Egypt's Water Demand, Supply and Management Policies

Prof. Magdy Abou Rayan

Dr. Berge Djebedjian

Mechanical Engineering Department

Mansoura University
Egypt

Mechanical Engineering Department

Mansoura University
Egypt

1. INTRODUCTION
In this presentation an analysis of the actual situation for water demand and supply in Egypt is performed.
The expected development of water supply situation versus demand in the future is studied and connected
regional, social and economic development is assessed.
Through the present study the determination of required fresh water needed for municipal, industrial and
irrigation purposes are divided into the following categories:
(1) Present situation of water demand and supply studies,
(2) Forecasts and projection of water consumption in the future.
The administrative framework as well as the water management policies will be presented and discussed

1.1 Geography and Administrative Governorates in Egypt

Egypt lies in the northeastern corner of the African continent, with a total area of about one million square
kilometers, Figure 1. The Egyptian territory is almost rectangular, with a North-South length of
approximately 1,073 km and a West-East width of approximately 1,270 km.
Geographically, Egypt is divided into four regions with the following percentage coverage of the country's
area:
(i) the Nile Valley and Delta, including Cairo, El Fayum depression, and Lake Nasser (3.6 %).
(ii) the Western Desert, including the Mediterranean littoral zone and the New Valley (68 %).
(iii) the Eastern Desert, including the Red Sea littoral zone and the high mountains (22 %);
(iv) Sinai Peninsula, including the littoral zones of Mediterranean, the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of
Aqaba (6.4 %).
Egypt is divided into 27 administrative Governorates. These governorates and their total area are given in
Figure 1.

Governorate

18
20
14
3
7 5 6
19
13 4
10
1
2 21
15
16

23

22
26

8
11
9
12
24
25
17

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27

Cairo
El-Giza
El-Dakahlia
El-Sharkia
El-Beheira
El-Gharbia
Alexandria
El-Minya
Sohag
El-Kaliobia
Assiut
Kena
El-Menoufia
Kafr El-Sheikh
El-Fayoum
Bany Swif
Aswan
Demiat
El-Ismailia
Port Said
El-Suez
North Sinai
Matroh
New Valley
Red Sea
South Sinai
Luxor City
Total

Total Area
(km2)
457
4840
3459
4190
9504
1943
2879
2263
1574
1001
1558
12743
2158
3748
4949
9576
34608
1029
4483
1351
25000
31000
212000
376505
130000
28438
55.4
911311.4

Figure 1 Administrative Governorates in Egypt and the total area of each governorate,
Description of Egypt by Information (1995)

1.2 Demography
Egypt is considered as one of the most populous countries in the Arab World and North Africa. The Nile
morphology and the barren desert that bound the Nile valley and delta constitute a geographical barrier
that prevents Egyptians from fully utilization their territories.
Egypt's population is estimated at about 63 million (1998) and 99 % of the population is concentrated on
5.5 % of the country area (in the valley and delta). Historically, the socio-economic development of the
country has been exclusively devoted to the Nile Valley and Delta; which lead to high intensity of
population. About 11.3 % of the population is concentrated in Cairo, 8.9 % in the coastal governorates
(including the northern portion of the Western Desert), 40 % in the Delta governorates, 34.4 % in the Nile
Valley (Upper Egypt) governorates, and the rest distributed among the remaining area of the country. This
has resulted in an uneven population density. Its average is 63 person/km2, but ranges from 2 person/km2
over 96 % of the total area, to 1492 person/km2 in the Nile Valley and Delta and as high as 20,000
person/km2 in Cairo.
In general, the most populated regions are the urban governorates, especially the capital. This situation
will become worse in the future unless a proper plan is made to redistribute the population over a larger
area of the country.

Egypt is passing now through the rapid

population growth stage towards the stationary
population growth stage. This stage is
characterized by the slow decrease of the
annual crude birth rate, Table 1, which reached
about 2.76 % in 1996 against rapid decline of
the crude death rate which has dropped sharply
to its minimum of 0.62 % in the same year.

Table 1 Permanent population in administrative

regions for reference year (1995),
Description of Egypt by Information (1995)

Administrative
region
name
Cairo
El-Giza
El-Dakahlia
El-Sharkia
El-Behira
El-Gharbia
Alexandria
El-Minya
Sohag
El-Kaliobia
Assiut
Kena
El-Menoufia
Kafr El-Sheikh
El-Fayoum
Bany Swif
Aswan
Demiat
El-Ismailia
Port Said
El-Suez
North Sinai
Matroh
New Valley
Red sea
South Sinai
Luxor

Another important aspect of population growth

is the settlement pattern of population whether
in rural or urban areas. The percentage of rural
population ranged between 55.5 % and 56.5 %
during the last three censuses with annual
demographic growth estimated at 2.3 %. Water
needs for human uses in urban areas is about
1.5 times that of rural areas. Hence, the rate of
increase of water needs should consider the
urbanization percentage beside the expected
increase in needs due to any plans of
improvement of the level of living in rural
areas.
The above-mentioned figures indicate that
under the constant quota of Egypt from the
Nile water the per capita of Nile water is likely
to drop sharply under all measures of water
poverty line within the next two decades unless
a strong and very ambitious plan was
undertaken to develop the water resources.
Figure 2 shows the relationship between
population number and per capita water over
time.

Population
3
* 10

%
Increment
Rate

6955
4525
4226
4220
3968
3437
3431
3372
3067
3045
2843
2766
2672
2266
1995
1836
1042
898
681
467
411
219
186
136
115
35
159

1.06
2.27
1.96
2.24
2.11
1.90
1.42
2.60
2.70
1.88
2.60
2.51
1.85
2.13
2.60
2.67
2.16
2.04
2.34
1.45
2.06
2.87
3.31
2.00
2.49
2.36
1.90

Figure 2 Population and per capita share of Nile water 1973-1995, Attia and El-Masry (1998)

1.3 Economy
Egypt has moved a long way from its socialist economic policies of the 1960's and early 1970's towards a
more liberal economic climate.
Egypt economy is a characteristic
economy of a third world country
undergoing transformation to market
economy.
The
general
economic
indicators, Table 2, show a promising
economy, the reform fruits are clear. The
economic growth rate for 1998 is 5.9 %
expected to go over 6 % for 1999. The
population growth has been decreased
from 3.5 % in the years of 1980's to 1.9
for 1998 and expected to decrease rapidly
in the coming years. The government
development plans are based mainly on
the private sector activities and
encouraging the foreign investments
participation.
With state-funded infrastructure projects
largely in place (especially in the new
industrial urban areas), the government is
encouraging the private rector to assume
responsibility for further industrialization
and economic diversification.

Table 2 Egypt's economical development indicator data

General Data

Population

Agriculture

Water

The main foreign currency in Egypt is

from tourism, petrol, Suez Canal revenue,
and agriculture.

Population 1997 (millions)

Area (km2)
Density of Population
Growth National Product GNP
1997
1998
Rate of Economic Growth
1997
1998
Per Capita GNP (US$)
1997
1998
Total population 1997 (millions)
Rate of growth
Age 15-64 (millions)
Working labor (millions)
Rate of growth of working labor (%)
Cultivated Area (million acres)
Area suitable for agriculture
Area suitable for agriculture (Acre
Per Capita)
Total renewable resources
% of agriculture consumption
% of industry consumption
% of domestic consumption
Availability of water
% in towns
% in rural areas

60
995
58
71.2
4.9
4.9
5.9
1180
1420
60
2
36
22
2.08
3
3
0.05
55*109m3
85 %
9%
6%
82 %
50 %

The total national gross product for the year 1997 is 75.483 millions US$, distributed on the main
economic sectors as following:
Agriculture 16%,
Industry 32%,
Services 52%.
The Egyptian economy is basically a service economy, tourism and Suez Canal are the major sources. The
government encourages manufacturing and additional infrastructure projects to promote private
industrialization. It also favors stock market development and wider ownership, especially among smaller
investors, to promote private economic diversification.
The government's policy now is to offer attractive incentives, including tax exemptions, reduces import
duties and the cancellation of exchange controls, to encourage foreign investment.
Egypt is pursuing two principal economic goals:
Economic diversification to decrease dependence on oil through the development of industry,
agriculture and tourism; and
Assumption of responsibility by the private sector for Egypt's economic development.

Water scarcity is one the constraint for the achievement of the first goal. A severe national plan for water
resources conservation is undertaken in order to save water for the reclamation of new land. But generally
the movement towards these goals creates a wide range of economic opportunities for business and
investors.

1.4 Geomorphology and Geology

The landscape in Egypt can be broadly divided into the elevated structural plateaus and the low plains
(which include the fluviatile and coastal plains). These geomorphologic units play a significant role in
determining the hydrogeological framework of Egypt and natural constraints facing population
distribution, Figure 3. The structural plateaus constitute the active and semi-active watershed areas. The
low plains can contain productive aquifers and are also, in places, areas of groundwater discharge.

Altitudes (in meters)

> 1500 m
1000 - 1500 m
500 - 1000 m
200 - 500 m
0 - 200 m
<0m

Figure 3 Topography of Egypt

1.5 Climate
Egypt can be divided into six climatic districts, Figure 4:
(1) Mediterranean District: It extends along the Mediterranean Sea with several kilometers to the
inside. In summer, the mean temperature is about 23C while in winter it is 14C. This district is
the most rainy in Egypt (100-190 mm/year).
(2) Nile Delta District: It lies to the south of the Mediterranean District. The mean temperatures are
13C (January) and 27C (July). In this district, the annual average amount of rainfall decreases
sharply to the range of 20 to 50 mm.

(3) Sinai Highlands District: It includes the highlands of Sinai. The weather of this district differs
from other parts of Sinai in the temperatures and the rainfall amounts. It is colder with a minimum
of 10C difference in temperature. In this district, the rainfall increases and reaches that of the
Mediterranean district.
(4) Middle Egypt District: It lies between Cairo and Assiut and extends to the western borders of
Egypt and to the highlands of the Red Sea in the east. It is the coldest district in winter with hot
weather in summer (average 30C). The annual average amount of rainfall is very little (< 10
mm).
(5) Upper Egypt District: It extends from the south of Assiut to the southern borders of Egypt. The
rainfall is rare and the difference between the temperatures by day and night reaches 18C or
greater (desert weather).
(6) Red Sea District: The region of Red Sea highlands differs climatically from other neighborhood
low lands. Therefore, it is more cold and rainy.

Mediterranean District
Nile Delta District
Sinai Highlands District
Middle Egypt District
Upper Egypt District
Red Sea District

Figure 4 Climatic districts in Egypt, Ibrahim et al. (1994)

1.6 Hydrology
The hydrogeological framework of Egypt comprises six aquifer systems (RIGW, 1993) as shown in
Figure 5:
1. The Nile Aquifer System: assigned to the Quaternary and Late Tertiary, occupies the Nile flood
plain region (including Cairo) and the desert fringes.
2. The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System: assigned to the Paleozoic-Mesozoic, occupies mainly the
Western Desert.
3. The Moghra Aquifer System: assigned to the Lower Miocene, occupies mainly the western edge of
the Delta.
4. The Coastal Aquifer Systems: assigned to the Quaternary and Late Tertiary, occupy the northern
and western coasts.

5. The Karstified Carbonate Aquifer System: assigned to the Eocene and to the Upper Cretaceous,
outcrops in the northern part of the Western Desert and along the Nile system.
6. The Fissured and Weathered Hard Rock Aquifer System: assigned to the Pre-Cambrian, outcrops in
the Eastern Desert and Sinai.

Coastal Aquifer
Nile Aquifer
Moghra Aquifer
Karstified Carbonate Aquifer
Nubian Sandstone Aquifer
Fractured Rocks Aquifer

Figure 5 Surface distribution of main aquifer systems, Attia (1999)

2. WATER SUPPLY
The Nile River is considered the main source of water in Egypt where its water covers about 96 out of
the total water requirements of the country. The available deep groundwater and the winter's rain falling
on the northern coastal areas along the Mediterranean Sea cover the rest.

2.1 Nile Water and Nile System in Egypt

15 % of the Nile's water comes from the Equatorial Lakes Plateau while 85 % of this water comes of the
Ethiopian Highlands. The latter comes during the rain season in Ethiopia, which lasts, from the month of
June till the month of August.
The 1959 Agreement between Egypt and Sudan estimated the annual supply of the river measured at
Aswan as 84 billion m3. The agreement distributed this quantity between both countries at 55.5 billion m3
for Egypt, 18.5 billion m3 for Sudan and the remaining 10.0 billion m3 were allocated for the losses. The
High Aswan Dam presently ensures Egypt's annual quota of 55.5 billion m3 of water for irrigation and
other purposes. The release of water is adjusted throughout the year to provide all agricultural areas with
sufficient water for crop needs.
The Nile enters Egypt at its southern boundary with Sudan and runs through a 1000 km long narrow
valley which vary between 2 and 20 km in width. Then, it is divided at a distance of 25 km north of Cairo
into two branches (Damietta and Rosetta) forming a delta resting with its base on the Mediterranean
shores (Figure 6). The lengths of the Damietta and Rosetta Branches are about 250 km and 239 km,

respectively. The delta expands from south to north about 200 km and its base is about 300 km long from
Alexandria to Port Said.

Edfina
Barrage
Zifta Barrage
Damietta
Branch

Rosetta
Branch
Delta Barrages

Assiut Barrage

Naga Hammadi Barrage

Esna Barrage

Old Aswan Dam

High Aswan Dam

Figure 6 The Nile, its branches and main control structures

The irrigation delivery system is comprised of 31,000 km of public canals and 80,000 km of the mesqas
and farm drains, 560 large pumping stations and over 22,000 water control structures.

2.2 Groundwater Resources

The volume of groundwater entering the country on an annual basis from Sudan is estimated at 1 billion
m3. The main source of internal recharge is percolation from irrigation water, and its quality depends
mainly on the quality of the irrigation water.
Deep groundwater is found in large aquifers in the Western Desert. However, it is found at great depths
and is generally considered a non-renewable resource. Therefore, the utilization of such water should be
properly planned to sustain its use for as long as possible. The groundwater in the shallow Nile aquifer
cannot be considered an independent resource of water as it is renewed only by seepage loses from the
Nile, irrigation canals and drains, and deep percolation from irrigated lands.
Table 3 presents a summary of the year 1992 extraction for all the regions in the Nile Valley-Delta system
and Table 4 shows the extraction of groundwater from the aquifers.

Table 3 1992 Groundwater potential according

to various categories, Yakoub (1996)
Groundwater Basin
Nile Basin

Fringes with Surface Water

Fringes with Groundwater

Nubian Sandstone

Coastal Aquifers and Wadis

Location

Table 4 Extraction of groundwater

(mcm/year)

Present Pumpage
(106 m3/yr)

Valley
East Delta
West Delta
Middle Delta
Total
Valley
East Delta
West Delta
Total
Valley
East Delta
West Delta
Total
Kharga
Dakhla
Farafra
Siwa
Bahariya
East Oweinat
Sinai
Total
Western Coast
Red Sea Coast
Wadis
Total

Country Total

1192
881
500
575
3148
65
269
318
652
151
199
412
762
120
280
100
30
40
0
0
570
1
5
0
6
5138

Aquifer
Moghra Aquifer
Nile Aquifer
Karstified Carbonate Aquifer
Nubian Sandstone Aquifer
Fractured Rocks Aquifer
Coastal Aquifer

Water Extraction
(mcm/year)
2
3148
500
570
5
6

2.3 Precipitation - Rainfall

The mean annual rainfall of 18 mm ranges
from 0 mm/year in the desert to 200
mm/year in the north coastal region,
Figure 7. Rainfall on the Mediterranean
coastal strip decreases eastward from 200
mm/year at Alexandria to 75 mm/year at
Port Said. It also declines inland to about
25 mm/year near Cairo and 1 mm/year at
Aswan. Significant intensities of rainfall
are recorded on parts of Red Sea coast.
The most southern part of the country on
the boarder with Sudan is marked with
these phenomena. Intensities in the
neighborhood of 500 mm/year were
observed in some years. The total amount
of rain is equivalent to 1.8 billion m3 per
year over the areas under consideration.

Annual Rainfall (mm/year)

> 200
100 - 200

50 - 100
20 - 50
10 - 20
5 - 10
2-5
2-7
1-2
<1

Rainfall occurs only in the winter season

in the form of scattered shower.
Therefore, it cannot be considered a

Figure 7 Annual Rainfall (mm/Year),

Ibrahim et al. (1994)

dependable resource of water. Nevertheless, some seasonal rain-fed agriculture is practiced in the northern
coast to the west of Alexandria and in Sinai utilizing these small amounts of water. The average annual
amount of rainfall water that is effectively utilized is estimated to be 1 billion m3. In the future, a quantity
of 1.6 billion m3 is planned to be used every year divided as follows:
* 0.38 billion m3 as supplement to irrigation in the Nile Delta,
* 0.45 billion m3 in Sinai,
* 0.57 billion m3 in the North Western Coast,
* 0.20 billion m3 in the Red Sea Coast.

3. WATER DEMAND
The water demand is assessed in domestic, irrigation and industrial sector using data on permanent and
non-permanent population, irrigated areas for typical cultivation and number of large of industrial units.

3.1 Irrigation Water Demand

The irrigation water requirements in Egypt are estimated using data on irrigated areas, Table 5, and
average monthly water consumption rates for the most important crops (arable crops, vegetables, tree
crops and vineyards) compiled from the irrigation standards for Egypt. The irrigation efficiency factor is
assumed to be 70%. The irrigated areas and the irrigation water needs in Lower, Upper and Middle Egypt
are presented in Table 6.
The total water managed area is 3,246,000 ha, of which more than 90 % is in the Nile valley and delta.
Taking into consideration the fact that 1,189,000 ha are planned to be reclaimed before the year 2000, the
total potential for irrigation development can be estimated as 4,434,000 ha.
All irrigation is full or partial control irrigation. All lands are irrigated from the Nile, except in the
provinces of Matrouh, Sinai and New valley, where 146,000 ha is irrigated from groundwater.
Table 5 Irrigated areas per type of basic crops (in hectares)

Lower Egypt
Middle Egypt
Upper Egypt

Irrigated area
for arables
(hectares)
2,592,160
780,686
661,626

Irrigated area
for vegetables
(hectares)
315,237
140,112
85,969

10

Irrigated area
for trees
(hectares)
82,777
29,179
14,947

Irrigated area
for grapes
(hectares)
0
0
0

Table 6 Irrigated areas in Egypt (in hectares) and total water needs for the basic crops

Lower Egypt
Middle Egypt
KARPATHOS
Upper Egypt
Total water needs
(mcm)

Arable crops Vegetables

2,592,160
315,237
780,686
140,112
661,626
85,969
35445.68

4067.614

Trees
82,777
29,179
14,947

Grapes
0
0
0

1067.799

3.2 Municipal and Industrial Water Demand

The domestic water demand in Egypt is estimated using data of the 1996 census on permanent population
of the main towns and villages, as well as average monthly data on nights spent by tourists for the year
1994/1995. The water demand for public uses is estimated as 10% of the permanent population demand.
The distribution network leakage is calculated as 25% of the total domestic demand.
The introduction of the urban, semi-urban
and rural types of population is considered
necessary, as there is a difference in the
water consumption amongst the three
types
of users. The population
classification and the respective water
consumption rates are presented in Table
7. It is considered that water consumption
of urban, semi-urban and rural populations
are 170, 100 and 80 litters/capita/day,
respectively. The water consumption rate
for tourists is set to 270 litters/night spent.

Table 7 Type of population and water consumption

rates
Population
type
Urban
Semi-urban
Rural
Tourists

Population
range
0ver 30,000
10,000 to 30,000
Less than 10,000
-

Consumption rate
litters/capita/day
170
100
80
270

The total municipal water use was estimated to be 5.025 billion m3 in year 1995/1996. A portion of that
water is actually consumed and the rest returns back to the system, either through the sewage collection
system or by seepage to the groundwater.
The permanent population and tourists are the two main categories of consumers of potable and domestic
use of water, beside the public uses. The tourist sector is not very significant in comparison with the
permanent population but in some regions like Sinai it introduces an enormous increase of the water needs
there mainly during the summer period. The annual domestic water needs in each governorate are
presented in Table 8.

11

Table 8 Annual domestic water demand in Egypt

Population

Governorate
Cairo
El-Giza
El-Dakahlia
El-Sharkia
El-Behira
El-Gharbia
Alexandria
El-Minia
Sohag
El-Kaliobia
Assiut
Kena
El-Menoufia
Kafr El-Sheikh
El-Fayoum
Bany Swif
Aswan
Demiat
El-Ismailia
Port Said
El-Suez
North Sinai
Matroh
New Valley
Red sea
South Sinai
Luxor
Total

Domestic Water Demand (mcm)

Permanent
Population * 103

Tourists
(night spent)

Permanent
Population

Tourists

Public uses

Leakage

Total

6955
4525
4226
4220
3968
3437
3431
3372
3067
3045
2843
2766
2672
2266
1995
1836
1042
898
681
467
411
219
186
136
115
35
159

15432753
598642
20910
0
0
18632
633094
52379
7229
1043
24902
0
0
0
3781
4450
436263
36171
10611
1246609
70521
53725
205916
28433
2341906
1547309
801128

430.38
280.01
261.50
261.13
245.54
212.68
212.31
208.66
189.79
188.42
175.92
171.16
165.34
140.22
123.45
113.61
64.48
55.57
42.14
28.90
25.43
13.55
11.51
8.42
7.12
2.17
9.84

4.167
0.162
0.006
0.000
0.000
0.005
0.171
0.014
0.002
0.000
0.007
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.001
0.118
0.010
0.003
0.337
0.019
0.015
0.056
0.008
0.632
0.418
0.216

43.04
28.00
26.15
26.11
24.55
21.27
21.23
20.87
18.98
18.84
17.59
17.12
16.53
14.02
12.35
11.36
6.45
5.56
4.21
2.89
2.54
1.36
1.15
0.84
0.71
0.22
0.98

119.39
77.04
71.92
71.81
67.52
58.49
58.43
57.38
52.19
51.82
48.38
47.07
45.47
38.56
33.95
31.24
17.76
15.28
11.59
8.03
7.00
3.73
3.18
2.32
2.12
0.70
2.76

596.97
385.21
359.58
359.06
337.62
292.44
292.14
286.92
260.96
259.08
241.91
235.35
227.35
192.80
169.75
156.22
88.81
76.42
57.95
40.16
34.99
18.65
15.90
11.58
10.58
3.50
13.80

58814

23576407

3649.25

6.37

364.92

1005.13

5025.67

In Egypt, there are no significant industrial areas but the industry units are spread in most governorates.
Recently, some industrial areas are constructed but the appropriate data on industrial units and production
sizes are not available. The industrial water needs are covered from the local water supply network of
towns.
Table 9 Water consumption rates for industries

The industrial activities are rather

traditional such as drink and beverage,
food, non-metallic minerals, textile and
furniture manufacturing. On the contrary,
an important water consuming sector is
the steam electric power station. The
analysis of the industrial water needs
depends on the industrial units and
production sizes. The water consumption
rates for the industrial unit, Table 9, and
the availability of data for different
industries in each governorate derived to
the estimation of the water requirements in
each governorate, Table 10.

Industry
Type ID
IND1
IND2
IND3
IND4
IND5
IND6
IND7
IND8
IND9
IND10
IND11
IND12

12

Industry Type
Pulp and paper
Textile
Drink and beverage
Food
Mining
Steel
Chemical
Petroleum
Non-metallic industries
Steam electric power station
Cattle farms
Poultry farms

Consumption
(mcm/year)
8.00
1.70
2.00
5.25
6.00
304.00
31.00
4.60
0.14
235.70
-

Table 10 Number of industries in governorates and annual water demand for industrial sector in Egypt
Governorate
Cairo
El-Giza
El-Dakahlia
El-Sharkia
El-Behira
El-Gharbia
Alexandria
El-Minia
Sohag
El-Kaliobia
Assiut
Kena
El-Menoufia
Kafr El-Sheikh
El-Fayoum
Bany Swif
Aswan
Demiat
El-Ismailia
Port Said
El-Suez
North Sinai
Matroh
New Valley
Red Sea
South Sinai
Total

IND1

IND2

IND3

IND4

IND5

IND6

IND7

IND8

4
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
11

20
2
2
2
2
15
6
2
2
1
0
0
2
0
0
2
1
0
2
10
1
0
0
0
0
0
72

3
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7

6
7
3
2
7
2
12
2
2
2
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
4
5
4
0
0
0
0
0
61

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

1
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3

14
7
1
0
0
1
7
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
35

1
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
10

IND9 IND10 IND11 IND12

30
12
3
0
0
13
10
2
5
1
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
4
4
0
0
0
0
0
92

3
2
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
14

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Industrial Water
Consumption (mcm)
1557.40
730.23
286.27
13.90
40.15
319.12
1183.70
14.18
45.60
43.34
4.60
254.76
3.40
0.00
5.25
3.40
243.40
235.70
299.66
310.51
311.76
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
5906.33

4. ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORK
The Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources (MPWWR) is in charge of water resources research,
development and distribution, and undertakes the construction, operation and maintenance of the irrigation
and drainage networks. At central level, the Planning Sector is responsible for data collection, retrieval
and analysis for planning and monitoring investment projects. Water resources development works are
coordinated by the Sector of Public Works and Water Resources. The Nile Water Sector is in charge of
cooperation with Sudan and other Nilotic countries. The Irrigation Department provides technical
guidance and monitoring of irrigation development, including dams. The Mechanical and Electrical
Department is in charge of construction and maintenance of pumping stations for irrigation and drainage.
In fact, the Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources (MPWWR) has realized and recognized the
need for management of Egypt water resources to meet the heavy demand on water. As a result, the
National Water Research Center (NWRC) has been established in 1975 with twelve Institutes specialized
in many field related to water problems, they are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Water Management Research Institute (WMRI)

Drainage Research Institute (DRI)
Water Resources Research Institute (WRRI)
Nile Research Institute (NRI)
Hydraulic Research Institute (HRI)
Channel Maintenance Research Institute (CMRI)
Groundwater Research Institute (GRI)

13

8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

Construction Research Institute (CRI)

Mechanical and Electrical Research Institute (MERI)
Survey Research Institute (SRI)
Coastal Research Institute (CORI)
Environment and Climate Research Institute (ECRI)

Further to these institutions, other public authorities operate in direct relation to the MPWWR. They are
the High Aswan Dam and Aswan Authority, responsible for the dam operation; the Drainage Authority,
responsible for the construction and maintenance of tile drains.
The Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation (MALR) is in charge of agricultural research and
extension, land reclamation and agricultural development.

5. WATER MANAGEMENT POLICIES

One important characteristic of Egyptian agriculture is the distribution of land. More than 95 of the
landowners hold less than 5 feddans (2.08 ha, hectare = 2.38 feddan) each. Only 3 own 50 feddans (20.8
ha) or more
It is planned to develop an additional 1,189,000 ha for agriculture by the year 2000. This will be achieved
through developing the country's surface water and groundwater resources, improving the efficiency of
irrigation and increasing drainage water re-use to 7.7 billion m3 annually. El-Salam canal, now under
construction, is planned for re-use of drainage water from two main drains in the Eastern Delta Province
(Lower Serw and Bahr Hadous). This water, added to water extracted from the Damietta branch of the
Nile, will be used for the irrigation of a new area of 252,000 ha in the Eastern Delta and North Sinai.
The increment in water demand requires a matching increase in water supply and some of the programs
underway to accomplish that by the Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources (MPWWR) include:
1. Reduction of the fresh water going to the sea by the year 2000 to 0.3 billion m3/year through better
management of the winter closure, improvement of the navigational canals replacement of old
barrages.
2. Reduction of drainage water flowing to the sea and northern lakes to about 8 billion m3/year and
reuse the saved drainage water through mixing with canal water for irrigation purposes.
3. A national water conservation program for the old land is underway to improve the irrigation
system and reduce the irrigation requirements.
4. Increment of the shallow groundwater extraction from the Delta Valley aquifer to the safe annual
yield to satisfy the drinking water needs and irrigation purposes. Also, the evaluation of the deep
groundwater aquifers in Egypt to increase the safe annual extraction.

Impacts and Services Needed

(a) Navigation
The impact of navigation is mainly on the main system (the Nile and large navigable canals). About (60 to
70)*106 m3/day must be released during the winter closure in order to maintain the required depth in the
navigable channel. Also, to improve navigation conditions, periodical maintenance is needed to protect the
14

bed and banks of navigable channels from scour and erosion and the sailing boats from transverse currents
and/or delay at major control structures. The level of pollution must be monitored. Accordingly, the
services needed may be summarized as follows:
Maintain navigation depth above the minimum required depth (minimum discharges, dredging,
, etc.).
Construct suitable large locks.
Protect the Nile and canals beds and side slopes from scour and erosion.
Inspect periodically pollution levels, if any.

(b) Industry
Industrial wastes are the worst on the quality of water. About 230 industries release effluents to the Nile
and tributaries. The services needed for water conservation in connection with the industry are:
Setting a monitoring network to collect and analyze periodically water samples, and check level of
pollution.
Impose point source water treatment policy and establish centralized treatment units.
Provide isolated drainage system network for industrial concentrated wastes to avoid
contamination (surface or underground).
Introduce water reclamation technology to encourage industrial wastewater recycling.
Construct protected water intakes and outlet release structures.

(c) Domestic
Heavy leakage losses occur from the domestic water supply network, which may exceed 40 % of the
input. Also, leakage occurs from the sewage-collecting network. This leakage does not only form water
losses but also cause water table rising problem and groundwater pollution. At present, Greater Cairo
sewage treatment plant is under construction, about 29 treatment plants are almost completed and a
scheme of 124 treatment plants, at different locations, will be soon executed. Therefore, according to
national plans, domestic water saving may cover the expected increase for domestic demand in the year
2000.
The services, which are needed to protect the environment and make use of treated sewage water, are:
Intakes and outlets for the domestic and sewage systems: If connected to the Nile and branches,
they must be properly constructed.
Treatment plants for primary and secondary treatments must be provided.
Proper network, measurement devices, maintenance and protection programs to prevent leakage
losses or water contamination are priorities.
Periodical sampling water.

(d) Irrigated Agriculture

Irrigated agriculture faces the challenge of introducing a demand management policy, formation of the
Water Users Association (WUA) and the Irrigation Advisory Services (IAS), and afar cost-recovery/or
cost sharing policy.
The required services in the field of irrigation are:

15

Improvement and modernizing the systems of irrigation and drainage.

Provide necessary control structures to automate and/or modernize system management.
Establish a maintenance, rehabilitation and replacement programme to sustain management.
Encourage and support the Water Users Association (WUA) and the Water Advisory Services
(WAS) to have proper communications with end users (shareholders).

6. WATER CONSUMPTION, TRENDS FOR THE FUTURE

6.1 Water Consumption
6.1.1 Municipal Water Consumption
This is the amount of municipal water that does not return back to the system. It is lost through the human
activities like drinking, sweating, and house keeping, etc. the National Authority for Drinking Water and
Wastewater estimated this amount to be around 20 % of the total diverted municipal water, which is about
0.92 billion m3 in 1995/96.

6.1.2 Industrial Water Consumption

A small amount of industrial water requirements gets lost through evaporation during industrial processes.
This amount of water does not return back to the system and is estimated to be 0.45 billion m3 1995/96.

6.1.3 Irrigation Water Consumption

The Egyptian agricultural land is divided into three main regions as following: Upper, Middle and Lower
Egypt. Each area is characterized with its climate and consequently its crop consumptive use. Generally,
the crop consumptive use depends on many factors. The main one of these factors is the temperature,
which differs in Egypt considerably from north to south.
Table 11 shows for Lower, Middle and Upper Egypt, the actual crop pattern of the year 1993, the crop
consumptive use and the actual water consumption. There are three cropping seasons in Egypt: Winter
(November to May), Summer (April/May to October), and Nili (July/August to October). Winter crops are
the crops from No. 1 to 14 while summer and Nili crops are given as the following:
Lower Egypt area cultivated by Winter crops
Lower Egypt area cultivated by Summer and Nili crops
Middle Egypt area cultivated by Winter crops
Middle Egypt area cultivated by Summer and Nili crops
Upper Egypt area cultivated by Winter crops
Upper Egypt area cultivated by Summer and Nili crops

= 3290055 Feddans
= 3826557 Feddans
= 1046307 Feddans
= 1214637 Feddans
= 804708 Feddans
= 1010141 Feddans

For the three main agricultural areas of Egypt, the total water consumption is about 30.3 billion m3 of
water.

16

Table 11 Crop consumptive use, actual crop pattern (1993), and actual water consumption (106 m3),
Ali (1997)
Crop
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28

Crop Name
Wheat
Horse Beans
Barley
Fenugreek
Lupine
Check Peas
Lentils
Clover, Short
Clover, Full
Flax
Onion, Winter
Garlic
Winter Vegetables
Other Winter Plants
Cotton
Rice
Maize, Summer
Sorghum, Summer
Soybeans
Sesame
Groundnuts
Summer Vegetables
Other Summer Plants
Maize, Nili
Sorghum, Nili
Nili Vegetables
Gardens
Sugar Cane
Total

Middle Egypt
1996.6
1568.8
1800
1080
1080
1105
1503.6
1092
2842.2
1512
1722
1608.6
1608.6
1218
3541.5
4691.4
2612.4
2545.2
2587.2
2255
3680
2343.6
2402.4
2310
2256.8
1604.4
4141
7167.8

Upper Egypt
2195.3
1827
2154
1242
1242
1270.8
1617
1188.6
3120.7
1550
1722
7608.6
1608.6
1218
3881.2
5395.1
2805.6
2751
2975.4
2593.3
4232.2
2343.6
2625
2370
2340
1670
5418
9109.6

Area (Feddan)

Crop Consumptive Use (m /Feddan)

Lower Egypt
1608.6
1281
1408
1000
980
1012
1335
877.7
2364.6
1407
1629.4
1360.8
1360.8
1113
2818.2
4691.4
2430.2
2338
2020.2
2047.6
3399
1925.2
2070.6
2251.2
2178.6
1541.4
4014.8
0

Lower Egypt
1051853
102095
44831
970
3475
1216
6489
586346
1160295
28553
12941
3519
284362
3110
660915
1254452
946658
0
9151
11418
15567
285009
86587
113471
0
61122
382207
0
7116612

Middle Egypt
382562
48988
11717
10789
2002
595
355
103582
340524
369
11588
13675
88239
31322
158615
21843
421965
48921
28048
14697
10184
104885
43679
156138
11571
65496
91346
37249
2260944

Actual Water Consumption (10 m )

Upper Egypt
394797
50295
5453
3207
1969
18557
10697
45915
168027
0
4554
1421
87741
12075
64780
0
226908
284607
6095
28747
5518
28980
26415
41336
468
13057
46722
236508
1814849

Lower Egypt
1692.01
130.78
63.12
0.97
3.41
1.23
8.66
514.64
2743.63
40.17
21.09
4.79
386.96
3.46
1862.59
5885.14
2300.57
0.00
18.49
23.38
52.91
548.70
179.29
255.45
0.00
94.21
1534.48
0.00
18370.13

Middle Egypt
763.82
76.85
21.09
11.65
2.16
0.66
0.53
113.11
967.84
0.56
19.95
22.00
141.94
38.15
561.74
102.47
1102.34
124.51
72.57
33.14
37.48
245.81
104.93
360.68
26.11
105.08
378.26
266.99
5702.45

Upper Egypt
866.70
91.89
11.75
3.98
2.45
23.58
17.30
54.57
524.36
0.00
7.84
10.81
141.14
14.71
251.42
0.00
636.61
782.95
18.14
74.55
23.35
67.92
69.34
97.97
1.10
21.81
253.14
2154.49
6223.86

The cropped area is nearly double the cultivated area. On the old lands, the cropping intensities can be
very high (200 %), but on the new lands intensities can reach only 150 %, mainly because of water
shortages and the lack of means of production in those areas. Most crops are grown both in the Delta and
Valley, with exception of rice (Delta mainly) and sugar cane (Valley). The main winter crop is clover
(berseem, Trifolium alexandrinum), grown either over 3 months with only 2 cuts as a soil improver (short
berseem), or over 6-7 months, either with 4-5 cuts as a fodder crop or grazed by tethered cattle (long
berseem). Other minor winter crops are barley, sugar beet and pulses. The main summer crops are maize,
rice and cotton, which is the most important Egyptian export crop. Yields have continually increased
during the past decades, particularly on the old lands. In 1993, yields were 5.4 t/ha for wheat, 7.0 t/ha for
maize, 7.7 t/ha for rice, and 1.2 t/ha for cotton.
The average cost for irrigation development is about $US 1,600/ha for drip irrigation, $US 1,300/ha for
mobile sprinkler irrigation, and $US 3,200/ha for stationery sprinkler irrigation. Farmers are not charged
for irrigation water but pay a tax, which is based on the size of their irrigated land.
Linear programming mathematical models are used to determine the optimal allocation of crop area which
minimizes the amount of irrigation water used. One such mathematical model has been developed and
applied on the agricultural area of Egypt and the results show a water saving of 1.41 billion m3, Ali
(1997).

6.2 Trends in Water Consumption

Several studies were accomplished in the last few years regarding the estimate of water requirements and
its future projection for municipal and industrial water demands. It should be mentioned that a minimum
required discharge of the Nile Delta drains to the sea and northern lakes is required to estimate the

17

remaining water conservation potential for Egypt's Nile irrigation system. The minimum required
discharge should satisfy necessary flows mainly to:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

maintain a favorable salt balance for sustainable agricultural production,

control seawater intrusion,
protect fisheries,
sustain coastal estuaries and their water quality and ecosystem,
avoid the spread of diseases due to flow reduction.

It is estimated that 8.321 billion m3/year is required as minimum drainage water flows into the
Mediterranean Sea and the lakes of Manzala, Buroulos, Edko, and Maryout to maintain salinity levels
within the acceptable range for the current fish species. Currently, there is an amount of about 12 billion
m3/year (with average salinity of 2700 PPM) of drainage water discharged to the sea. The gross savings in
drainage water are 3.964 billion m3/year.
In general, the more drainage water discharged to the sea the less the possible reduction in the crop yield
and the less the impact on the surrounding environment. Nevertheless, the exact implications of the
reduction of the drainage water discharged to the sea need further studies.
Recommendations for minimum requirements to satisfy the environmental needs such as fisheries and salt
balance are 8.3 billion m3/year giving conservation potential of about 4.0 billion m3/year to be added to
the current amount of drainage water reuse.
The determinant factors of municipal and industrial water requirements are the population growth, the
efficiency of the distribution networks, the industrial growth, and the living standards.

6.2.1 Future Projection of Municipal and Industrial Water Requirements

6.2.1.1 Future Projection by Yacoub (1997):
(a) Municipal water requirements
The data of this study is based on the following assumptions:
Water requirements include an estimated 25 % network losses,
Distribution of water requirements in different areas in the governorate takes the shown values in
Table 12,
Groundwater is considered the basic source for municipal water wherever it is available,
The estimate of the rate of population increase was based on the 1986 census,
The sewage system can handle up to 80 % of the municipal water, which the future sewage
treatment stations will treat.

18

Table 12 Distribution of water requirements (l/c/d) for different areas

in the governorate, Yakoub (1997)

Consumption Losses 25 %
(l/c/d)
(l/c/d)

Area
Governorate Capital
Urban Cities
Rural Population > 10,000 capita
Rural Population < 10,000 capita

Total
(l/c/d)

200

50

250

170

42.5

212.5

100
80

25
20

125
100

Based on these assumptions, the population and municipal water requirements for each governorate were
summarized in Tables 13 and 14.
Table 13

Governorate
Cairo
El-Giza
Dakahlia
El-Sharkia
El-Behira
El-Gharbia
Alexandria
El-Minia
Sohag
El-Kalubia
Assiut
Qena
Kafr El-Shikh
El-Fayoum
Beni Suef
Aswan
Domiat
Esmaelia
Port Said
Suez
North Sinai
Mersa Matrouh
Menoufiya
New Valley
Bahr Ahmar
South Sinai
Total

Population estimates for Egypt

through the year 2030, Yakoub
(1997)
2000

2010

2017

2020

2030

12708199
1818117
4710709
4792519
4476904
3426517
3902523
3484614
2435077
2836193
2824778
2935006
2382309
6352715
1970378
2068135
1036557
887329
524943
447898
244771
187513
2879496
152004
155478
39119
69679801

15643770
2186634
5823720
6110671
5302666
4162491
4803999
4239547
2863865
4051746
3401095
3545974
3016511
2664586
2381508
2822286
1317066
1021769
637674
555630
305769
250296
3464036
189884
228859
48867
81040919

18093460
2489643
6755857
7054274
6732832
4769839
5556267
4863324
3208202
5200873
3873128
3990044
3623408
3124247
2719345
3508465
1557457
1225553
730697
646116
357303
306369
3942457
221887
299982
57103
94908132

19257453
2632035
7199705
7502043
7458339
5056545
5913714
5158007
3368172
5788260
4094980
4196997
3919556
3344771
2878427
3851448
1673477
1324892
774609
689275
381968
334094
4167217
237204
336872
61045
101601105

23705890
3170383
8900794
9934406
9626626
6142642
7279772
6275465
3961288
8269020
4660443
5070679
4488389
4198596
3479031
5255895
2126356
1717943
940952
855066
477156
445954
5013154
296316
495867
76258
126864341

Table 14 Total daily water requirement estimates

for Egypt through the year 2030
(m3/day), Yakoub (1997)
Governorate
Cairo
El-Giza
Dakahlia
El-Sharkia
El-Behira
El-Gharbia
Alexandria
El-Minia
Sohag
El-Kalubia
Assiut
Qena
Kafr El-Shikh
El-Fayoum
Beni Suef
Aswan
Domiat
Esmaelia
Port Said
Suez
North Sinai
Mersa Matrouh
Menoufiya
New Valley
Bahr Ahmar
South Sinai
Total

2000

2010

2017

2020

2030

4524119
247166
674692
659193
648792
528093
2536640
462479
366870
401635
412023
419298
337833
306801
260158
291605
148288
143038
118347
62203
30596
32564
390423
19001
27381
4890
14054128

5569182
302927
848835
858509
850616
650247
3122599
568525
437064
583933
498286
515041
434035
390353
289080
398651
190127
185730
143758
77166
38221
43779
474882
23736
40958
6108
17542348

6441272
347882
993024
1027115
1027200
749254
3611574
655616
493223
755393
571281
592502
516626
460956
358216
495644
226742
284079
165082
89732
44663
53958
546688
27736
53687
7138
20596283

6855653
369136
1062089
1109159
1113689
796174
3843914
696912
519448
843512
605751
629170
556670
494998
392696
544131
244519
340828
175163
95726
47746
59016
580696
29650
60289
7631
22074366

8439297
447529
1322469
1426482
1448776
974579
4731852
853531
617133
1212304
734282
753355
713536
626143
479794
742582
312087
312782
213061
118749
59644
79037
704294
37039
89437
9532
27459306

From Tables 13 and 14, Table 15 gives the population, daily water requirements and annual municipal
water requirements for Egypt through the year 2030.
Table 15 Population and annual water requirements through the year 2030, Yakoub (1997)
Item
Population (million)
6

Daily Requirements (10 m /day)

6

Annual Requirements (10 m /year)

1995

2000

2010

2017

2020

2030

58.34

69.68

81.04

94.91

101.60

126.86

12.43

14.05

17.54

20.60

22.07

27.46

4536

5130

6403

7518

8057

10023

19

The municipal water requirements in Egypt is taking an upward trend from 4.5 billion m3/year in 1995 to
7.5 billion m3/year in 2017 due to the improvement in standard of living and the increase in population
which is estimated to reach about 127 million in 2017.

(b) Industrial water requirements

The industrial water requirements in Egypt is estimated to increase very rapidly from 7.5 billion m3/year
in 1995 to 14.6 billion m3/year in 2017, Table 16, due to expected fast base of industrial expansion in the
next few years. But, a big part of these requirements is used for cooling purpose only in power generation
plants, 5.6 billion m3/year in 2017, which does not affect the quality of water.
Table 16 Future projection of industrial water requirements and wastewater through 2017 (106 m3/yr),
Yakoub (1997)
1995
Industry
Industrial Sector
Power Generation
Cement
Total
Depletion

2000

2010

2017

Industrial Water
Requirements
6
3
(10 m /year)

Industrial
Wastewater
6
3
(10 m /year)

Industrial Water
Requirements
6
3
(10 m /year)

Industrial
Wastewater
6
3
(10 m /year)

Industrial Water
Requirements
6
3
(10 m /year)

Industrial
Wastewater
6
3
(10 m /year)

Industrial Water
Requirements
6
3
(10 m /year)

Industrial
Wastewater
6
3
(10 m /year)

3056.64
4465.41
8.68
7530.73

2670.16
4404.92
1.70
7076.78

3901.14
5699.12
8.68
9608.94

3407.88
5621.91
1.70
9031.49

6354.54
5699.12
8.68
12062.34

5551.07
5621.91
1.70
11174.68

8941.48
5699.12
8.68
14649.28

7810.91
5621.91
1.70
13434.52

453.95

577.45

887.66

1214.76

(c) Future wastewater use

Large amounts of wastewater are produced from municipal and industrial use. The program of municipal
sewage treatment in Egypt produces 3.2 billion m3 in 1997 and that will increase to 5.5 billion m3 by 2025,
Table 17.
Table 17 Future estimate of the treated sewage water (106 m3/yr), Yakoub (1997)

Area
Greater Cairo
Alexandria
Upper Egypt
Lower Egypt
Canal Governorates
Other Governorates
Total

Treated Sewage 1997

1278
237
438
949
219
37
3158

Treated Sewage 2025

2219
412
761
1648
383
66
5489

The treated wastewater will be used in reclaiming 200,000 feddans on 1.07 billion m3/year. The remaining
amount of treated sewage water will be a result of primary and secondary treatment. This could be used
for different purposes other than drinking such as irrigation of trees or crops with hard cover, industrial
purposes, recreational areas and gardens, green belt trees around the cities, fire fitting, and fisheries in the
northern lakes or fish farming.

20

6.2.1.2 Future Projection by Darwish et al. (1998)

According to the data supplied by the Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources, Table 18 shows the
water situation in Egypt during the years 2005-2025. The available water resources that can be supplied
ranges from 67.2 billion m3 in 2005 to 70.8 billion m3 in 2025. These figures include water that will be
provided by the Upper Nile Projects (Jongly canal, Mashar, Baher El-Ghazal), developing the irrigation
systems and rationalizing usage, Irrigation Improvement Projects.
Table 18 Traditional and Non-Traditional Resources (billion m3/year) and their total during 2005-2025,
Darwish et al. (1998)
Resources
Traditional Resources

Nile Water
Rain Water
Springs Water
Traditional Resources Total
Deep Underground Water
Sewage Water
Drainage Water
Underground Water in Delta and Valley
Non-Traditional Resources Total

Non-Traditional Resources

Total

2005
57.5
1.4
0.3
59.2
1.0
1.0
3.0
3.0
8.0
67.2

Year
2015
57.5
1.4
0.3
59.2
2.5
1.8
3.0
3.0
10.3
69.5

2010
57.5
1.4
0.3
59.2
1.8
1.5
3.0
3.0
9.3
68.5

2020
57.5
1.4
0.3
59.2
3.0
2.1
3.0
3.0
11.1
70.3

2025
57.5
1.4
0.3
59.2
3.5
2.1
3.0
3.0
11.6
70.8

Table 19 shows the currently available resources, (billion m3), their uses and the % shortage during 20052025. According to this table, shortage in the water resources can be managed till 2005 only, in case of the
implementation of all the pre-mentioned Upper Nile Projects.
Table 19 Currently available resources (billion m3/year), their uses and the % shortage
during 2005-2025, Darwish et al. (1998)
Data
The aspects of usage:
- Agriculture
- Drinking Water & Industry
Total of needed water
- Current available resources
- Shortage
- Sufficiency ratio (%)
- Available resources after the implementation of
Upper Nile Projects and the storing in Northern
Lakes and the developing irrigation evaluation
- Shortage
- Sufficiency ratio (%)

2005

2010

Year
2015

2020

2025

58.50
9.20
67.70
61.90
5.80
91.4

62.70
9.80
72.50
63.20
9.30
87.2

66.75
10.55
77.30
64.20
13.10
83.1

70.88
11.10
81.98
65.00
16.98
79.3

75.58
11.96
87.54
65.50
22.04
74.8

67.20

68.50

69.50

70.30

70.80

0.50
99.3

4.00
94.5

7.80
89.9

11.68
85.8

16.74
80.9

Generally, this shortage can be managed by the following ways:

21

1. Water resources can be increased

Table 20 Upper Nile Projects and Egypt's share in the
through implementing the Upper Nile
water revenues,
Projects to benefit from water losses
Darwish et al. (1998)
and to share water revenues with the
Egypt's share in the water
Nilotic countries, Table 20.
revenues
Upper Nile Projects
2. Seawater desalting is an expensive
(billion m3/year)
process. Desalting 1 m3 costs $US
2.40
Jongly Canal (First phase)
1.2 depending upon the technology
2.40
Jongly
Canal
(Second
phase)
used.
2.20
Mashar Swamps
3. If the desalting cost is compared with
2.50
El-Ghazal Swamps
the other water resources in Table 21,
Total
9.50
the re-use of the agricultural drainage
water costs is little. In addition,
drainage water is very important to
keep the salt balance in the agricultural lands and to improve the root zone airing.
4. The amount that can be saved from the old lands is 1.0 billion m3/year for irrigation as a result of
the implementation of the Irrigation Improvement Projects.
Table 21 Needed Costs to manage 1000 m3 of additional water resources in Egypt (1 $US = 3.34 LE),
Darwish et al. (1998)
Resources
Upper Nile Projects
Re-use of agricultural drainage water
Underground water in Delta and Valley
Treating the sewage water
Treating the industrial drainage water
Desalting the semi-salty water
Desalting the sea water

Possible Quantity of the source

(billion m3/year)

Average Costs
LE / 1000 m3

9.5
4.0
2.6
5.5
3.8
Upon need
Upon need

10
9
20
35
45
700
1500

7. CONCLUSIONS
Egypt is facing water scarcity due to the over population, industrialization and agricultural expansion.
Conventional water resources are now exhausted. There is a need to search for other sources of water
through desalination, and other non-conventional resources, in addition to the expensive deep groundwater
with its limited potential and possible side effects. Severe measures of water conservation must be applied
as the re-use of sewage and drainage. In the industrial sector the re-cycle of used water must also be
considered.

22

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24