research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented and/or written. The purpose
of it is not well served unless the findings are made known to others.
DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING REPORT
The steps involved in the report writing are as follows:
Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the primary step concerned with the
development of a subject. There are 2 ways in which to develop a subject (a) logically and (b)
chronologically. This development is made on the basis of mental connections and association
between the one thing and another by means of analysis. Chronological development is based on
a connection or sequence in time or occurrence.
Preparation of the final outline: This is the next step in which the outlines are the framework
upon which long written works are constructed.
Preparation of the rough draft: It follows the logical analysis of the subject and the
preparation of the final outline. Here the researcher will write down the procedure adopted by
him in collecting the material for his study along with the limitations faced by him, the
techniques of analysis, the broad findings and interpretation.
Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This is the most time consuming steps the
careful revisions makes the difference between a mediocre and a good piece of writing. Before
polishing one should check the report for weakness in logical development or presentation.
Preparation of the final bibliography: The next step comes of the preparation of
bibliography. It consists of a list of books and all the works which the researcher has consulted. It
should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided into 2 parts: the first part may contain the
names of books and pamphlets, and the second part may contain the names of magazine and
newspaper articles.

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Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. It should be written in a concise and
objective style in simple language, avoiding vague expression such as it it seems, there may
be and the like ones. While writing the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract
terminology and technical jargon. A report must not be dull, but must enthuse people and
maintain interest and must show originality.
Q. Explain Layout of the Research Report.
Ans: A comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise (A) preliminary pages (B)
the main text (C) the end matter.
Preliminary Pages
In its preliminary pages the report should cry a title and date, followed by acknowledgements in
the form of Preface or Foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by list of
tables and illustrations so that the decision maker or anybody interested in reading the report
can easily locate the required information in the report.
Main Text
The main text provides the complete outline of the research .Title of the study is repeated at the
top of the first page of the main text and then follows the other details on pages numbered
consecutively, beginning with the second page. Each main section of the report should begin on
a new page.
The main text of the report should have the following sections:
Introduction
Statement of findings and recommendations
The results
The implications drawn from the results
The summary
End Matter
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as
questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations etc. Bibliography of sources
consulted should be given. Index should be there at the end. The value of the index lies in the
fact that it works as a guide to the reader for the contents in the report.
Q. Explain Various Types of Reports.
Ans: The following are the types of Research Report:
TYPES OF REPORTS
The results of a research investigation are presented in a number of ways viz. A technical report,
a popular report, an article, a monograph or at times even in the form of oral presentation.
Technical report: A technical report is used whenever a full written report of the study is
required whether for record keeping or for public dissemination. In this method the main
emphasis is on the methods employed, assumptions made in the course of the study, the
detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations and supporting data.
A general outline of this report:
Summary of result: A brief review of the main findings just in 2 or 3 pages.
Nature of the study: Description of the general objective of the study, formulation of the
problem in operational terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data required.
Methods employed: Specific methods used in study and their limitations.
Data: Discussion of data collected their sources, characteristics and limitations. If secondary
data are used, their suitability to the problem at hand is fully assessed.
Analysis of data and presentation of findings: This is done with the supporting data in the
form of tables and charts are fully narrated.
Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and policy implications drawn from the results
explained.
Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and attached
Technical appendices: This is there for technical support or matters relating to questionnaire,
mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique of analysis and like ones.
Index: It is prepared and given invariably in the report at the end.

Popular report: It is the report which focuses on simplicity and attractiveness. It also means
that it should be clear, non technical detail and liberal use of charts and diagrams. Attractive
layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an occasional cartoon is the feature of
this report.
The outline of this report is as follows:
1) The findings and their implications: emphasis is given on findings of most of practical
interest and on the implications of these findings.

2) Recommendations for action: It is on the basis of findings of the study is made in this section
of the report.
3) Objectives of the study: A general review of how the problem arises is presented along with
the specific objectives of project under study.
4) Methods employed: A brief and non- technical description of the methods and techniques
used, including a short review of the data on which study is based.
5) Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of study are
presented in clear and non technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such as
charts, diagrams etc.
6) Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms etc is presented in
the form of appendices. But these are not detailed if the report is entirely meant for general
public.
3

Oral Presentation: This study is considered effective, particularly in cases where policy
recommendations are indicated by project results. The merit of this report is that it provides an
opportunity for give and take decisions which generally lead to a better understanding of the
findings and their implication. But the demerit of this is the lack of any permanent record
concerning the research details.

Q. What precautions should be taken Report Writing?

Research report is a channel of communicating the research findings to the readers of report. A
good research report is the one in which the task is done efficiently and effectively.
There are several points which must be considered while preparing the report and these are as
follows:
1. The length of report should be such that it is long enough to cover the subject but should be
short enough to maintain interest. Report writing should not be a means to learn more and more
about less and less.
2. Report should not be dull; it should be such so as to sustain readers interest.
3. Abstract terminology and technical jargon should be avoided in the report and it should be such
that it is able to convey the matter as simple as possible.
4. Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of the main findings and as such the
report should provide a ready availability of the findings. For this the charts, graphs and another
statistical tables may be used.
5. The layout of the report should be well thought out and must be appropriate and in accordance
with the objective of the research problem.
6. It should be free from grammatical mistakes and must be prepared strictly in accordance with
the techniques of composition of report writing such as quotations, footnotes, documentation,
and proper punctuation.
7. It must present the logical analysis of the subject matter.
8. The attempt of the report should be to solve some intellectual problem. It must contribute to the
solution of the problem and must add to the store of knowledge.
9. Towards the end, report must state the policy implication relating to the problem under
consideration.
10. Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all the technical data in report.
11. Bibliography of sources consulted is a must for good report and must be given.
12. Index is also an essential part of good report and must be prepared at the end.
13. Report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean, whether typed or printed.
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