English Grammar

Hasham Raza

What is Grammar?
Grammar is the system of a language.
People sometimes describe grammar as
the "rules" of a language; but in fact no
language has rules*. If we use the word
"rules", we suggest that somebody created
the rules first and then spoke the
language, like a new game. But languages
did not start like that. Languages started
by people making sounds which evolved
into words, phrases and sentences. No
commonly-spoken language is fixed. All
languages change over time. What we call
"grammar" is simply a reflection of a
language at a particular time.
Do we need to study grammar to learn a
language? The short answer is "no". Very
many people in the world speak their
own, native language without having
studied its grammar. Children start to
speak before they even know the word
"grammar". But if you are serious about
learning a foreign language, the long
answer is "yes, grammar can help you to
learn a language more quickly and more
efficiently." It's important to think of
grammar as something that can help you,
like a friend. When you understand the
grammar (or system) of a language, you
can understand many things yourself,
without having to ask a teacher or look in
a book.

So think of grammar as something good,

something positive, something that you
can use to find your way - like a signpost
or a map.

* Except invented languages like

Esperanto. And if Esperanto were widely
spoken, its rules would soon be very
different.

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Glossary of English Grammar Terms

Active Voice
In the active voice, the subject of the verb does the action (eg They killed the President). See also
Passive Voice.
Adjective
A word like big, red, easy, French etc. An adjective describes a noun or pronoun.
Adverb
A word like slowly, quietly, well, often etc. An adverb modifies a verb.
Article
The "indefinite" articles are a and an. The "definite article" is the.
Auxiliary Verb
A verb that is used with a main verb. Be, do and have are auxiliary verbs. Can, may, must etc are
modal auxiliary verbs.
Clause
A group of words containing a subject and its verb (for example: It was late when he arrived).
Conjunction
A word used to connect words, phrases and clauses (for example: and, but, if).
Infinitive
The basic form of a verb as in to work or work.
Interjection
An exclamation inserted into an utterance without grammatical connection (for example: oh!,
ah!, ouch!, well!).
Modal Verb
An auxiliary verb like can, may, must etc that modifies the main verb and expresses possibility,
probability etc. It is also called "modal auxiliary verb".
Noun
A word like table, dog, teacher, America etc. A noun is the name of an object, concept, person or
place. A "concrete noun" is something you can see or touch like a person or car. An "abstract
noun" is something that you cannot see or touch like a decision or happiness. A "countable noun"
is something that you can count (for example: bottle, song, dollar). An "uncountable noun" is
something that you cannot count (for example: water, music, money).

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Object
In the active voice, a noun or its equivalent that receives the action of the verb. In the passive
voice, a noun or its equivalent that does the action of the verb.
Participle
The -ing and -ed forms of verbs. The -ing form is called the "present participle". The -ed form is
called the "past participle" (for irregular verbs, this is column 3).
Part Of Speech
One of the eight classes of word in English - noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition,
conjunction and interjection.
Passive Voice
In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb (eg The President was killed). See
also Active Voice.
Phrase
A group of words not containing a subject and its verb (eg on the table, the girl in a red dress).
Predicate
Each sentence contains (or implies) two parts: a subject and a predicate. The predicate is what is
said about the subject.
Preposition
A word like at, to, in, over etc. Prepositions usually come before a noun and give information
about things like time, place and direction.
Pronoun
A word like I, me, you, he, him, it etc. A pronoun replaces a noun.
Sentence
A group of words that express a thought. A sentence conveys a statement, question, exclamation
or command. A sentence contains or implies a subject and a predicate. In simple terms, a
sentence must contain a verb and (usually) a subject. A sentence starts with a capital letter and
ends with a full stop (.), question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!).
Subject
Every sentence contains (or implies) two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is the main
noun (or equivalent) in a sentence about which something is said.
Tense
The form of a verb that shows us when the action or state happens (past, present or future). Note
that the name of a tense is not always a guide to when the action happens. The "present
continuous tense", for example, can be used to talk about the present or the future.
Verb
A word like (to) work, (to) love, (to) begin. A verb describes an action or state.

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Parts of Speech Table

This is a summary of the 8 parts of speech. You can find more detail if you click
on each part of speech.
part of speech

function or "job"

example words

example sentences

Verb

action or state

(to) be, have, do,

like, work, sing,
can, must

EnglishClub.com is a
web site. I like
EnglishClub.com.

Noun

thing or person

pen, dog, work,

music, town,
London, teacher,
John

This is my dog. He
lives in my house. We
live in London.

Adjective

describes a noun

a/an, the, 69,

some, good, big,
red, well,
interesting

My dog is big. I like

big dogs.

Adverb

describes a verb,
adjective or adverb

quickly, silently,
well, badly, very,
really

My dog eats quickly.

When he is very
hungry, he eats really
quickly.

Pronoun

replaces a noun

I, you, he, she,

some

Tara is Indian. She is

beautiful.

Preposition

links a noun to
another word

to, at, after, on,

but

We went to school on
Monday.

Conjunction

joins clauses or
sentences or words

and, but, when

I like dogs and I like

cats. I like cats and
dogs. I like dogs but I
don't like cats.

Interjection

short exclamation,
sometimes inserted
into a sentence

oh!, ouch!, hi!,

well

Ouch! That hurts! Hi!

How are you? Well, I
don't know.

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Parts of Speech Examples

Here are some sentences made with different English parts of speech:
verb

noun

verb

noun

verb

verb

Stop!

John

works.

John

is

working.

pronoun

verb

noun

noun

verb

adjective

noun

She

loves

animals.

Animals

like

kind

people.

noun

verb

noun

adverb

noun

verb

adjective

noun

Tara

speaks

English

well.

Tara

speaks

good

English.

pronoun

verb

preposition

adjective

noun

adverb

She

ran

to

the

station

quickly.

pron.

verb

adj.

noun

conjunction

pron.

verb

pron.

She

likes

big

snakes

but

hate

them.

Here is a sentence that contains every part of speech:

interjection

pron.

conj.

adj.

noun

verb

prep.

noun

adverb

Well,

she

and

young

John

walk

to

school slowly.

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Words with
More than
One Job
Many words in English can
have more than one job, or be
more than one part of speech.
For example, "work" can be a
verb and a noun; "but" can be
a conjunction and a
preposition; "well" can be an
adjective, an adverb and an
interjection. In addition,
many nouns can act as
adjectives.
To analyze the part of speech,
ask yourself: "What job is
this word doing in this
sentence?"
In the table on the right you
can see a few examples. Of
course, there are more, even
for some of the words in the
table. In fact, if you look in a
good dictionary you will see
that the word but has six jobs
to do:

Hasham Raza

word
work

part of
speech

example

noun

My work
is easy.

verb

I work in
London.

conjunction

John came
but Mary
didn't
come.

preposition

Everyone
came but
Mary.

adjective

Are you
well?

adverb

She speaks
well.

interjection

Well!
That's
expensive!

noun

We ate in
the
afternoon.

noun acting
as adjective

We had
afternoon
tea.

but

well

afternoon

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What are Verbs?

The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb. You can make
a one-word sentence with a verb, for example: "Stop!" You cannot make a oneword sentence with any other type of word.
Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly true. Many verbs
give the idea of action, of "doing" something. For example, words like run, fight,
do and work all convey action.
But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea of existence, of
state, of "being". For example, verbs like be, exist, seem and belong all convey
state.
A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence "John speaks English", John is the
subject and speaks is the verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs
are words that tell us what a subject does or is; they describe:
action (Ram plays football.)

state (Anthony seems kind.)

There is something very special about verbs in English. Most other words
(adjectives, adverbs, prepositions etc) do not change in form (although nouns can
have singular and plural forms). But almost all verbs change in form. For
example, the verb to work has five forms:
to work, work, works, worked, working
Of course, this is still very few forms compared to some languages which may
have thirty or more forms for a single verb.
In this lesson we look at the ways in which we classify verbs, followed by a quiz
to test your understanding:

Verb Classification
We divide verbs into two broad classifications:

1. Helping Verbs
Imagine that a stranger walks into your room and says:
I can.
People must.
The Earth will.
Do you understand anything? Has this person communicated anything to you?
Probably not! That's because these verbs are helping verbs and have no meaning
on their own. They are necessary for the grammatical structure of the sentence,
but they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use helping verbs with main
verbs. They "help" the main verb. (The sentences in the above examples are
therefore incomplete. They need at least a main verb to complete them.) There are
only about 15 helping verbs.
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2. Main Verbs
Now imagine that the same stranger walks into your room and says:
I teach.
People eat.
The Earth rotates.
Do you understand something? Has this person communicated something to you?
Probably yes! Not a lot, but something. That's because these verbs are main verbs
and have meaning on their own. They tell us something. Of course, there are
thousands of main verbs.
In the following table we see example sentences with helping verbs and
main verbs. Notice that all of these sentences have a main verb. Only some of
them have a helping verb.
helping verb
main verb
John
likes
coffee.
You
lied
to me.
They
are
happy.
The children
are
playing.
We
must
go
now.
I
do
not want
any.
Helping verbs and main verbs can be further sub-divided, as we shall see on the
following pages.

Helping Verbs
Helping verbs are also called "auxiliary verbs".

Helping verbs have no meaning on their own. They are necessary for the
grammatical structure of a sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. We
usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main verb (which has
the real meaning). There are only about 15 helping verbs in English, and we
divide them into two basic groups:

Primary helping verbs (3 verbs)

These are the verbs be, do, and have. Note that we can use these three verbs as
helping verbs or as main verbs. On this page we talk about them as helping verbs.
We use them in the following cases:
be
o to make continuous tenses (He is watching TV.)
o to make the passive (Small fish are eaten by big fish.)

have
o

to make perfect tenses (I have finished my homework.)

do

to make negatives (I do not like you.)

to ask questions (Do you want some coffee?)
to show emphasis (I do want you to pass your exam.)
to stand for a main verb in some constructions (He speaks faster
than she does.)
o
o
o

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Modal helping verbs (10 verbs)

We use modal helping verbs to "modify" the meaning of the main verb in some
way. A modal helping verb expresses necessity or possibility, and changes the
main verb in that sense. These are the modal verbs:
can, could
may, might
will, would,
shall, should
must
ought to
Here are examples using modal verbs:
I can't speak Chinese.
John may arrive late.
Would you like a cup of coffee?
You should see a doctor.
I really must go now.
Semi-modal verbs (3 verbs)
The following verbs are often called "semi-modals" because they they are partly like modal
helping verbs and partly like main verbs:
need
dare

used to

Main Verbs
Main verbs are also called "lexical verbs".

Main verbs have meaning on their own (unlike helping verbs). There are
thousands of main verbs, and we can classify them in several ways:

Transitive and intransitive verbs

A transitive verb takes a direct object: Somebody killed the President. An
intransitive verb does not have a direct object: He died. Many verbs, like speak,
can be transitive or intransitive. Look at these examples:
transitive:
I saw an elephant.
We are watching TV.
He speaks English.
intransitive:
He has arrived.
John goes to school.
She speaks fast.

Linking verbs
A linking verb does not have much meaning in itself. It "links" the subject to what
is said about the subject. Usually, a linking verb shows equality (=) or a change to
a different state or place (>). Linking verbs are always intransitive (but not all
intransitive verbs are linking verbs).
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Mary is a teacher. (mary = teacher)
Tara is beautiful. (tara = beautiful)
That sounds interesting. (that = interesting)
The sky became dark. (the sky > dark)
The bread has gone bad. (bread > bad)

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Dynamic and stative verbs

Some verbs describe action. They are called "dynamic", and can be used with
continuous tenses. Other verbs describe state (non-action, a situation). They are
called "stative", and cannot normally be used with continuous tenses (though
some of them can be used with continuous tenses with a change in meaning).

dynamic verbs (examples):

hit, explode, fight, run, go
stative verbs (examples):
be
like, love, prefer, wish
impress, please, surprise
hear, see, sound
belong to, consist of, contain, include, need

appear, resemble, seem

Regular and irregular verbs

This is more a question of vocabulary than of grammar. The only real difference
between regular and irregular verbs is that they have different endings for their
past tense and past participle forms. For regular verbs, the past tense ending and
past participle ending is always the same: -ed. For irregular verbs, the past tense
ending and the past participle ending is variable, so it is necessary to learn them
by heart.
regular verbs: base, past tense, past participle
look, looked, looked
work, worked, worked
irregular verbs: base, past tense, past participle
buy, bought, bought
cut, cut, cut
do, did, done
One way to think of regular and irregular verbs is like this: all verbs are irregular and the socalled regular verbs are simply one very large group of irregular verbs.

Often the above divisions can be mixed. For example, one verb could be irregular,
transitive and dynamic; another verb could be regular, transitive and stative.

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Verb Forms
English verbs come in several forms. For example, the verb to sing can be: to
sing, sing, sang, sung, singing or sings. This is a total of 6 forms. Not many,
considering that some languages (French, for example) have more than 30
forms for an individual verb. English tenses may be quite complicated, but the
forms that we use to make the tenses are actually very simple! With the
exception of the verb to be, English main verbs have only 4, 5 or 6 forms. To
be has 9 forms. Do not confuse verb forms with tenses. We use the different
verb forms to make the tenses, but they are not the same thing.
In this lesson we look at the forms of main verbs and helping (auxiliary)
verbs, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

Forms of Main Verbs

Main verbs are also called "lexical verbs".

Main verbsexcept the verb "be"have only 4, 5 or 6 forms. "Be" has 9 forms.
V1

V2

V3

infinitive

base

past
simple

past
participle

present
participle

present
simple,
3rd
person
singular

regular

(to) work

work

worked

worked

working

works

irregular

(to) sing
(to) make
(to) cut

sing
make
cut

sang
made
cut

sung
made
cut

singing
making
cutting

sings
makes
cuts

(to) do*

do

did

done

doing

does

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(to) have*

have

had

had

having

has

infinitive

base

past
simple

past
participle

present
participle

present
simple

(to) be*

be

was,
were

been

being

am, are, is

In the above examples:

to cut has 4 forms: to cut, cut, cutting, cuts
to work has 5 forms: to work, work, worked, working, works
to sing has 6 forms: to sing, sing, sang, sung, singing, sings
to be has 9 forms: to be, be, was, were, been, being, am, is, are
The infinitive can be with or without to. For example,
to sing and sing are both infinitives. We often call the
infinitive without to the "bare infinitive".

At school, students usually learn by heart the base, past simple and past
participle (sometimes called V1, V2, V3, meaning Verb 1, Verb 2, Verb 3) for the
irregular verbs. They may spend many hours chanting: sing, sang, sung; go, went,
gone; have, had, had; etc. They do not learn these for the regular verbs because
the past simple and past participle are always the same: they are formed by adding
"-ed" to the base. They do not learn the past participle and 3rd person singular
present simple by heartfor another very simple reason: they never change. The
present participle is always made by adding "-ing" to the base, and the 3rd person
singular present simple is always made by adding "s" to the base (though there are
some variations in spelling).
* Note that "do", "have" and "be" also function as helping or auxiliary verbs, with
exactly the same forms (except that as helping verbs they are never in infinitive
form).

Example Sentences
These example sentences use main verbs in different forms.

Infinitive

I want to work
He has to sing.
This exercise is easy to do.
Let him have one.
To be, or not to be, that is the question:

Base - Imperative

Work well!
Make this.
Have a nice day.
Be quiet!

Base - Present simple

(except 3rd person singular)

I work in London.
You sing well.
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They have

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a lot of money.

Base - After modal auxiliary verbs

I can work tomorrow.

You must sing louder.
They might do it.
You could be right.

Past simple

I worked yesterday.
She cut his hair last week.
They had a good time.
They were surprised, but I was not.

Past participle

I have worked here for five years.

He needs a folder made of plastic.
It is done like this.
I have never been so happy.

Present participle

I am working.
Singing well is not easy.
Having finished, he went home.
You are being silly!

3rd person singular, present simple

He works in London.
She sings well.
She has a lot of money.
It is Vietnamese.

Forms of Helping Verbs

EnglishClub.com Tip
Helping verbs are also called "auxiliary verbs".

All helping verbs are used with a main verb (either expressed or understood*).
There are 2 groups of helping verbs:
Primary helping verbs, used mainly to change the tense or voice of the
main verb, and in making questions and negatives.
Modal helping verbs, used to change the "mood" of the main verb.
Study the table opposite. It shows the prinicipal forms and uses of helping verbs,
and explains the differences between primary and modal helping verbs.
* Sometimes we make a sentence that has a helping verb and seems to have no
main verb. In fact, the main verb is "understood". Look at the following
examples:
Question: Can you speak English? (The main verb speak is "expressed".)
Answer: Yes, I can. (The main verb speak is not expressed. It is
"understood" from the context. We understand: Yes, I can speak English.
But if somebody walked into the room and said "Hello. I can", we would
understand nothing!
Helping Verbs
Primary
Modal
do
(to make simple tenses, and questions and negatives)

can

could
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be
have

(to make continuous tenses, and the passive voice) may might
(to make perfect tenses)
will would
shall should
must
ought (to)
"Do", "be" and "have" as helping verbs have exactly the same forms as when
they are main verbs (except that as helping verbs they are never used in
infinitive forms). Modal helping verbs are invariable. They always have the
same form.
Primary helping verbs are followed by the main verb in a particular form:
do + V1 (base verb)
be + -ing (present participle)
have + V3 (past participle) "Ought" is followed by the main verb in infinitive
form. Other modal helping verbs are followed by the main verb in its base form
(V1).
ought + to... (infinitive)
other modals + V1 (base verb)
"Do", "be" and "have" can also function as main verbs. Modal helping verbs
cannot function as main verbs.

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Tenses
The English Tense System
The links opposite are to lessons for each of the 12 basic tenses. In each lesson we
look at two aspects of the tense:
Structure: How do we make the tense?
Use: When and why do we use the tense?
Some lessons look at additional aspects, and most of them finish with a quiz to
check your understanding.
Many English learners worry too much about tense. If you stopped 100 native English speakers in
the street and asked them about tense, one of them might give you an intelligent answerif you
were lucky. The other 99 would know little about terms like "past perfect" or "present continuous".
And they would know nothing about aspect, voice or mood. But they can all speak fluent English
and communicate effectively. Of course, for ESL it helps to know about tenses, but don't become
obsessed with them. Be like those native speakers! Speak naturally!

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Simple Present Tense

I sing

How do we make the Simple Present Tense?

subject + auxiliary verb + main verb

do
base
There are three important exceptions:
1. For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary.
2. For the 3rd person singular (he, she, it), we add s to the main verb or es to
the auxiliary.
3. For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions and
negatives.
Look at these examples with the main verb like:
subject

+
?

auxiliary verb

main verb

I, you, we, they

like

coffee.

He, she, it

likes

coffee.

I, you, we, they

do

not

like

coffee.

He, she, it

does

not

like

coffee.

Do

I, you, we, they

like

coffee?

Does

he, she, it

like

coffee?

Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there is no auxiliary:
subject
main verb
French.
+ IYou, we, they am
are
French.
He, she, it
is
French.
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I
You, we, they
He, she, it
Am
Are
Is

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am
are
is
I
you, we,
they
he, she, it

not old.
not old.
not old.
late?
late?
late?

How do we use the Simple Present Tense?

We use the simple present tense when:
the action is general
the action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and
future
the action is not only happening now
the statement is always true

John drives a taxi.

past

present

future

It is John's job to drive a taxi. He does it every day. Past, present and future.
Look at these examples:
I live in New York.
The Moon goes round the Earth.
John drives a taxi.
He does not drive a bus.
We do not work at night.
Do you play football?
Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the simple present tense for
situations that are not general. We can use the simple present tense to talk about
now. Look at these examples of the verb to be in the present simple tensesome
of them are general, some of them are now:

Am I right?
Tara is not at home.
You are happy.
past

present

future
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The situation is now.

I am not fat.
Why are you so beautiful?
Ram is tall.
past

present

future

The situation is general. Past, present and

future.

This page shows the use of the simple present tense to

talk about general events. But note that there are some
other uses for the simple present tense, for example in
conditional or if sentences, or to talk about the future.

Present Continuous Tense

I am singing
We often use the present continuous tense in English. It is very different from the
simple present tense, both in structure and in use.
In this lesson we look the structure and use of the present continuous tense,
follwed by a quiz to check your understanding:
Continuous tenses are also called progressive tenses.
So the present progressive tense is the same as the
present continuous tense.

How do we make the Present Continuous Tense?

The structure of the present continuous tense is:

subject + auxiliary verb + main verb

be
Look at these examples:

base + ing

subject

auxiliary verb

main verb

am

speaking

to you.

You

are

reading

this.

She

is

not staying

in London.
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We

are

Is

he

watching

TV?

Are

they

waiting

for John?

not playing

football.

How do we use the Present Continuous Tense?

We use the present continuous tense to talk about:
action happening now
action in the future

Present continuous tense for action happening now

a) For action happening exactly now

I am eating my lunch.
past

present

future

The action is happening

now.
Look at these examples. Right now you are looking at this screen and at the same
time...

...the pages are turning. ...the candle is burning. ...the numbers are spinning.
b) for action happening around now
The action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just before and
just after now, and it is not permanent or habitual.

John is going out with Mary.

past

present

future

The action is happening around

now.
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Look at these examples:

Muriel is learning to drive.
I am living with my sister until I find an apartment.

Present continuous tense for the future

We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the futureif we add a
future word!! We must add (or understand from the context) a future word.
"Future words" include, for example, tomorrow, next year, in June, at
Christmas etc. We only use the present continuous tense to talk about the future
when we have planned to do something before we speak. We have already made
a decision and a plan before speaking.

I am taking my exam next month.

past

present

future

!!!
A firm plan or programme
exists now.

The action is in the

future.

Look at these examples:

We're eating in a restaurant tonight. We've already booked the table..
They can play tennis with you tomorrow. They're not working.
When are you starting your new job?
In these examples, we have a firm plan or programme before speaking. The
decision and plan were made before speaking.

How do we spell the Present Continuous Tense?

We make the present continuous tense by adding -ing to the base verb. Normally
it's simplewe just add -ing. But sometimes we have to change the word a little.
Perhaps we double the last letter, or we drop a letter. Here are the rules to help
you know how to spell the present continuous tense.
Basic rule

Exception 1

Just add -ing to the base verb:

work

>

working

play

>

playing

assist

>

assisting

see

>

seeing

be

>

being

If the base verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel + consonant,

double the last letter:

consonant

stressed

consonant
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vowel
(vowels = a, e, i, o, u)
stop

>

stopping

run

>

running

begin

>

beginning

Note that this exception does not apply when the last syllable of the
base verb is not stressed:
open
Exception 2

Exception 3

>

opening

If the base verb ends in ie, change the ie to y:

lie

>

lying

die

>

dying

If the base verb ends in vowel + consonant + e, omit the e:

come

>

coming

mistake

>

mistaking

Present Perfect Tense

I have sung
The present perfect tense is a rather important tense in English, but it gives
speakers of some languages a difficult time. That is because it uses concepts or
ideas that do not exist in those languages. In fact, the structure of the present
perfect tense is very simple. The problems come with the use of the tense. In
addition, there are some differences in usage between British and American
English.
In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the present perfect, followed by a
quiz to check your understanding:
The present perfect tense is really a very interesting
tense, and a very useful one. Try not to translate the
present perfect tense into your language. Just try to
accept the concepts of this tense and learn to "think"
present perfect! You will soon learn to like the present
perfect tense!

How do we make the Present Perfect Tense?

The structure of the present perfect tense is:

subject + auxiliary verb + main verb

have
past participle
Here are some examples of the present perfect tense:
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subject

auxiliary verb

main verb

have

seen

ET.

You

have

eaten

mine.

She

has

not been

to Rome.

We

have

not played

football.

Have

you

finished?

Have

they

done

it?

Contractions with the present perfect tense

When we use the present perfect tense in speaking, we usually contract the subject
and auxiliary verb. We also sometimes do this when we write.
I have

I've

You have

You've

He has
She has
It has
John has
The car has

He's
She's
It's
John's
The car's

We have

We've

They have

They've

Here are some examples:

I've finished my work.
John's seen ET.
They've gone home.
He's or he's??? Be careful! The 's contraction is used
for the auxiliary verbs have and be. For example, "It's
eaten" can mean:
It has eaten. [present perfect tense, active
voice]
It is eaten. [present tense, passive voice]
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It is usually clear from the context.

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How do we use the Present Perfect Tense?

This tense is called the present perfect tense. There is always a connection with
the past and with the present. There are basically three uses for the present
perfect tense:
1. experience
2. change
3. continuing situation

1. Present perfect tense for experience

We often use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from the past. We
are not interested in when you did something. We only want to know if you did it:

I have seen ET.

He has lived in Bangkok.
Have you been there?
We have never eaten caviar.
past

present

future

!!!
The action or state was in
the past.

In my head, I have a
memory now.

Connection with past: the event was in the past.

Connection with present: in my head, now, I have a memory of the event; I
know something about the event; I have experience of it.

2. Present perfect tense for change

We also use the present perfect tense to talk about a change or new information:

I have bought a car.

past

present

Last week I didn't have a

car.

Now I have a car.

future

John has broken his leg.

past

present

future

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Yesterday John had a

good leg.

Now he has a bad leg.

Has the price gone up?

past

present

Was the price $1.50

yesterday?

Is the price $1.70 today?

future

The police have arrested the killer.

past

present

Yesterday the killer was

free.

Now he is in prison.

future

Connection with past: the past is the opposite of the present.

Connection with present: the present is the opposite of the past.

Americans do not use the present perfect tense so

much as British speakers. Americans often use the past
tense instead. An American might say "Did you have
lunch?", where a British person would say "Have you
had lunch?"

3. Present perfect tense for continuing situation

We often use the present perfect tense to talk about a continuing situation. This
is a state that started in the past and continues in the present (and will probably
continue into the future). This is a state (not an action). We usually use for or
since with this structure.

I have worked here since June.

He has been ill for 2 days.
How long have you known Tara?
past

present

future

The situation started in

the past.

It continues up to now.

(It will probably continue

into the future.)
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Connection with past: the situation started in the past.

Connection with present: the situation continues in the present.

For & Since with Present Perfect Tense

We often use for and since with the present perfect tense.
We use for to talk about a period of time5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years.
We use since to talk about a point in past time9 o'clock, 1st January,
Monday.

for

since

a period of time

a point in past time

20 minutes

6.15pm

three days

Monday

6 months

January

4 years

1994

2 centuries

1800

a long time

I left school

ever

the beginning of time

etc

etc

Here are some examples:

I have been here for 20 minutes.
I have been here since 9 o'clock.
John hasn't called for 6 months.
John hasn't called since February.
He has worked in New York for a long time.
He has worked in New York since he left school.
For can be used with all tenses. Since is usually used
with perfect tenses only.

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

I have been singing

How do we make the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?

The structure of the present perfect continuous tense is:

subject + auxiliary verb + auxiliary verb + main verb

have

been

base + ing
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has
Here are some examples of the present perfect continuous tense:
subject

auxiliary
verb

auxiliary
verb

main
verb

have

been

waiting

for one hour.

You

have

been

talking

too much.

It

has

not been

raining.

We

have

not been

playing

football.

Have

you

been

seeing

her?

Have

they

been

doing

their
homework?

Contractions
When we use the present perfect continuous tense in speaking, we often contract
the subject and the first auxiliary. We also sometimes do this in informal writing.
I have been

I've been

You have been

You've been

He has been
She has been
It has been
John has been
The car has been

He's been
She's been
It's been
John's been
The car's been

We have been

We've been

They have been

They've been

Here are some examples:

I've been reading.
The car's been giving trouble.
We've been playing tennis for two hours.

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How do we use the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?

This tense is called the present perfect continuous tense. There is usually a
connection with the present or now. There are basically two uses for the present
perfect continuous tense:

1. An action that has just stopped or recently stopped

We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in
the past and stopped recently. There is usually a result now.

I'm tired because I've been running.

past

present

future

!!!
Recent action.

Result now.

I'm tired [now] because I've been running.

Why is the grass wet [now]? Has it been raining?
You don't understand [now] because you haven't been listening.

2. An action continuing up to now

We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in
the past and is continuing now. This is often used with for or since.

I have been reading for 2 hours.

past

present

Action started in past.

Action is continuing now.

future

I have been reading for 2 hours. [I am still reading now.]

We've been studying since 9 o'clock. [We're still studying now.]
How long have you been learning English? [You are still learning now.]
We have not been smoking. [And we are not smoking now.]

For and Since with Present Perfect Continuous Tense

We often use for and since with the present perfect tense.
We use for to talk about a period of time5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years.
We use since to talk about a point in past time9 o'clock, 1st January,
Monday.

for

since

a period of time

a point in past time

20 minutes

6.15pm
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three days

Monday

6 months

January

4 years

1994

2 centuries

1800

a long time

I left school

ever

the beginning of time

etc

etc

Here are some examples:

I have been studying for 3 hours.
I have been watching TV since 7pm.
Tara hasn't been feeling well for 2 weeks.
Tara hasn't been visiting us since March.
He has been playing football for a long time.
He has been living in Bangkok since he left school.
For can be used with all tenses. Since is usually used
with perfect tenses only.

Simple Past Tense

I sang
The simple past tense is sometimes called the preterite tense. We can use several
tenses to talk about the past, but the simple past tense is the one we use most
often.
In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the simple past tense, followed
by a quiz to check your understanding:

How do we make the Simple Past Tense?

To make the simple past tense, we use:
past form only
or
auxiliary did + base form
Here you can see examples of the past form and base form for irregular verbs
and regular verbs:
V1
base

V2
past

V3
past participle
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regular
verb

work
explode
like

worked
exploded
liked

worked
exploded
liked

The past form for

all regular verbs
ends in -ed.

irregular
verb

go
see
sing

went
saw
sang

gone
seen
sung

The past form for

irregular verbs is
variable. You
need to learn it by
heart.

You do not need the past

participle form to make the
simple past tense. It is
shown here for
completeness only.
The structure for positive sentences in the simple past tense is:

subject + main verb

past
The structure for negative sentences in the simple past tense is:

subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb

did
base
The structure for question sentences in the simple past tense is:

auxiliary verb + subject + main verb

did
base
The auxiliary verb did is not conjugated. It is the same for all persons (I did, you
did, he did etc). And the base form and past form do not change.
Look at these examples with the main verbs go and work:
subject

+
?

auxiliary verb

main verb

went

to school.

You

worked

very hard.

She

did

not go

with me.

We

did

not work

yesterday.

Did

you

go

to London?

Did

they

work

at home?

Exception! The verb to be is different. We conjugate the verb to be (I was, you

were, he/she/it was, we were, they were); and we do not use an auxiliary for
negative and question sentences. To make a question, we exchange the subject
and verb. Look at these examples:
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+
?

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subject

main verb

I, he/she/it

was

here.

You, we, they

were

in London.

I, he/she/it

was

not there.

You, we, they

were

not happy.

Was

I, he/she/it

right?

Were

you, we, they

late?

How do we use the Simple Past Tense?

We use the simple past tense to talk about an action or a situationan eventin
the past. The event can be short or long.
Here are some short events with the simple past tense:

The car exploded at 9.30am yesterday.

She went to the door.
We did not hear the telephone.
Did you see that car?
past

present

future

The action is in the past.

Here are some long events with the simple past tense:

I lived in Bangkok for 10 years.

The Jurassic period lasted about 62 million years.
We did not sing at the concert.
Did you watch TV last night?
past

present

future

The action is in the past.

Notice that it does not matter how long ago the event is: it can be a few minutes or
seconds in the past, or millions of years in the past. Also it does not matter how
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long the event is. It can be a few milliseconds (car explosion) or millions of years
(Jurassic period). We use the simple past tense when:
the event is in the past
the event is completely finished
we say (or understand) the time and/or place of the event
In general, if we say the time or place of the event, we
must use the simple past tense; we cannot use the
present perfect.

Here are some more examples:

I lived in that house when I was young.
He didn't like the movie.
What did you eat for dinner?
John drove to London on Monday.
Mary did not go to work yesterday.
Did you play tennis last week?
I was at work yesterday.
We were not late (for the train).
Were you angry?
Note that when we tell a story, we usually use the simple past tense. We may use
the past continuous tense to "set the scene", but we almost always use the simple
past tense for the action. Look at this example of the beginning of a story:
"The wind was howling around the hotel and the rain was pouring down. It was
cold. The door opened and James Bond entered. He took off his coat, which was
very wet, and ordered a drink at the bar. He sat down in the corner of the lounge
and quietly drank his..."
This page shows the use of the simple past tense to
talk about past events. But note that there are some
other uses for the simple past tense, for example in
conditional or if sentences.

Past Continuous Tense

I was singing
The past continuous tense is an important tense in English. We use it to say what
we were in the middle of doing at a particular moment in the past.
In this lesson we look at the structure and the use of the past continuouse tense,
followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
Continuous tenses are also called progressive tenses.

How do we make the Past Continuous Tense?

The structure of the past continuous tense is:

subject +

auxiliary verb BE
conjugated in simple past tense

+ main verb
present participle
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was
were

base + ing

For negative sentences in the past continuous tense, we insert not between the
auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject
and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the past continuous
tense:
subject

auxiliary verb

main verb

was

watching

TV.

You

were

working

hard.

He, she, it

was

not

helping

Mary.

We

were

not

joking.

Were

you

being

silly?

Were

they

playing

football?

The spelling rules for adding ing to make the past continuous tense are the
same as for the present continuous tense.

How do we use the Past Continuous Tense?

The past continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the past.
The action started before that moment but has not finished at that moment. For
example, yesterday I watched a film on TV. The film started at 7pm and finished
at 9pm.

At 8pm yesterday, I was watching TV.

past

present

future

8pm
At 8pm, I was in the
middle of watching TV.
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When we use the past continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands
what time we are talking about. Look at these examples:
I was working at 10pm last night.
They were not playing football at 9am this morning.
What were you doing at 10pm last night?
What were you doing when he arrived?
She was cooking when I telephoned her.
We were having dinner when it started to rain.
Ram went home early because it was snowing.
Some verbs cannot be used in continuous/progressive
tenses.

We often use the past continuous tense to "set the scene" in stories. We use it to
describe the background situation at the moment when the action begins. Often,
the story starts with the past continuous tense and then moves into the simple past
tense. Here is an example:
" James Bond was driving through town. It was raining. The wind was blowing
hard. Nobody was walking in the streets. Suddenly, Bond saw the killer in a
telephone box..."

Past Continuous Tense + Simple

Past Tense
We often use the past continuous tense with the simple past tense. We use the past
continuous tense to express a long action. And we use the simple past tense to
express a short action that happens in the middle of the long action. We can join
the two ideas with when or while.
In the following example, we have two actions:
1. long action (watching TV), expressed with past continuous tense
2. short action (telephoned), expressed with simple past tense
past

present

future

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Long action.
I was watching TV at 8pm.
8pm
You telephoned at 8pm.
Short action.
We can join these two actions with when:
I was watching TV when you telephoned.
(Notice that "when you telephoned" is also a way of defining the time [8pm].)
We use:
when + short action (simple past tense)
while + long action (past continuous tense)
There are four basic combinations:
I was walking past the car
When

the car exploded

it exploded.
I was walking past it.

The car exploded

While

when

while

I was walking past the car

I was walking past it.

it exploded.

Notice that the long action and short action are relative.
"Watching TV" took a few hours. "Telephoned" took a few seconds.
"Walking past the car" took a few seconds. "Exploded" took a few
milliseconds.

Past Perfect Tense

I had sung
The past perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and to use. This tense
talks about the "past in the past".
In this lesson we look at:

How do we make the Past Perfect Tense?

The structure of the past perfect tense is:

subject + auxiliary verb HAVE + main verb

conjugated in simple past tense

past participle

had

V3

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For negative sentences in the past perfect tense, we insert not between the
auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject
and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the past perfect tense:
subject

auxiliary verb

main verb

had

finished

my work.

You

had

stopped

before me.

She

had

not gone

We

had

not left.

Had

you

arrived?

Had

they

eaten

to school.

dinner?

When speaking with the past perfect tense, we often contract the subject and
auxiliary verb:
I had

I'd

you had

you'd

he had
she had
it had

he'd
she'd
it'd

we had

we'd

they had

they'd

The 'd contraction is also used for the auxiliary verb would. For example, we'd can mean:
We had
or
We would
But usually the main verb is in a different form, for example:
We had arrived (past participle)
We would arrive (base)
It is always clear from the context.

How do we use the Past Perfect Tense?

The past perfect tense expresses action in the past before another action in the
past. This is the past in the past. For example:
The train left at 9am. We arrived at 9.15am. When we arrived, the train
had left.

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The train had left when we arrived.

past

present

future

Train leaves in past at

9am.
9

9.15
We arrive in past at
9.15am.

Look at some more examples:

I wasn't hungry. I had just eaten.
They were hungry. They had not eaten for five hours.
I didn't know who he was. I had never seen him before.
"Mary wasn't at home when I arrived."
"Really? Where had she gone?"
You can sometimes think of the past perfect tense like the present perfect tense,
but instead of the time being now the time is past.
past perfect tense
present perfect tense
had |
have |
done |
done |
>|
>|
past
now
future
past
now
future
For example, imagine that you arrive at the station at 9.15am. The stationmaster
says to you:
"You are too late. The train has left."
Later, you tell your friends:
"We were too late. The train had left."
We often use the past perfect tense in reported speech after verbs like said, told,
asked, thought, wondered:
Look at these examples:
He told us that the train had left.
I thought I had met her before, but I was wrong.
He explained that he had closed the window because of the rain.
I wondered if I had been there before.
I asked them why they had not finished.

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

I had been singing

How do we make the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?

The structure of the past perfect continuous tense is:
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auxiliary
verb HAVE

subject +

auxiliary
verb BE

main
verb

conjugated in
simple past tense

past participle

present
participle

had

been

base + ing

For negative sentences in the past perfect continuous tense, we insert not after the
first auxiliary verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and first
auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the past perfect continuous
tense:
subject

auxiliary verb

auxiliary verb

main verb

had

been

working.

You

had

been

playing

tennis.

It

had

not been

working

well.

We

had

not been

expecting

her.

Had

you

been

drinking?

Had

they

been

waiting

long?

When speaking with the past perfect continuous tense, we often contract the
subject and first auxiliary verb:
I had been

I'd been

you had been

you'd been

he had
she had been
it had been

he'd been
she'd been
it'd been

we had been

we'd been

they had been

they'd been

How do we use the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?

The past perfect continuous tense is like the past perfect tense, but it expresses
longer actions in the past before another action in the past. For example:
Ram started waiting at 9am. I arrived at 11am. When I arrived, Ram had
been waiting for two hours.
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Ram had been waiting for two hours when I arrived.

past

present

future

Ram starts waiting in

past at 9am.
9

11

I arrive in past at 11am.

Here are some more examples:
John was very tired. He had been running.
I could smell cigarettes. Somebody had been smoking.
Suddenly, my car broke down. I was not surprised. It had not been
running well for a long time.
Had the pilot been drinking before the crash?
You can sometimes think of the past perfect continuous tense like the present
perfect continuous tense, but instead of the time being now the time is past.
past perfect continuous tense
present perfect continuous tense
had |
|
|
have |
been |
|
|
been |
doing |
|
|
doing |
>>>> |
|
|
>>>> |
past
now
future
past
now
For example, imagine that you meet Ram at 11am. Ram says to you:
"I am angry. I have been waiting for two hours."
Later, you tell your friends:
"Ram was angry. He had been waiting for two hours."

future

Simple Future Tense

I will sing
The simple future tense is often called will, because we make the simple future
tense with the modal auxiliary will.
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How do we make the Simple Future Tense?

The structure of the simple future tense is:

subject + auxiliary verb WILL + main verb

invariable

base

will

V1

For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we insert not between the
auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject
and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the simple future tense:
subject

auxiliary verb

main verb

will

open

the door.

You

will

finish

before me.

She

will

not be

at school tomorrow.

We

will

not leave

yet.

Will

you

arrive

on time?

Will

they

want

dinner?

When we use the simple future tense in speaking, we often contract the subject
and auxiliary verb:
I will

I'll

you will

you'll

he will
she will
it will

he'll
she'll
it'll

we will

we'll

they will

they'll

For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we contract with won't, like
this:
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I will not

I won't

you will not

you won't

he will not
she will not
it will not

he won't
she won't
it won't

we will not

we won't

they will not

they won't

Hasham Raza

How do we use the Simple Future Tense?

No Plan
We use the simple future tense when there is no plan or decision to do something
before we speak. We make the decision spontaneously at the time of speaking.
Look at these examples:
Hold on. I'll get a pen.
We will see what we can do to help you.
Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.
In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is made at
the time of speaking.
We often use the simple future tense with the verb to think before it:
I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow.
I think I will have a holiday next year.
I don't think I'll buy that car.

Prediction
We often use the simple future tense to make a prediction about the future. Again,
there is no firm plan. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some
examples:
It will rain tomorrow.
People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century.
Who do you think will get the job?

Be
When the main verb is be, we can use the simple future tense even if we have a
firm plan or decision before speaking. Examples:
I'll be in London tomorrow.
I'm going shopping. I won't be very long.
Will you be at work tomorrow?
Note that when we have a plan or intention to do
something in the future, we usually use other tenses or
expressions, such as the present continuous tense or
going to.

Future Continuous Tense

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I will be singing

How do we make the Future Continuous Tense?

The structure of the future continuous tense is:

subject +

auxiliary
verb WILL

auxiliary
verb BE

main
verb

invariable

invariable

present
participle

will

be

base + ing

For negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we insert not between will
and be. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and will. Look at these
example sentences with the future continuous tense:
subject

auxiliary
verb

auxiliary
verb

main
verb

will

be

working

at 10am.

You

will

be

lying

on a beach
tomorrow.

She

will

not

be

using

the car.

We

will

not

be

having

dinner at home.

Will

you

be

playing

football?

Will

they

be

watching

TV?

When we use the future continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the
subject and will:
I will

I'll

you will

you'll

he will
she will
it will

he'll
she'll
it'll

we will

we'll

they will

they'll

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For spoken negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we contract with
won't, like this:
I will not

I won't

you will not

you won't

he will not
she will not
it will not

he won't
she won't
it won't

we will not

we won't

they will not

they won't

We sometimes use shall instead of will, especially for I and we.

How do we use the Future Continuous Tense?

The future continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the
future. The action will start before that moment but it will not have finished at that
moment. For example, tomorrow I will start work at 2pm and stop work at 6pm:

At 4pm tomorrow, I will be working.

past

present

future
4pm
At 4pm, I will be in the
middle of working.

When we use the future continuous tense, our listener usually knows or
understands what time we are talking about. Look at these examples:
I will be playing tennis at 10am tomorrow.
They won't be watching TV at 9pm tonight.
What will you be doing at 10pm tonight?
What will you be doing when I arrive?
She will not be sleeping when you telephone her.
We 'll be having dinner when the film starts.
Take your umbrella. It will be raining when you return.

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Future Perfect Tense

I will have sung
The future perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and use. The future
perfect tense talks about the past in the future.

How do we make the Future Perfect Tense?

The structure of the future perfect tense is:

subject +

auxiliary
verb WILL

auxiliary
+
verb HAVE

main
verb

invariable

invariable

past
participle

will

have

V3

Look at these example sentences in the future perfect tense:

subject

auxiliary verb

auxiliary verb

main verb

will

have

finished

by 10am.

You

will

have

forgotten

me by then.

She

will

not have

gone

to school.

We

will

not have

left.

Will

you

have

arrived?

Will

they

have

received

it?

In speaking with the future perfect tense, we often contract the subject and will.
Sometimes, we contract the subject, will and have all together:
I will have

I'll have

I'll've

you will have

you'll have

you'll've

he will have
she will have
it will have

he'll have
she'll have
it'll have

he'll've
she'll've
it'll've

we will have

we'll have

we'll've

they will have

they'll have

they'll've
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We sometimes use shall instead of will, especially for I and we.

How do we use the Future Perfect Tense?

The future perfect tense expresses action in the future before another action in the
future. This is the past in the future. For example:
The train will leave the station at 9am. You will arrive at the station at
9.15am. When you arrive, the train will have left.

The train will have left when you arrive.

past

present

future
Train leaves in future at
9am.
9

9.15

You arrive in future at

9.15am.
Look at some more examples:
You can call me at work at 8am. I will have arrived at the office by 8.
They will be tired when they arrive. They will not have slept for a long
time.
"Mary won't be at home when you arrive."
"Really? Where will she have gone?"
You can sometimes think of the future perfect tense like the present perfect tense,
but instead of your viewpoint being in the present, it is in the future:
present perfect tense
future perfect tense
will |
have |
have |
done |
done |
>|
>|
past

now

future

past

now

future

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Future Perfect Continuous Tense

I will have been singing

How do we make the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?

The structure of the future perfect continuous tense is:

auxiliar
auxiliar
auxiliar
subjec
main
+ y verb + y verb + y verb +
t
verb
WILL
HAVE
BE
invariable

invariable

past
participle

present
participl
e

will

have

been

base +
ing

For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we insert not
between will and have. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and will.
Look at these example sentences with the future perfect continuous tense:
subject

auxiliary
verb

auxiliary
verb

auxiliary
verb

main
verb

will

have

been

working

for four
hours.

You

will

have

been

travelling

for two
days.

She

will

not have

been

using

the car.

We

will

not have

been

waiting

long.

Will

you

have

been

playing

football?

Will

they

have

been

watching

TV?

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When we use the future perfect continuous tense in speaking, we often contract
the subject and auxiliary verb:
I will

I'll

you will

you'll

he will
she will
it will

he'll
she'll
it'll

we will

we'll

they will

they'll

For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we contract with
won't, like this:
I will not

I won't

you will not

you won't

he will not
she will not
it will not

he won't
she won't
it won't

we will not

we won't

they will not

they won't

How do we use the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?

We use the future perfect continuous tense to talk about a long action before some
point in the future. Look at these examples:
I will have been working here for ten years next week.
He will be tired when he arrives. He will have been travelling for 24
hours.

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Phrasal Verbs and other multi-word

verbs
Phrasal verbs are part of a large group of verbs called "multi-word verbs". Phrasal
verbs and other multi-word verbs are an important part of the English language.
Multi-word verbs, including phrasal verbs, are very common, especially in spoken
English. A multi-word verb is a verb like "pick up", "turn on" or "get on with".
For convenience, many people refer to all multi-word verbs as phrasal verbs.
These verbs consist of a basic verb + another word or words. The other word(s)
can be prepositions and/or adverbs. The two or three words that make up multiword verbs form a short "phrase"which is why these verbs are often all called
"phrasal verbs".
The important thing to remember is that a multi-word verb is still a verb. "Get" is
a verb. "Get up", is also a verb, a different verb. "Get" and "get up" are two
different verbs. They do not have the same meaning. So you should treat each
multi-word verb as a separate verb, and learn it like any other verb. Look at these
examples. You can see that there are three types of multi-word verb:
single-word verb

look

direct your eyes in

a certain direction

You must look

before you leap.

multiword
verbs

prepositional
verbs

look after take care of

Who is looking
after the baby?

phrasal verbs

look up

search for and find

information in a
reference book

You can look up

my number in the
telephone
directory.

phrasalprepositional
verbs

look
forward
to

anticipate with
pleasure

I look forward to
meeting you.

In this lesson we look at the three types of multi-word verbs, including phrasal
verbs, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
Like many grammar books, we divide multi-word
verbs into:
prepositional verbs
phrasal verbs
phrasal-prepositional verbs
Other grammars, however, call all multi-word verbs
"phrasal verbs".

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Prepositional Verbs
Prepositional verbs are a group of multi-word verbs made from a verb plus
another word or words. Many people refer to all multi-word verbs as phrasal
verbs. On these pages we make a distinction between three types of multi-word
verbs: prepositional verbs, phrasal verbs and phrasal-prepositional verbs. On this
page we look at prepositional verbs.
Prepositional verbs are made of:

verb + preposition
Because a preposition always has an object, all prepositional verbs have direct
objects. Here are some examples of prepositional verbs:
examples
prepositional
verbs

meaning

believe in

have faith in the

existence of

I believe in

God.

look after

take care of

He is looking
after

the dog.

talk about

discuss

Did you talk

about

me?

wait for

await

John is waiting
for

Mary.

direct
object

Prepositional verbs cannot be separated. That means that we cannot put the direct
object between the two parts. For example, we must say "look after the baby". We
cannot say "look the baby after":
prepositional verbs are

inseparable

Who is looking after This is

the baby?
possible.
Who is looking the
baby after?

This is not
possible.

It is a good idea to write "something/somebody" in

your vocabulary book when you learn a new
prepositional verb, like this:
believe in something/somebody
look after sthg/sby
This reminds you that this verb needs a direct object
(and where to put it).
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Phrasal-prepositional Verbs
Phrasal-prepositional verbs are a small group of multi-word verbs made from a
verb plus another word or words. Many people refer to all multi-word verbs as
phrasal verbs. On these pages we make a distinction between three types of multiword verbs: prepositional verbs, phrasal verbs and phrasal-prepositional verbs. On
this page we look at phrasal-prepositional verbs.
Phrasal-prepositional verbs are made of:

verb + adverb + preposition

Look at these examples of phrasal-prepositional verbs:
phrasal-prepositional verbs
meaning

examples
direct

object
get on with
have a friendly relationship with
He doesn't
get on with
his wife.
put up with
tolerate
I won't put up with your
attitude.
look forward to
anticipate with pleasure I look forward to seeing
you.
run out of
use up, exhaust
We have run out of eggs.
Because phrasal-prepositional verbs end with a preposition, there is always a
direct object. And, like prepositional verbs, phrasal-prepositional verbs cannot be
separated. Look at these examples:
phrasal-prepositional verbs are

inseparable

We

ran out of

fuel.

We

ran out of

it.

It is a good idea to write "something/somebody" in your vocabulary book when you learn a new phrasalprepositional verb, like this:
get on with somebody
put up with sthg/sby
run out of something
This reminds you that this verb needs a direct object (and where to put it).

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English Conditionals
There are several structures in English that are called conditionals.
"Condition" means "situation or circumstance". If a particular condition is true,
then a particular result happens.
If y = 10 then 2y = 20
If y = 3 then 2y = 6
There are three basic conditionals that we use very often. There are some more
conditionals that we do not use so often.
In this lesson, we will look at the three basic conditionals as well as the so-called
zero conditional. We'll finish with a quiz to check your understanding.
People sometimes call conditionals "IF" structures or sentences, because there is usually (but not
always) the word "if" in a conditional sentence

Structure of
Conditional
Sentences
The structure of most conditionals is very simple.
There are two basic possibilities. Of course, we
add many words and can use various tenses, but
the basic structure is usually like this:
IF

condition

result

or like this:
result

IF

condition

2y = 20 IF y = 10

IF y = 10 2y = 20

First Conditional: real possibility

We are talking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition or
situation in the future, and the result of this condition. There is a real possibility
that this condition will happen. For example, it is morning. You are at home. You
plan to play tennis this afternoon. But there are some clouds in the sky. Imagine
that it rains. What will you do?
IF condition
result
present simple WILL + base verb
If it rains
I will stay at home.
Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. It is not raining yet. But the
sky is cloudy and you think that it could rain. We use the present simple tense to
talk about the possible future condition. We use WILL + base verb to talk about
the possible future result. The important thing about the first conditional is that
there is a real possibility that the condition will happen. Here are some more
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examples (do you remember the two basic structures: [IF condition result] and
[result IF condition]?):
IF condition
result
present simpleWILL + base verb
If I see Mary
I will tell her.
If Tara is free tomorrow he will invite her.
If they do not pass their exam their teacher will be sad.
If it rains tomorrow
will you stay at home?
If it rains tomorrow
what will you do?
result IF
condition
WILL + base verb
present simple
I will tell Mary
if I see her.
He will invite Tara if she is free tomorrow.
Their teacher will be sad if they do not pass their exam.
Will you stay at home
if it rains tomorrow?
What will you do
if it rains tomorrow?
Sometimes, we use shall, can, or may instead of will, for example: If you are good today, you can
watch TV tonight.

Second Conditional: unreal

possibility or dream
The second conditional is like the first conditional. We are still thinking about
the future. We are thinking about a particular condition in the future, and the result
of this condition. But there is not a real possibility that this condition will happen.
For example, you do not have a lottery ticket. Is it possible to win? No! No lottery
ticket, no win! But maybe you will buy a lottery ticket in the future. So you can
think about winning in the future, like a dream. It's not very real, but it's still
possible.
IF condition
result
past simple WOULD + base verb
If I won the lottery
I would buy a car.
Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. We use the past simple tense
to talk about the future condition. We use WOULD + base verb to talk about the
future result. The important thing about the second conditional is that there is an
unreal possibility that the condition will happen.
Here are some more examples:
IF condition
result
past simple WOULD + base verb
If I married Mary I would be happy.
If Ram became rich
she would marry him.
If it snowed next July
would you be surprised?
If it snowed next July
what would you do?
result
IF
condition
WOULD + base verb
past simple
I would be happy
if I married Mary.
She would marry Ram if he became rich.
Would you be surprised if it snowed next July?
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What would you do

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if

it snowed next July?

Sometimes, we use should, could or might instead of would, for example: If I won a million
dollars, I could stop working.

Third Conditional:
no possibility
The first conditional and second conditionals talk about the future. With the third
conditional we talk about the past. We talk about a condition in the past that did
not happen. That is why there is no possibility for this condition. The third
conditional is also like a dream, but with no possibility of the dream coming true.
Last week you bought a lottery ticket. But you did not win. :-(
condition
result
Past Perfect
WOULD HAVE + Past Participle
If I had won the lottery I would have bought a car.
Notice that we are thinking about an impossible past condition. You did not win
the lottery. So the condition was not true, and that particular condition can never
be true because it is finished. We use the past perfect tense to talk about the
impossible past condition. We use WOULD HAVE + past participle to talk about
the impossible past result. The important thing about the third conditional is that
both the condition and result are impossible now.
Sometimes, we use should have, could have, might have instead of would have, for example: If
you had bought a lottery ticket, you might have won.

Look at some more examples in the tables opposite:

IF
condition
result
past perfect WOULD HAVE + past participle
If I had seen Mary
I would have told her.
If Tara had been free yesterday I would have invited her.
If they had not passed their exam their teacher would have been sad.
If it had rained yesterday would you have stayed at home?
If it had rained yesterday what would you have done?
result
IF condition
WOULD HAVE + past participle
I would have told Mary
if
I would have invited Tara if
Their teacher would have been sad
Would you have stayed at home
What would you have done if

past perfect
I had seen her.
she had been free yesterday.
if
they had not passed their exam.
if
it had rained yesterday?
it had rained yesterday?

Zero Conditional: certainty

We use the so-called zero conditional when the result of the condition is always
true, like a scientific fact.
Take some ice. Put it in a saucepan. Heat the saucepan. What happens? The ice
melts (it becomes water). You would be surprised if it did not.
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IF condition
result
present simple present simple
If you heat ice
it melts.
Notice that we are thinking about a result that is always true for this condition.
The result of the condition is an absolute certainty. We are not thinking about the
future or the past, or even the present. We are thinking about a simple fact. We use
the present simple tense to talk about the condition. We also use the present
simple tense to talk about the result. The important thing about the zero
conditional is that the condition always has the same result.
We can also use when instead of if, for example: When I get up late I miss my bus.

Look at some more examples in the tables opposite:

IF
condition result
present simple present simple
If I miss the 8 o'clock busI am late for work.
If I am late for work
my boss gets angry.
If people don't eat they get hungry.
If you heat ice does it melt?
result
IF condition
present simple
present simple
I am late for work if
I miss the 8 o'clock bus.
My boss gets angry if
I am late for work.
People get hungry if
they don't eat.
Does ice melt if
you heat it?

Conditionals: Summary
Here is a chart to help you to visualize the basic English conditionals. Do not take
the 50% and 10% figures too literally. They are just to help you.
probability

conditional

example

time

100%

zero conditional

If you heat ice, it melts.

any time

50%

first conditional

If it rains, I will stay at home.

future

10%

second
conditional

If I won the lottery, I would buy a car.

future

third conditional

If I had won the lottery, I would have

bought a car.

past

0%

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Modal Verbs (modal auxiliaries)

Modal auxiliary verbs may sound difficult but in fact they're easy. They are invariable (no
conjugation). And the main verb is always the "bare infinitive" (the infinitive without "to").

Can, Could, Be able to

Can and could are modal auxiliary verbs.
Be able to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb be as a main verb). We
include be able to here for convenience.

Can
Can is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use can to:
talk about possibility and ability
make requests
ask for or give permission

Structure of Can

subject + can + main verb

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
subject auxiliary verb main verb

+
-

can

play

tennis.

He

cannot
can't

play

tennis.

Can
you
play
tennis?
Notice that:
Can is invariable. There is only one form of can.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive.

Use of Can
can: Possibility and Ability
We use can to talk about what is possible, what we are able or free to do:
She can drive a car.
John can speak Spanish.
I cannot hear you. (I can't hear you.)
Can you hear me?
Normally, we use can for the present. But it is possible to use can when we make
present decisions about future ability.
A. Can you help me with my homework? (present)
B. Sorry. I'm busy today. But I can help you tomorrow. (future)

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can: Requests and Orders

We often use can in a question to ask somebody to do something. This is not a
real question - we do not really want to know if the person is able to do
something, we want them to do it! The use of can in this way is informal (mainly
between friends and family):
Can you make a cup of coffee, please.
Can you put the TV on.
Can you come here a minute.
Can you be quiet!

can: Permission
We sometimes use can to ask or give permission for something:
A. Can I smoke in this room?
B. You can't smoke here, but you can smoke in the garden.
(Note that we also use could, may, might for permission. The use of can for
permission is informal.)

Could
Could is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use could to:
talk about past possibility or ability
make requests

Structure of Could

subject + could + main verb

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
subject
auxiliary verb main verb

+
-

My grandmother

could swim.

She

walk.

could not
couldn't

Could
your grandmother
swim?
Notice that:
Could is invariable. There is only one form of could.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive. We cannot say:

Use of Could
could: Past Possibility or Ability
We use could to talk about what was possible in the past, what we were able or
free to do:
I could swim when I was 5 years old.
My grandmother could speak seven languages.
When we arrived home, we could not open the door. (...couldn't open the
door.)
Could you understand what he was saying?
We use could (positive) and couldn't (negative) for general ability in the past.
But when we talk about one special occasion in the past, we use be able to
(positive) and couldn't (negative). Look at these examples:
Past
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General

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Specific Occasion

My grandmother could speak Spanish.A man fell into the river yesterday.
The police were able to save him.

My grandmother couldn't speak Spanish.

yesterday. The police couldn't save him.

A man fell into the river

could: Requests
We often use could in a question to ask somebody to do something. The use of
could in this way is fairly polite (formal):
Could you tell me where the bank is, please?
Could you send me a catalogue, please?

Be able to

Although we look at be able to here, it is not a modal verb. It is simply the verb
be plus an adjective (able) followed by the infinitive. We look at be able to here
because we sometimes use it instead of can and could.
We use be able to:
to talk about ability

Structure of Be able to
The structure of be able to is:

subject + be + able + infinitive

subject be
main verb
able
adjective

+
-

infinitive

am

able

to drive.

She

is not able
isn't

to drive.

Are
you
able
to drive?
Notice that be able to is possible in all tenses, for example:
I was able to drive...
I will be able to drive...
I have been able to drive...
Notice too that be able to has an infinitive form:

I would like to be able to speak Chinese.

Use of Be able to
be able to: ability
We use be able to to express ability. "Able" is an adjective meaning: having the
power, skill or means to do something. If we say "I am able to swim", it is like
saying "I can swim". We sometimes use "be able to" instead of "can" or "could"
for ability. "Be able to" is possible in all tensesbut "can" is possible only in the
present and "could" is possible only in the past for ability. In addition, "can" and
"could" have no infinitive form. So we use "be able to" when we want to use other
tenses or the infinitive. Look at these examples:
I have been able to swim since I was five. (present perfect)
You will be able to speak perfect English very soon. (future simple)
I would like to be able to fly an airplane. (infinitive)
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Be able to is not a modal auxiliary verb. We include it here for convenience, because it is often
used like "can" and "could", which are modal auxiliary verbs.

Have to
Must, Must not/Mustn't
Must is a modal auxiliary verb.
Have to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb have as a main verb). We
include have to here for convenience.
In this lesson we look at these two verbs, followed by a quiz to check your
understanding:

Have to (objective obligation)

We often use have to to say that something is obligatory, for example:
Children have to go to school.

Structure of Have to
Have to is often grouped with modal auxiliary verbs for convenience, but in fact
it is not a modal verb. It is not even an auxiliary verb. In the have to structure,
"have" is a main verb. The structure is:

subject + auxiliary verb + have + infinitive (with

to)
Look at these examples in the simple tense:
subject auxiliary verb

She

Did

main verb
have

infinitive (with
to)

has

to work.

do not

have

to see

the doctor.

you

have

to go

to school?

Use of Have to
In general, have to expresses impersonal obligation. The subject of have to is
obliged or forced to act by a separate, external power (for example, the Law or
school rules). Have to is objective. Look at these examples:
In France, you have to drive on the right.
In England, most schoolchildren have to wear a uniform.
John has to wear a tie at work.
In each of the above cases, the obligation is not the subject's opinion or idea. The
obligation is imposed from outside.
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We can use have to in all tenses, and also with modal auxiliaries. We conjugate it
just like any other main verb. Here are some examples:
subject

auxiliary
verb

main verb
have

infinitive

past simple

had

to work

yesterday.

present simple

have

to work

today.

future simple

will

have

to work

tomorrow.

present
continuous

She

is

having

to wait.

present perfect

We

have

had

to change the time.

modal (may)

They

may

have

to do

it again.

Must (subjective obligation)

We often use must to say that something is essential or necessary, for example:
I must go.

Structure of Must
Must is a modal auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The structure is:

subject + must + main verb

The main verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to").
Look at these examples:
subject auxiliary must

main verb

must

go

home.

You

must

visit

us.

We

must

stop

now.

Like all auxiliary verbs, must CANNOT be followed

by to. So, we say:
I must go now. (not *I must to go now.)

Use of Must
In general, must expresses personal obligation. Must expresses what the speaker
thinks is necessary. Must is subjective. Look at these examples:
I must stop smoking.
You must visit us soon.
He must work harder.
In each of the above cases, the "obligation" is the opinion or idea of the person
speaking. In fact, it is not a real obligation. It is not imposed from outside.
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It is sometimes possible to use must for real
obligation, for example a rule or a law. But generally
we use have to for this.

Hasham Raza

We can use must to talk about the present or the future. Look at these examples:
I must go now. (present)
I must call my mother tomorrow. (future)
We cannot use must to talk about the past. We use have to to talk about the past.

Must not, Mustn't (prohibition)

We use must not to say that something is not permitted or allowed, for example:
Passengers must not talk to the driver.

Structure of Must not

Must is an auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The structure for must
not is:

subject + must not + main verb

The main verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to").
Must not is often contracted to mustn't.

Look at these examples:

subject

auxiliary must + not

main verb

mustn't

forget

my keys.

You

mustn't

disturb

him.

Students

must not

be

late.

NB: like all auxiliary verbs, must CANNOT be followed by "to". So, we say:
You mustn't arrive late. (not You mustn't to arrive late.)

Use of Must not

Must not expresses prohibition - something that is not permitted, not allowed.
The prohibition can be subjective (the speaker's opinion) or objective (a real law
or rule). Look at these examples:
I mustn't eat so much sugar. (subjective)
You mustn't watch so much television. (subjective)
Students must not leave bicycles here. (objective)
Policemen must not drink on duty. (objective)
We can use must not to talk about the present or the future:
Visitors must not smoke. (present)
I mustn't forget Tara's birthday. (future)
We cannot use must not to talk about the past. We use other structures to talk
about the past, for example:
We were not allowed to enter.
I couldn't park outside the shop.

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Shall versus Will

People may sometimes tell you that there is no difference between shall and will,
or even that today nobody uses shall (except in offers such as "Shall I call a
taxi?"). This is not really true. The difference between shall and will is often
hidden by the fact that we usually contract them in speaking with 'll. But the
difference does exist.
The truth is that there are two conjugations for the verb will:
1st Conjugation (objective, simple statement of fact)

Singular

Plural

Person

Verb

Example

Contraction

shall

I shall be in London tomorrow.

I'll

you

will

You will see a large building on the

left.

You'll

he, she, it will

He will be wearing blue.

He'll

we

shall

We shall not be there when you

arrive.

We shan't

you

will

You will find his office on the 7th

floor.

You'll

they

will

They will arrive late.

They'll

2nd Conjugation (subjective, strong assertion, promise or command)

Singular

Plural

Person

Verb

Example

Contraction

will

I will do everything possible to

help.

I'll

you

shall

You shall be sorry for this.

You'll

he, she, it shall

It shall be done.

It'll

we

We will not interfere.

We won't

will

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you

shall

You shall do as you're told.

You'll

they

shall

They shall give one month's notice.

They'll

It is true that this difference is not universally recognized. However, let those who
make assertions such as "People in the USA never use 'shall'" peruse a good USA
English dictionary, or many USA legal documents which often contain phrases
such as:
Each party shall give one month's notice in writing in the event of
termination.
Note that exactly the same rule applies in the case of should and would. It is
perfectly normal, and somewhat more elegant, to write, for example:
I should be grateful if you would kindly send me your latest catalogue.

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Gerunds (-ing)
Gerunds are sometimes called "verbal nouns".

When a verb ends in -ing, it may be a gerund or a present participle. It is

important to understand that they are not the same.
When we use a verb in -ing form more like a noun, it is usually a gerund:
Fishing is fun.
When we use a verb in -ing form more like a verb or an adjective, it is usually a
present participle:
Anthony is fishing.

I have a boring teacher.

In this lesson, we look at the different ways in which we use gerunds,
followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
Many grammarians do not like to use the expression "gerund". That is because there is sometimes
no clear difference between a gerund and a present participle.

Gerunds as Subject, Object or

Complement
Try to think of gerunds as verbs in noun form.
Like nouns, gerunds can be the subject, object or complement of a sentence:
Smoking costs a lot of money.
I don't like writing.
My favourite occupation is reading.
But, like a verb, a gerund can also have an object itself. In this case, the whole
expression [gerund + object] can be the subject, object or complement of the
sentence.
Smoking cigarettes costs a lot of money.
I don't like writing letters.

My favourite occupation is reading detective stories.

Like nouns, we can use gerunds with adjectives (including articles and
other determiners):
pointless questioning
a settling of debts
the making of Titanic
his drinking of alcohol
But when we use a gerund with an article, it does not usually take a direct object:
a settling of debts (not a settling debts)
Making "Titanic" was expensive.
The making of "Titanic" was expensive.
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Do you see the difference in these two sentences? In one, "reading" is a gerund (noun). In the
other "reading" is a present participle (verb).
My favourite occupation is reading.
My favourite niece is reading.

Gerunds after Prepositions

This is a good rule. It has no exceptions!
If we want to use a verb after a preposition, it must be a gerund. It is impossible to
use an infinitive after a preposition. So for example, we say:
I will call you after arriving at the office.
Please have a drink before leaving.
I am looking forward to meeting you.
Do you object to working late?

Tara always dreams about going on holiday.

Notice that you could replace all the above gerunds with "real" nouns:
I will call you after my arrival at the office.
Please have a drink before your departure.
I am looking forward to our lunch.
Do you object to this job?
Tara always dreams about holidays.
The above rule has no exceptions! So why is "to" followed by "driving" in 1 and by "drive" in 2?
1. I am used to driving on the left.
2. I used to drive on the left.

Gerunds after Certain Verbs

We sometimes use one verb after another verb. Often the second verb is in the
infinitive form, for example:
I want to eat.
But sometimes the second verb must be in gerund form, for example:
I dislike eating.
This depends on the first verb. Here is a list of verbs that are usually followed by
a verb in gerund form:

admit, appreciate, avoid, carry on, consider, defer, delay, deny, detest,
dislike, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse, face, feel like, finish, forgive, give up,
can't help, imagine, involve, leave off, mention, mind, miss, postpone, practise,
put off, report, resent, risk, can't stand, suggest, understand
Look at these examples:
She is considering having a holiday.
Do you feel like going out?
I can't help falling in love with you.
I can't stand not seeing you.
Some verbs can be followed by the gerund form or the infinitive form without a big change in
meaning: begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose, start
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I like to play tennis.
I like playing tennis.
It started to rain.

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It started raining.

Gerunds in Passive Sense

We often use a gerund after the verbs need, require and want. In this case, the
gerund has a passive sense.
I have three shirts that need washing. (need to be washed)
This letter requires signing. (needs to be signed)

The house wants repainting. (needs to be repainted)

The expression "something wants doing" is British English.

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Questions
What is a question?
A statement is a sentence that gives information. A question is a sentence that asks
for information.
Statement: I like EnglishClub.com.
Question:
Do you like EnglishClub.com?
A written question in English always ends with a question mark:

?
In this lesson we look at basic questions in English, followed by a quiz to
check your understanding:

Basic Question Structure

The basic structure of a question in English is very simple:

auxiliary verb + subject + main verb

auxiliary verb

subject

main verb

Do

you

like

Mary?

Are

they

playing

football?

Will

Anthony

go

to Tokyo?

Have

you

seen

ET?

Exception!
For the verb be in simple present and simple past, we do not use an auxiliary verb.
We simply reverse the positions of be and subject:
Statement:

He is

German.

Question:

Is

German?

he

Basic Question Types

There are 3 basic types of question:
1. Yes/No Questions (the answer to the question is "Yes" or "No")
2. Question Word Questions (the answer to the question is "Information")
3. Choice Questions (the answer to the question is "in the question")
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1. Yes/No Questions
Answer
Yes or No

auxiliary verb

subject

main verb

Do

you

want

Can

you

drive?

Has

she

finished

her work?

Yes, she has.

Did

they

go

home?

No, they didn't.

dinner?

Yes, I do.
No, I can't.

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past

Is

Anne

French?

Yes, she is.

Was

Ram

at home?

No, he wasn't.

2. Question Word Questions

question
word

auxiliary
verb

subject

main
verb

Answer
Information

Where

do

you

live?

In Paris.

When

will

we

have

Who

did

she

meet?

Why

hasn't

Tara

done

lunch?

At 1pm.
She met Ram.

it?

Because she
can't.

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past

Where

is

Bombay?

In India.

How

was

she?

Very well.

3. Choice Questions
auxiliary
verb

subject

main
verb

Answer
In the question

Do

you

want

tea

or

coffee?

Coffee, please.

Will

we

meet

John

or

James?

John.

Did

she

go

to
London

or

New
York?

She went to
London.

OR

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past

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Is

your car

white

or

black?

It's black.

Were

they

$15

or

$50?

$15.

Tag Questions
A tag question is a special construction in English. It is a statement followed by a
mini-question. The whole sentence is a "tag question", and the mini-question at
the end is called a "question tag".
A "tag" is something small that we add to something
larger. For example, the little piece of cloth added to a
shirt showing size or washing instructions is a tag.

We use tag questions at the end of statements to ask for confirmation. They mean
something like: "Am I right?" or "Do you agree?" They are very common in
English.
The basic structure is:

+
Positive statement, negative tag?
+
Negative statement, positive tag?
Look at these examples with positive statements:
positive statement [+]

negative tag [-]

notes:

auxiliary

personal
not pronoun

subject

auxiliary

main
verb

You

are

coming,

are

n't

you?

We

have

finished,

have

n't

we?

You

do

like

coffee,

do

n't

you?

like

coffee,

do

n't

you?

You (do)
like...
won't = will
not

You

(same as
subject)

They

will

help,

wo

n't

they?

can

come,

can

't

I?

We

must

go,

must

n't

we?

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He

should

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try

harder,

should

n't

he?

You

are

English,

are

n't

you?

John

was

there,

was

n't

he?

no auxiliary
for main
verb be
present &
past

Look at these examples with negative statements:

negative statement [-]

positive tag [+]

main
verb

auxiliary

personal
pronoun

is

it?

subject

auxiliary

It

is

n't

raining,

We

have

never

seen

that,

have

we?

You

do

n't

like

coffee,

do

you?

They

will

not

help,

will

they?

They

wo

n't

report

us,

will

they?

can

never

do

it right,

can

I?

We

must

n't

tell

her,

must

we?

He

should

n't

drive

so fast,

should

he?

(same as
subject)

You

are

n't

English,

are

you?

John

was

not

there,

was

he?

Some special cases:

I am right, aren't I?

aren't I (not amn't I)

You have to go, don't you?

you (do) have to go...

I have been answering,

use first auxiliary

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haven't I?
Nothing came in the post, did
it?

treat statements with nothing, nobody etc like negative

statements

Let's go, shall we?

let's = let us

He'd better do it, hadn't he?

he had better (no auxiliary)

Here are some mixed examples:

But you don't really love her, do you?
This will work, won't it?
Well, I couldn't help it, could I?
But you'll tell me if she calls, won't you?
We'd never have known, would we?
The weather's bad, isn't it?
You won't be late, will you?
Nobody knows, do they?
Notice that we often use tag questions to ask for information or help, starting with
a negative statement. This is quite a friendly/polite way of making a request. For
example, instead of saying "Where is the police station?" (not very polite), or "Do
you know where the police station is?" (slightly more polite), we could say: "You
wouldn't know where the police station is, would you?" Here are some more
examples:
You don't know of any good jobs, do you?
You couldn't help me with my homework, could you?
You haven't got $10 to lend me, have you?

Intonation
We can change the meaning of a tag question with the musical pitch of our voice.
With rising intonation, it sounds like a real question. But if our intonation falls, it
sounds more like a statement that doesn't require a real answer:
intonation
You don't know where my wallet is,

do you?

/ rising

real question

It's a beatiful view,

isn't it?

\ falling

not a real question

Answers to tag questions

A question tag is the "mini-question" at the end. A tag
question is the whole sentence.

How do we answer a tag question? Often, we just say Yes or No. Sometimes we
may repeat the tag and reverse it (..., do they? Yes, they do). Be very careful about
answering tag questions. In some languages, an oposite system of answering is
used, and non-native English speakers sometimes answer in the wrong way. This
can lead to a lot of confusion!
Answer a tag question according to the truth of the
situation. Your answer reflects the real facts, not
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For example, everyone knows that snow is white. Look at these questions, and the
correct answers:
tag question

correct
answer

Snow is white, isn't it?

Yes (it is).

Snow isn't white, is it?

Yes it is!

Snow is black, isn't it?

No it isn't!

Snow isn't black, is it?

No (it isn't).

the answer is the

same in both cases because snow IS
WHITE!
the answer is the
same in both cases because snow IS
NOT BLACK!

but notice the change of

stress when the answerer
does not agree with the
questioner

In some languages, people answer a question like "Snow isn't black, is it?" with
"Yes" (meaning "Yes, I agree with you"). This is the wrong answer in English!
Here are some more examples, with correct answers:
The moon goes round the earth, doesn't it? Yes, it does.
The earth is bigger than the moon, isn't it? Yes.
The earth is bigger than the sun, isn't it? No, it isn't!
Asian people don't like rice, do they? Yes, they do!
Elephants live in Europe, don't they? No, they don't!
Men don't have babies, do they? No.
The English alphabet doesn't have 40 letters, does it? No, it doesn't.

Question tags with imperatives

Sometimes we use question tags with imperatives (invitations, orders), but the
sentence remains an imperative and does not require a direct answer. We use
won't for invitations. We use can, can't, will, would for orders.

invitation

order

imperative + question tag

notes:

Take a seat, won't you?

polite

Help me, can you?

quite friendly

Help me, can't you?

quite friendly (some irritation?)

Close the door, would

you?

quite polite

Do it now, will you?

less polite

Don't forget, will you?

with negative imperatives only will is

possible

Same-way question tags

Although the basic structure of tag questions is positive-negative or negativepositive, it is sometime possible to use a positive-positive or negative-negative
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structure. We use same-way question tags to express interest, surprise, anger etc,
and not to make real questions.
So you're having a baby, are you? That's wonderful!
She wants to marry him, does she? Some chance!
So you think that's amusing, do you? Think again.
Negative-negative tag questions usually sound rather hostile:
So you don't like my looks, don't you?

Subjunctive
The subjunctive is a special, relatively rare verb form in English.

Structure of the Subjunctive

The structure of the subjunctive is extremely simple. For all verbs except the past
tense of be, the subjunctive is the same as the bare infinitive (infinitive without
"to"):
be (past)

be (present)

all other verbs (past & present)

I were
you were
he, she, it were
we were
you were
they were

I be
you be
he, she, it be
we be
you be
they be

I work
you work
he, she, it work
we work
you work
they work

The subjunctive does not change according to person

(I, you, he etc).

Use of the Subjunctive

We use subjunctives mainly when talking about events that are not certain to
happen. For example, we use the subjunctive when talking about events that
somebody:
wants to happen
hopes will happen
imagines happening
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Look at these examples:

The President requests that you be present at the meeting.
It is vital that you be present at the meeting.
If you were at the meeting, the President would be happy.
The subjunctive is typically used after two structures:
the verbs: ask, command, demand, insist, propose, recommend, request,
suggest + that
the expressions: it is desirable, essential, important, necessary, vital +
that
Here are some examples with the subjunctive:
The manager insists that the car park be locked at night.
The board of directors recommended that he join the company.
It is essential that we vote as soon as possible.
It was necessary that every student submit his essay by the weekend.
Notice that in these structures the subjunctive is always the same. It does not
matter whether the sentence is past or present. Look at these examples:
Present: The President requests that they stop the occupation.
Past: The President requested that they stop the occupation.
Present: It is essential that she be present.
Past: It was essential that she be present.

The use of the subjunctive as above is more common

in USA English than in English, where should +
infinitive is often used:
The manager insists that the car park should
be locked at night.
It was essential that we should vote as soon
as possible.

We usually use the subjunctive were instead of "was" after if (and other words
with similar meaning). Look at these sentences:
If I were you, I would ask her.
Suppose she were here. What would you say?

Why do we say "I were", "he were"?

We sometimes hear things like "if I were you, I would go" or "if he were here, he
would tell you". Normally, the past tense of the verb "to be" is: I was, he was. But
the if I were you structure does not use the past simple tense of the verb "to be". It
uses the past subjunctive of the verb "to be". In the following examples, you can
see that we often use the subjunctive form were instead of "was" after:
if
as if
wish
suppose
Formal

Informal

(The were form is correct at all

times.)

(The was form is possible in informal, familiar

conversation.)
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If I were younger, I would go.

If I was younger, I would go.

If he weren't so mean, he
would buy one for me.

If he wasn't so mean, he would buy one for me.

I wish I weren't so slow!

I wish I wasn't so slow!

I wish it were longer.

I wish it was longer.

It's not as if I were ugly.

It's not as if I was ugly.

She acts as if she were Queen.

She acts as if she was Queen.

If I were you, I should tell her.

Note: We do not normally say "if I was you",

even in familiar conversation.

Some fixed expressions use the subjunctive. Here are some examples:
Long live the King!
God bless America!
Heaven forbid!
Be that as it may, he still wants to see her.
Come what may, I will never forget you.
We are all citizens of the world, as it were.

Active Voice, Passive Voice

There are two special forms for verbs called voice:
1. Active voice
2. Passive voice
The active voice is the "normal" voice. This is the voice that we use most of the
time. You are probably already familiar with the active voice. In the active voice,
the object receives the action of the verb:
subject

verb

object

>

active
Cats

eat

fish.

The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives the
action of the verb:
subject

verb

object

<

passive
Fish

are eaten

by cats.

The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb:
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subject

verb

object

active

Everybody

drinks

water.

passive

Water

is drunk

by everybody.

Infinitive or -ing?
Sometimes we need to decide whether to use a verb in its:
-ing form (doing, singing)
or
infinitive form (to do, to sing).
For example, only one of the following sentences is correct. Which one?
I dislike working late. (???)
I dislike to work late. (???)

When to use the infinitive

The infinitive form is used after certain verbs:
- forget, help, learn, teach, train
- choose, expect, hope, need, offer, want, would like
- agree, encourage, pretend, promise, recommend
- allow, can/can't afford, decide, manage, mean, refuse
I forgot to close the window.
Mary needs to leave early.
Why are they encouraged to learn English?
We can't afford to take a long holiday.
The infinitive form is always used after adjectives, for example:
- disappointed, glad, happy, pleased, relieved, sad, surprised
I was happy to help them.
She will be delighted to see you.
This includes too + adjective:
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The water was too cold to swim
Is your coffee too hot to drink?

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in.

The infinitive form is used after adjective + enough:

He was strong enough to lift it.

She is rich enough to buy two.

When to use -ing

The -ing form is used when the word is the subject of a sentence or clause:
Swimming is good exercise.
Doctors say that smoking is bad for you.
The -ing form is used after a preposition:
I look forward to meeting you.
They left without saying "Goodbye."
The -ing form is used after certain verbs:
- avoid, dislike, enjoy, finish, give up, mind/not mind, practise
I dislike getting up early.
Would you mind opening the window?

Some verbs can be followed by the -ing form or the infinitive without a big change in meaning:
begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose, start.
It started to rain.
It started raining.
I like to play tennis.
I like playing tennis.

Plural Verbs with Singular Subjects

We often use singular nouns that refer to groups of people (for example: team,
government, committee) as if they were plural. This is particularly true in
English and less true in USA English. This is because we often think of the group
as people, doing things that people do (eating, wanting, feeling etc).
In such cases, we use:
plural verb
they (not it)
who (not which)
Here are some examples:
The committee want sandwiches for lunch. They have to leave early.
My family, who don't see me often, have asked me home for Christmas.

The team hope to win next time.

Here are some examples of words and expressions that can be considered
singular or plural:
choir, class, club, committee, company, family, government, jury, school,
staff, team, union, the BBC, board of directors, the Conservative Party,
Manchester United, the Ministry of Health
But when we consider the group as an impersonal unit, we use singular verbs and
pronouns:
The new company is the result of a merger.
An average family consists of four people.
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The committee,

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which was formed in 1999, is made up of four men and

four women.
Notice that this is often a question of style and logic. The important thing is to be
consistent.
Using a plural verb with singular subject is less common in USA English.

Verb Meanings with Continuous

Tenses
There are some verbs that we do not normally use in the continuous tense. And
there are other verbs that we use in the simple tense with one meaning and in
the continuous tense with another meaning.
In this lesson we look at various uses of continuous tenses, followed by a
quiz to check your understanding:

Verbs not Used with Continuous

Tenses
There are some verbs that we do not normally use with continuous tenses. We
usually use the following verbs with simple tenses only (not continuous tenses):
hate, like, love, need, prefer, want, wish
believe, imagine, know, mean, realize, recognize, remember, suppose,
understand
belong, concern, consist, contain, depend, involve, matter, need, owe,
own, possess
appear, resemble, seem,
hear, see
Here are some examples:
I want a coffee.
not I am wanting a coffee.
I don't believe you are right.
not I am not believing you are right.
Does this pen belong to you?
not Is this pen belonging to you?
It seemed wrong. not It was seeming wrong.
I don't hear anything.
not I am not hearing anything.
Notice that we often use can + see/hear:
I can see someone in the distance.
(not I am seeing someone in the distance.)
I can't hear you very well.
(not I am not hearing you very well.)
With verbs that we don't use in the continuous tense, there is no real action or activity. Compare
"to hear" and "to listen". "To hear" means "to receive sound in your ears". There is no real action
or activity by you. We use "to hear" with simple tenses only. But "to listen" means "to try to hear".
You make an effort to hear. There is a kind of action or activity. We can use "to listen" with simple
or continuous tenses.

Verbs with Two Meanings

Some verbs have two different meanings or senses. For one sense we must use a
simple tense. For the other sense we can use a continuous or simple tense.
For example, the verb to think has two different senses:
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1. to believe, to have an opinion

I think Ricky Martin is sexy.
2. to reflect, to use your brain to solve a problem
I am thinking about my homework.
In sense 1 there is no real action, no activity. This sense is called "stative". In
sense 2 there is a kind of action, a kind of activity. This sense is called "dynamic".
When we use the stative sense, we use a simple tense. When we use the dynamic
sense, we can use a simple or continuous tense, depending on the situation.
Look at the examples in the table opposite:
If you have a doubt about a particular verb, ask yourself the question: "Is there any real action or
activity?"

Stative sense
(no real action)
Dynamic sense
(a kind of action)
Simple only Continuous Simple
I think she is beautiful.
Be quiet. I'm thinking. I will think about this
problem tomorrow.
I don't consider that he is the right man for the job.
We are considering
your job application and will give you our answer in a few days. We consider
every job application very carefully.
This table measures 4 x 6 feet.
She is measuring the room for a new carpet.
A good carpenter measures his wood carefully.
Does the wine taste good? I was tasting the wine when I dropped the glass.
I always taste wine before I drink it.
Mary has three children. Please phone later. We are having dinner now.
We have dinner at 8pm every day.

Be and Continuous Tenses

The verb be can be an auxiliary verb (Marie is learning English) or a main verb
(Marie is French). On this page we look at the verb be as a main verb.
Usually we use simple tenses with the verb be as a main verb. For example, we
say:
London is the capital of the UK.
(not London is being the capital of the UK.)
Is she beautiful?
(not Is she being beautiful?)
Were you late?
(not Were you being late?)
Sometimes, however, we can use the verb be with a continuous tense. This is
when the real sense of the verb be is "act" or "behave". Also, of course, the action
is temporary. Compare the examples in the table opposite:
Here is the structure of the verb be in the continuous present tense:
I am being
You are being
He, she, it is being
We are being
They are being
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Mary is a careful person. (Mary is always careful - it's her nature.)

John is
being careful. (John is acting carefully now, but maybe he is not always careful we don't know.)
Is he always so stupid? (Is that his personality?) They were being really
stupid. (They were behaving really stupidly at that moment.)
Andrew is not usually selfish. (It is not Andrew's character to be selfish.) Why is
he being so selfish? (Why is he acting so selfishly at the moment?)
Notice that we also make a difference between "to be sick" and "to be being sick":
She is sick (= she is not well)
She is being sick (= she is vomiting)

Used to do & Be used to

These two expressions look the same, but in fact they are completely different.
In this lesson we look at the structure and use of both expressions,
followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

Used to do
We use used to do to talk about the past. It is not a tense but it is like a tense. It is
a special expression. We use the expression used to do for the past only.
Do not confuse used to do with with the expression be used to. They have different meanings.

Structure of Used to do
The structure is:
subject auxiliary
did not
main verb
use infinitive

+
-

I
I

did

not

used

to do.

use

to do.
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Did

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you

use

to do?

Used or use?
when there is did in the sentence, we say use to (without d)

when there is no did in the sentence, we say used to (with d)

Use of Used to do
We use the used to do expression to talk about:
an activity that we did regularly in the past (like a habit)
a situation that was true in the past
I used to smoke.
//////
past
present future
Look at these examples.
the past
the present
She used to work in a shop. Now she works in a bank.
He used to watch a lot of TV.
Now he doesn't watch much TV.
They used to be married. Now they are divorced.
There used to be a cinema here.
Now there is a supermarket here.
I didn't use to go swimming.
Now I go swimming.
Did you use to smoke?

Be used to
Be used to something
Be used to doing
Be used to is an expression. It is not a tense. If I say "I am used to Thailand", it is
like saying "I am accustomed to Thailand."
Do not confuse be used to with with the special construction used to do. They have different
meanings.

Structure of Be used to
The structure is:

subject + be + used to + object

subject
be not

+
-

main verb
used to object

am

He
We

is
aren't

used to horses.
not

used to horses.
used to horses.
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Are
you
used to horses?
If the object invoves a verb, we use the -ing form:
I
am not used to being lied to.
He is
used to working late.
We aren't
used to taking the bus.
Are you
used to cooking?
Why do we use -ing for a verb after be used to? Because we always use -ing for a verb after a
preposition - and the to is a preposition.

Use of Be used to
The be used to expression is for talking about something that is familiar to us or
easy for us. For example:
I am used to driving on the left.
It means that it is not a problem for me to drive on the left of the road. I am
Japanese. In Japan, people drive on the left. Now I am living in the USA where
people drive on the right. Of course, I drive on the right in the USA, but when I
go to Japan it is easy for me to drive on the left because "I am used to it".
Look at these examples.
I am used to hard work.
I am used to working hard.
He is not used to New York.
He isn't used to living in New York.
Are you used to fast food?
Are you used to eating quickly?

Tenses
We can use be used to in any tense. We just conjugate the verb be in the tense
that we need. Look at these examples:
When we lived in Bangkok, we were used to hot weather.
I have been used to snakes for a long time.
You will soon be used to living alone.

Future Time

The future is uncertain. We know the past. We know the present. We do not know
the future. We can be 100% sure or certain about the past and the present. But we
can never be 100% certain about the future. In English there are several structures
and tenses to talk about the future. It is usually the degree of certainty about the
future that decides our choice of structure or tense.
Although we often talk about "future tenses", technically there are no future tenses in English
only different ways of talking about the future, using special constructions, other tenses or modal
verbs.

In this lesson we look at four of the most common ways to talk about the
future, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

Going to
Going to is not a tense. It is a special expression to talk about the future.

Structure of Going to
The structure is:
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subject + be + going + infinitive

The verb be is conjugated (past, present or future).
subject

be

am

I'm

He

is

It

Are

(not)

going

infinitive

going

to buy

a new car.

going

to go

swimming.

going

to take

the exam.

isn't

going

to rain.

you

going

to paint

not

the house?

Use of Going to
Going to - intention
We use going to when we have the intention to do something before we speak.
We have already made a decision before speaking. Look at these examples:
Jo has won the lottery. He says he's going to buy a Porsche.
We're not going to paint our bedroom tomorrow.
When are you going to go on holiday?
In these examples, we had an intention or plan before speaking. The decision
was made before speaking.

Going to - prediction
We often use going to to make a prediction about the future. Our prediction is
based on present evidence. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are
some examples:
The sky is very black. It's going to snow.
It's 8.30! You're going to miss the train!
I crashed the company car. My boss isn't going to be very happy!
In these examples, the present situation (black sky, the time, damaged car) gives
us a good idea of what is going to happen.

Will
One of the most common ways to talk about the future is with will, for example: I
will call you tonight. We often call this the "future simple tense", but technically
there are no future tenses in English. In this construction, the word will is a modal
auxiliary verb.
Here are the three main ways that we use will to talk about the future.

No plan
We use will when there is no prior plan or decision to do something before we
speak. We make the decision at the time of speaking. Look at these examples:
Hold on. I'll get a pen.
We will see what we can do to help you.
Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.
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In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision was made
at the time of speaking.
We often use will with the verb think:
I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow.
I think I'll have a holiday next year.

I don't think I'll buy that car.

Prediction
We often use will to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is no firm
plan. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples:
It will rain tomorrow.
People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century.
Who do you think will get the job?

Be
The verb be is an exception with will. Even when we have a very firm plan, and
we are not speaking spontaneously, we can use will with be. Look at these
examples:
I will be in London tomorrow.
There will be 50 people at the party.
The meeting will be at 9.30 am.
The verb be is always exceptional!

Going to
Intention
We use the special going to construction when we have the intention to do
something before we speak. We have already made a decision before speaking.
Look at these examples:
I have won $1,000. I am going to buy a new TV.
We're not going to see my mother tomorrow.
When are you going to go on holiday?
In these examples, we had an intention or plan before speaking. The
decision was made before we spoke.

Prediction
We often use going to to make a prediction about the future. Our prediction is
based on evidence. We are saying what seems sure to happen. Here are some
examples:
The sky is very black. It is going to snow.
It's 8.30! You're going to miss the train!
I crashed the company car. My boss isn't going to be very happy!
In these examples, the present situation (black sky/the time/damaged car) gives us
a good idea of what is going to happen.

We use will for prediction when we have no real evidence: "It will rain tomorrow." (It's
my feeling but I can't be sure.)
We use going to for prediction when there is some real evidence: "It's going to rain."
(There's a big, black cloud in the sky and if it doesn't rain I'll be very surprised.)

Present Continuous for Plan

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We often use the present continuous tense to talk about the future. Of course, we
normally use the present continuous to talk about action happening in the present,
but if we add a future word, we can use it to talk about the future. (By "future
word" we mean words or expressions like tomorrow, next week, in June. The
future word may be clearly expressed or understood from the context.)
Sometimes there is no real difference between an intention (going to) and a plan (present
continuous). In this case, it doen't matter which we use.
We're going to paint the bedroom tomorrow.

We're painting the bedroom tomorrow.

We use the present continuous only when a plan exists before we speak.
Look at these examples:
Mary is taking her music exam next year.
They cant play tennis with you tomorrow. They 're working.
Were going to the theatre on Friday.

Present Simple for Schedules

When an event is on a schedule or timetable (for example, the take-off time for a
plane), we often use the present simple to express the future. We usually also use
a future word (expressed or understood) like tomorrow, at 6.30pm, next week.
Only a few verbs are used in this way, for example:

be, open, close, begin, start, end, finish, arrive, come, leave, return
Look at these sentences:
The train leaves Detroit at 9pm tonight.
John starts work next week.
Tomorrow is Thursday.

Future Time: Summary

When we speak, we choose the tense that we use. This is important in English,
because the tense we choose expresses more than just a simple fact. When we
speak about the future, the tense we choose can express how we "see" the future,
even our personal feelings about the future. It certainly expresses what we believe
to be the probability (the chance, the reality) of something happening or whether
we have already decided to do it.
This table gives a simple scale of probability for each structure. It is not exact
because language is not a science, and there are many variables. This table should
help you to think about the "concept" of the future in English. This concept does
not exist in all languages, but it is rather important in English.
% probability before speaker
speaks of event happening
structure

used for

example

0%

will

no plan

Don't get up. I'll

answer the phone.

70%

going to

intention

We're going to watch

TV tonight.

90%

present

plan

I'm taking my exam in

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continuous
99.999%

present
simple

June.
schedule

My plane takes off at

6.00am tomorrow.

It is impossible in English to express the future with

100% certainty. (The speakers of any language that
can do this must all be millionaires!)

For & Since for Time

We often use for and since when talking about time.

for + period
A period is a duration of time, for example: 5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years. For
means "from the beginning of the period until the end of the period." For can be
used with all tenses.

since + point
A point is a precise moment in time, for example: 9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday.
Since means "from a point in the past until now." Since is normally used with
perfect tenses.
for

since
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period

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point

a
(from start to end)

a
(up to now)

>===<

===>|

for 20 minutes
for three days
for 6 months
for 4 years
for 2 centuries
for a long time
for ever
etc

since 9am
since Monday
since January
since 1997
since 1500
since I left school
since the beginning of time
etc

all tenses

perfect tenses only

For can be used with all tenses. Here are a few examples:
They study for two hours every day.
They are studying for three hours today.
He has lived in Bangkok for a long time.
He has been living in Paris for three months.
I worked at that bank for five years.
Will the universe continue for ever?
For is NOT used with "all day", "all the time" etc.
I was there all day. (not *for all day)
Since is normally used with perfect tenses:
He has been here since 9am.
He has been working since he arrived.
I had lived in New York since my childhood.
Since can also be used in the structure "It is [period] since...":
It is a year since I saw her.
How long is it since you got married?

Both for and since also have different meanings, with

no reference to time. Here are some examples:
This is for you.
Is this the train for London?
Since you ask, I'll say yes.
Since he didn't study he didn't pass the exam.

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Nouns
It's not easy to describe a noun. In simple terms, nouns are "things" (and verbs are
"actions"). Like food. Food (noun) is something you eat (verb). Or happiness.
Happiness (noun) is something you want (verb). Or human being. A human
being (noun) is something you are (verb).

What are Nouns?

The simple definition is: a person, place or thing. Here are some examples:
person: man, woman, teacher, John, Mary
place: home, office, town, countryside, America
thing: table, car, banana, money, music, love, dog, monkey
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The problem with this definition is that it does not explain why "love" is a noun
but can also be a verb.
Another (more complicated) way of recognizing a noun is by its:
1. Ending
2. Position
3. Function
1. Noun Ending
There are certain word endings that show that a word is a noun, for example:
-ity > nationality
-ment > appointment
-ness > happiness
-ation > relation
-hood > childhood
But this is not is not true for the word endings of all nouns. For example, the noun
"spoonful" ends in -ful, but the adjective "careful" also ends in -ful.
2. Position in Sentence
We can often recognise a noun by its position in the sentence.
Nouns often come after a determiner (a determiner is a word like a, an, the, this,
my, such):
a relief
an afternoon
the doctor
this word
my house
such stupidity
Nouns often come after one or more adjectives:
a great relief
a peaceful afternoon
the tall, Indian doctor
this difficult word
my brown and white house
such crass stupidity
3. Function in a Sentence
Nouns have certain functions (jobs) in a sentence, for example:
subject of verb: Doctors work hard.
object of verb: He likes coffee.
subject and object of verb: Teachers teach students.
But the subject or object of a sentence is not always a noun. It could be a
pronoun or a phrase. In the sentence "My doctor works hard", the noun is
"doctor" but the subject is "My doctor".

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

English nouns are often described as "countable" or "uncountable".
In this lesson we look at:

Countable Nouns
Countable nouns are easy to recognize. They are things that we can count. For
example: "pen". We can count pens. We can have one, two, three or more pens.
Here are some more countable nouns:
dog, cat, animal, man, person
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bottle, box, litre
coin, note, dollar
cup, plate, fork
table, chair, suitcase,

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bag
Countable nouns can be singular or plural:
My dog is playing.
My dogs are hungry.
We can use the indefinite article a/an with countable nouns:
A dog is an animal.
When a countable noun is singular, we must use a word like a/the/my/this with it:
I want an orange. (not I want orange.)

Where is my bottle? (not Where is bottle?)

When a countable noun is plural, we can use it alone:
I like oranges.
Bottles can break.
We can use some and any with countable nouns:
I've got some dollars.
Have you got any pens?
We can use a few and many with countable nouns:
I've got a few dollars.
I haven't got many pens.
"People" is countable. "People" is the plural of "person". We can count people. There is one
person here. There are three people here.

Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns are substances, concepts etc that we cannot divide into
separate elements. We cannot "count" them. For example, we cannot count
"milk". We can count "bottles of milk" or "litres of milk", but we cannot count
"milk" itself. Here are some more uncountable nouns:
music, art, love, happiness
advice, information, news
furniture, luggage
rice, sugar, butter, water
electricity, gas, power
money, currency

We usually treat uncountable nouns as singular. We use a singular verb. For

example:
This news is very important.
Your luggage looks heavy.
We do not usually use the indefinite article a/an with uncountable nouns. We
cannot say "an information" or "a music". But we can say a something of:
a piece of news
a bottle of water

a grain of rice
We can use some and any with uncountable nouns:
I've got some money.
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Have you got

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any rice?
We can use a little and much with uncountable nouns:
I've got a little money.
I haven't got much rice.
Uncountable nouns are also called "mass nouns".

Nouns that can be Countable and

Uncountable
Sometimes, the same noun can be countable and uncountable, often with a change
of meaning.
Countable
Uncountable
There are two hairs in my coffee! hair I don't have much hair.
There are two lights in our bedroom.
light Close the curtain. There's too
much light!
Shhhhh! I thought I heard a noise. noise It's difficult to work when there is
too much noise.
Have you got a paper to read? (= newspaper)
paper I want to draw a
picture. Have you got some paper?
Our house has seven rooms. room Is there room for me to sit here?
We had a great time at the party.
time Have you got time for a coffee?
Macbeth is one of Shakespeare's greatest works. work I have no money. I
need work!

Drinks (coffee, water, orange juice) are usually uncountable. But if we are thinking of a cup or a
glass, we can say (in a restaurant, for example):
Two teas and one coffee please.

Proper Nouns (Names)

A proper noun is the special word (or name) that we use for a person, place or
organization, like John, Marie, London, France or Sony. A name is a noun, but a
very special nouna proper noun. Proper nouns have special rules.
common noun
proper noun
man, boy
John
woman, girl
Mary
country, town
England, London
company
Ford, Sony
shop, restaurant Maceys, McDonalds
month, day of the week
January, Sunday
book, film
War & Peace, Titanic

Using Capital Letters with Proper

Nouns
We always use a Capital Letter for the first letter of a proper noun (name). This
includes names of people, places, companies, days of the week and months. For
example:
They like John. (not *They like john.)
I live in England.
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She works for

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Sony.
The last day in January is a Monday.
We saw Titanic in the Odeon Cinema.

Proper Nouns without THE

We do not use the with names of people. For example:
first names Bill (not *the Bill)
Hilary
surnames
Clinton
Gates
full names Hilary Gates
We do not normally use the with names of companies. For example:
Renault, Ford, Sony, EnglishCLUB.net
General Motors, Air France, British Airways
Warner Brothers, Brown & Son Ltd
We do not normally use the for shops, banks, hotels etc named after a founder
or other person (with -s or -s). For example:
shops
Harrods, Marks & Spencer, Maceys
banks
Barclays Bank
hotels, restaurants Steves Hotel, Joes Caf, McDonalds
churches, cathedrals St Johns Church, St Peters Cathedral
We do not normally use the with names of places. For example:
towns
Washington (not *the Washington), Paris, Tokyo
states, regions
Texas, Kent, Eastern Europe
countries
England, Italy, Brazil
continents Asia, Europe, North America
islands
Corsica
mountains Everest
Exception! If a country name includes States, Kingdom, Republic etc, we
use the:
states
the United States, the US, the United States of America, the USA
kingdom the United Kingdom, the UK
republic the French Republic
We do not use the with President/Doctor/Mr etc + Name:
the president, the king
President Bush (not *the President Bush)
the captain, the detective
Captain Kirk, Detective Colombo
the doctor, the professor
Doctor Well, Dr Well, Professor Dolittle
my uncle, your aunt Uncle Jack, Aunt Jill
Mr Gates (not *the Mr Gates), Mrs Clinton, Miss Black
Look at these example sentences:
I wanted to speak to the doctor.
I wanted to speak to Doctor Brown.
Who was the president before President Kennedy?
We do not use the with Lake/Mount + Name:
the lake
Lake Victoria
the mount Mount Everest
Look at this example sentence:
We live beside Lake Victoria. We have a fantastic view across the lake.
We do not normally use the for roads, streets, squares, parks etc:
streets etc Oxford Street, Trenholme Road, Fifth Avenue
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squares etc Trafalgar Square, Oundle Place, Piccadilly Circus

parks etc Central Park, Kew Gardens
Many big, important buildings have names made of two words (for example,
Kennedy Airport). If the first word is the name of a person or place, we do not
normally use the:
people Kennedy Airport, Alexander Palace, St Pauls Cathedral
places Heathrow Airport, Waterloo Station, Edinburgh Castle

Proper Nouns with THE

We normally use "the" for country names that include States, Kingdom,
Republic etc:
States
the United States of America/the USA
Kingdom the United Kingdom/the UK
Republic the French Republic
We normally use the for names of canals, rivers, seas and oceans:
canals the Suez Canal
rivers the River Nile, the Nile
seas
the Mediterranean Sea, the Mediterranean
oceans the Pacific Ocean, the Pacific
We normally use the for plural names of people and places:
people (families, for example)
the Clintons
countries
the Philippines, the United States
island groups
the Virgin Islands, the British Isles
mountain ranges the Himalayas, the Alps
Look at these sentences:
I saw the Clintons today. It was Bills birthday.
Trinidad is the largest island in the West Indies.

Mount Everest is in the Himalayas.

We normally use the with the following sorts of names:
hotels, restaurants the Ritz Hotel, the Peking Restaurant
banks
the National Westminster Bank
cinemas, theatres
the Royal Theatre, the ABC Cinema
museums
the British Museum, the National Gallery
buildings
the White House, the Crystal Palace
newspapers
the Daily Telegraph, the Sunday Post
organisations the United Nations, the BBC, the European Union
We normally use the for names made with of:
the Tower of London
the Gulf of Siam
the Tropic of Cancer
the London School of Economics
the Bank of France
the Statue of Liberty

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Possessive 's
When we want to show that something belongs to somebody or something, we
usually add 's to a singular noun and an apostrophe ' to a plural noun, for
example:

the boy's ball (one boy)

the boys' ball (two or more boys)

Notice that the number of balls does not matter. The structure is influenced by the
possessor and not the possessed.
one ball
more than one ball
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one boy
the boy's ball
the boy's balls
more than one boy
the boys' ball
the boys' balls

2.

Although we can use of to show possession, it is more usual to use possessive 's. The following
phrases have the same meaning, but #2 is more usual and natural:
1. the boyfriend of my sister
my sister's boyfriend

The structure can be used for a whole phrase:

the man next door's mother (the mother of the man next door)
the Queen of England's poodles (the poodles of the Queen of England)

the President of the USA's secretary (the secretary of the President of the
USA)

Proper Nouns (Names)

We very often use possessive 's with names:
This is Mary's car.
Where is Ram's telephone?
Who took Anthony's pen?
I like Tara's hair.
When a name ends in s, we usually treat it like any other singular noun, and add
's:
This is Charles's chair.
But it is possible (especially with older, classical names) to just add the
apostrophe ':
Who was Jesus' father?

Irregular Plurals
Some nouns have irregular plural forms without s (man > men). To show
possession, we usually add 's to the plural form of these nouns:
singular nounplural noun
my child's dog my children's dog
the man's work
the men's work
the mouse's cage
the mice's cage
a person's clothes people's clothes

Adjectives
An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. (By "noun" we include
pronouns and noun phrases.) An adjective "qualifies" or "modifies" a noun (a big
dog). Adjectives can be used before a noun (I like Chinese food) or after certain
verbs (It is hard). We can often use two or more adjectives together (a beautiful
young French lady).

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It is sometimes said that the adjective is the enemy of the noun. This is because, very often, if we
use the precise noun we don't need an adjective. For example, instead of saying "a large,
impressive house" (2 adjectives + 1 noun) we could simply say "a mansion" (1 noun).

Determiners
Determiners are words like the, an, my, some. They are grammatically similar.
They all come at the beginning of noun phrases, and usually we cannot use more
than one determiner in the same noun phrase.
Articles:
a, an, the
Possessives:
my, your, his, her, our, their
Other determiners:
each, every
either, neither
any, some, no
much, many; more, most
little, less, least
few, fewer, fewest
what, whatever; which, whichever
both, half, all
several
enough
Some grammarians do not consider determiners as adjectives, but give them a class of their own.

Determiners: A, An or The?
When do we say "the dog" and when do we say "a dog"? (On this page we talk
only about singular, countable nouns.)
The and a/an are called "articles". We divide them into "definite" and "indefinite"
like this:
Articles
Definite Indefinite
the
a, an
We use "definite" to mean sure, certain. "Definite" is particular.
We use "indefinite" to mean not sure, not certain. "Indefinite" is general.
When we are talking about one thing in particular, we use the. When we are
talking about one thing in general, we use a or an.
Think of the sky at night. In the sky there is 1 moon and millions of stars. So
normally we could say:
I saw the moon last night.

I saw a star last night.

Look at these examples:
the
a, an
The capital of France is Paris.
I have found the book that I lost.
Have you cleaned the car?
There are six eggs in the fridge.
Please switch off the TV when you finish.
John had an omelette for lunch.

I was born in a town.

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James Bond ordered a drink.
We want to buy an umbrella.

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Have you got a pen?

Of course, often we can use the or a/an for the same word. It depends on the
situation. Look at these examples:
We want to buy an umbrella. (Any umbrella, not a particular umbrella.)
Where is the umbrella? (We already have an umbrella. We are looking for
our umbrella, a particular umbrella.)
This little story should help you understand the difference between the and a, an:
A man and a woman were walking in Oxford Street. The woman saw a dress that she liked in a
shop. She asked the man if he could buy the dress for her. He said: "Do you think the shop will
accept a cheque? I don't have a credit card."

Determiners: Each, Every

Each and every have similar but not always identical meanings.
Each = every one separately
Every = each, all
Sometimes, each and every have the same meaning:
Prices go up each year.
Prices go up every year.
But often they are not exactly the same.
Each expresses the idea of 'one by one'. It emphasizes individuality.
Every is half-way between each and all. It sees things or people as singular, but in
a group or in general.
Consider the following:
Every artist is sensitive.
Each artist sees things differently.
Every soldier saluted as the President arrived.
The President gave each soldier a medal.
Each can be used in front of the verb:
The soldiers each received a medal.
Each can be followed by 'of':
The President spoke to each of the soldiers.
He gave a medal to each of them.
Every cannot be used for 2 things. For 2 things, each can be used:
He was carrying a suitcase in each hand.
Every is used to say how often something happens:
There is a plane to Bangkok every day.
The bus leaves every hour.
Verbs with each and every are always conjugated in the singular.

Determiners: Some, Any

Some = a little, a few or a small number or amount
Any = one, some or all
Usually, we use some in positive (+) sentences and any in negative (-) and
question (?) sentences.
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some

+
-

any

I have some money.

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example
I have $10.

I don't have any money.

and I don't have $1,000,000. I have $0.

I don't have $1 and I don't have $10

Do you have any money? Do you have $1 or $10 or

$1,000,000?
In general, we use something/anything and somebody/anybody in the same way as some/any.

Look at these examples:

He needs some stamps.
I must go. I have some homework to do.
I'm thirsty. I want something to drink.
I can see somebody coming.
He doesn't need any stamps.
I can stay. I don't have any homework to do.
I'm not thirsty. I don't want anything to drink.
I can't see anybody coming.
Does he need any stamps?
Do you have any homework to do?
Do you want anything to drink?
Can you see anybody coming?
We use any in a positive sentence when the real sense is negative.
I refused to give them any money. (I did not give them any money)
She finished the test without any difficulty. (she did not have any
difficulty)
Sometimes we use some in a question, when we expect a positive YES answer.
(We could say that it is not a real question, because we think we know the answer
already.)
Would you like some more tea?

Could I have some sugar, please?

Adjective Order
There are 2 basic positions for adjectives:
1. before the noun
2. after certain verbs (be, become, get, seem, look, feel, sound, smell, taste)
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1
2

adj.
I like big

noun verb
cars.
My car is

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adj.
big.

Adjective Before Noun

We sometimes use more than one adjective before the noun:
I like big black dogs.
She was wearing a beautiful long red dress.
What is the correct order for two or more adjectives?
1. The general order is: opinion, fact:
a nice French car (not a French nice car)
("Opinion" is what you think about something. "Fact" is what is definitely true
about something.)
2. The normal order for fact adjectives is size, age, shape, colour, material,
origin:
a big, old, square, black, wooden Chinese table
3. Determiners usually come first, even though they are fact adjectives:
articles (a, the)
possessives (my, your...)
demonstratives (this, that...)
quantifiers (some, any, few, many...)

numbers (one, two, three)

Here is an example with opinion and fact adjectives:
adjectives
determiner opinion
two

nice

noun
fact
age shape
old round

colour
red

candles

When we want to use two colour adjectives, we join them with "and":
Newspapers are usually black and white.
She was wearing a long, blue and yellow dress.
The rules on this page are for the normal, "natural" order of adjectives. But these rules are not
rigid, and you may sometimes wish to change the order for emphasis. Consider the following
conversations:
Conversation 1
A "I want to buy a round table."
B "Do you want a new round table or an old round table?"
Conversation 2
A "I want to buy an old table".
B "Do you want a round old table or a square old table?"

Adjective After Verb

We can use an adjective after certain verbs. Even though the adjective comes after
the verb, it does not describe the verb. It describes the subject of the verb (usually
a noun or pronoun).
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Look at the examples opposite:

subject verb adjective
Ram is English.
Because she had to wait, she became impatient.
Is it getting dark?
The examination did not seem difficult.
Your friend looks nice.
This towel feels damp.
That new film doesn't sound very interesting.
Dinner smells good tonight.
This milk tastes sour.

Comparative Adjectives
When we talk about two things, we can "compare" them. We can see if they are
the same or different. Perhaps they are the same in some ways and different in
other ways. We can use comparative adjectives to describe the differences.
In the example opposite, "bigger" is the comparative form of the adjective "big":
We can use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not three or more things).

A
A
The first A is bigger than the second A.

Formation of Comparative Adjectives

There are two ways to make or form a comparative adjective:
short adjectives: add "-er"
long adjectives: use "more"
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Short adjectives
1-syllable adjectives old, fast
2-syllable adjectives ending in -y happy, easy
Normal rule: add "-er"
old > older
Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -r
late > later
Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the last
consonant
big > bigger
Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to i
happy > happier
Long adjectives
2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y
modern, pleasant
all adjectives of 3 or more syllables
expensive, intellectual
Normal rule: use "more" modern > more modern
expensive > more expensive
With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-er' or 'more':
quiet > quieter/more quiet
clever > cleverer/more clever
narrow > narrower/more narrow

simple > simpler/more simple

Exception
The following adjectives have irregular forms:
good > better
well (healthy) > better
bad > worse
far > farther/further

Use of Comparative Adjectives

We use comparative adjectives when talking about 2 things (not 3 or 10 or
1,000,000 things, only 2 things).
Often, the comparative adjective is followed by "than".
Look at these examples:
John is 1m80. He is tall. But Chris is 1m85. He is taller than John.
America is big. But Russia is bigger.
I want to have a more powerful computer.
Is French more difficult than English?
If we talk about the two planets Earth and Mars, we can compare them as shown
in the table opposite:
Although we use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not three or more things),
in fact one or both of the things may be a group of things.
Mt Everest is higher than all other mountains.

Here, we are talking about hundreds of mountains, but we are still comparing one thing (Mt
Everest) to one other thing (all other mountains).

Diameter (km)

Earth
Mars
12,760 6,790

Mars is smaller than Earth.

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Distance from Sun (million km)

Length of day (hours)

24

Moons
1
2
Surface temperature (C)

150

228

Mars is more distant from

the Sun
.
25 A day on Mars is slightly longer than a day
on Earth.
Mars has more moons than Earth.
22 -23
Mars is colder than Earth.

Superlative Adjectives
A superlative adjective expresses the extreme or highest degree of a quality. We
use a superlative adjective to describe the extreme quality of one thing in a group
of things.
In the example opposite, "biggest" is the superlative form of the adjective "big":
We can use superlative adjectives when talking about three or more things (not two things).

C
A is the biggest.

Formation of Superlative Adjectives

As with comparative adjectives, there are two ways to form a superlative
adjective:
short adjectives: add "-est"
long adjectives: use "most"
We also usually add 'the' at the beginning.
Short adjectives
1-syllable adjectives old, fast
2-syllable adjectives ending in -y happy, easy
Normal rule: add "-est"
old > the oldest
Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -st late > the latest
Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the last
consonant
big > the biggest
Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to i
happy > the happiest
Long adjectives
2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y
modern, pleasant
all adjectives of 3 or more syllables expensive, intellectual
Normal rule: use "most" modern > the most modern
expensive > the most expensive
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With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-est' or 'most':

quiet > the quietest/most quiet
clever > the cleverest/most clever
narrow > the narrowest/most narrow

simple > the simplest/most simple

Exception
The following adjectives have irregular forms:
good > the best
bad > the worst
far > the furthest

Use of Superlative Adjectives

We use a superlative adjective to describe one thing in a group of three or more
things. Look at these examples:
John is 1m75. David is 1m80. Chris is 1m85. Chris is the tallest.
Canada, China and Russia are big countries. But Russia is the biggest.
Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
If we talk about the three planets Earth, Mars and Jupiter, we can use superlative
adjectives as shown in the table opposite:

When we compare one thing with itself, we do not use "the":

England is coldest in winter. (not the coldest)
My boss is most generous when we get a big order. (not the most generous)

Earth Mars
Diameter (km) 12,760 6,790
Distance from Sun
(million km)150
228
Sun.
Length of day (hours) 24
Moons
1
2
Surface temp.
(C)
22
-23

Jupiter
142,800

Jupiter is the biggest.

778

Jupiter is the most distant from the

25
16

10Jupiter has the shortest day.

Jupiter has the most moons.

-150

Jupiter is the coldest.

Adverbs
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An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. An adverb "qualifies" or

"modifies" a verb (The man ran quickly). But adverbs can also modify adjectives
(Tara is really beautiful), or even other adverbs (It works very well).
Many different kinds of word are called adverbs. We can usually recognise an
adverb by its:
1. Function (Job)
2. Form
3. Position
1. Function
The principal job of an adverb is to modify (give more information about) verbs,
adjectives and other adverbs. In the following examples, the adverb is in bold and
the word that it modifies is in italics.
Modify a verb:
- John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?)
- Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?)
- She never smokes. (When does she smoke?)
Modify an adjective:
- He is really handsome.
Modify another adverb:
- She drives incredibly slowly.
But adverbs have other functions, too. They can:
Modify a whole sentence:
- Obviously, I can't know everything.
Modify a prepositional phrase:
- It's immediately inside the door.
2. Form
Many adverbs end in -ly. We form such adverbs by adding -ly to the adjective.
Here are some examples:
quickly, softly, strongly, honestly, interestingly
But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs. "Friendly", for example, is an
adjective.
Some adverbs have no particular form, for example:
well, fast, very, never, always, often, still
3. Position
Adverbs have three main positions in the sentence:
Front (before the subject):
- Now we will study adverbs.
Middle (between the subject and the main verb):
- We often study adverbs.

End (after the verb or object):

- We study adverbs carefully.

Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of Frequency answer the question "How often?" or "How frequently?"
They tell us how often somebody does something.
Adverbs of frequency come before the main verb (except the main verb "to be"):
We usually go shopping on Saturday.
I have often done that.
She is always late.
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Occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently and usually can also go at the

beginning or end of a sentence:
Sometimes they come and stay with us.
I play tennis occasionally.
Rarely and seldom can also go at the end of a sentence (often with "very"):
We see them rarely.

John eats meat very seldom.

100%always
usually
frequently
often
50% sometimes
occasionally
rarely
seldom
hardly ever
0%
never

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English Pronouns
Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a pronoun
instead of a noun. Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours, themselves, some,
each... If we didn't have pronouns, we would have to repeat a lot of nouns. We
would have to say things like:
Do you like the President? I don't like the President. The President is too
pompous.
With pronouns, we can say:

Do you like the President? I don't like him. He is too pompous.

Personal Pronouns
This summary of personal pronouns includes possessive adjectives for
convenience and comparison.
pronouns
gender
*

subjec
t

objec
t

possessiv
e

reflexive

1st

m/f

me

mine

myself

my

2nd

m/f

you

you

yours

yourself

your

he

him

his

himself

his

she

her

hers

herself

her

it

it

its

itself

its

1st

m/f

we

us

ours

ourselves

our

2nd

m/f

you

you

yours

yourselves your

3rd

m/f/n

they

them

theirs

themselve
s

perso
number n

singula
r
3rd

plural

possessiv
e
adjective
s

their

* m=male f=female n=neuter

Examples:
pronoun

subject

She likes homework.

object

The teacher gave me some homework.

possessive

This homework is yours.

reflexive

John did the homework himself.

possessive adjective

The teacher corrected our homework.

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English Prepositions
A preposition is a word governing, and usually coming in front of, a noun or
pronoun and expressing a relation to another word or element, as in:
She left before breakfast.
What did you come for?
(For what did you come?)

English Prepositions List

There are about 150 prepositions in English. Yet this is a very small number when
you think of the thousands of other words (nouns, verbs etc). Prepositions are
important words. We use individual prepositions more frequently than other
individual words. In fact, the prepositions of, to and in are among the ten most
frequent words in English. Here is a short list of 70 of the more common oneword prepositions. Many of these prepositions have more than one meaning.
Please refer to a dictionary for precise meaning and usage.
aboard
about
above
across
after
against
along
amid
among
anti
around
as
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
but
by
concerning
considering
despite
down
during
except
excepting
excluding
following
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for

from

in
inside
into
like
minus
near
of
off
on
onto
opposite
outside
over
past
per
plus
regarding
round
save
since
than
through
to
toward
towards
under
underneath
unlike
until
up
upon
versus
via
with
within
without

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English Preposition Rule

There is one very simple rule about prepositions. And, unlike most rules, this rule
has no exceptions.
Rule
A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a verb.
By "noun" we include:
noun (dog, money, love)
proper noun (name) (Bangkok, Mary)
pronoun (you, him, us)
noun group (my first job)
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gerund (swimming)

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A preposition cannot be followed by a verb. If we want to follow a preposition by

a verb, we must use the "-ing" form which is really a gerund or verb in noun form.
Quick Quiz: In the following sentences, why is "to" followed by a verb? That
should be impossible, according to the above rule:
I would like to go now.
She used to smoke.

Prepositions of Place:
at, in, on

In general, we use:
at for a POINT
in for an ENCLOSED SPACE
on for a SURFACE
at
in
on
POINT
ENCLOSED SPACE
SURFACE
at the corner in the garden
on the wall
at the bus stop
in London
on the ceiling
at the door in France
on the door
at the top of the page
in a box
on the cover
at the end of the road
in my pocket
on the floor
at the entrance
in my wallet
on the carpet
at the crossroads
in a building
on the menu
at the entrance
in a car
on a page
Look at these examples:
Jane is waiting for you at the bus stop.
The shop is at the end of the street.
My plane stopped at Dubai and Hanoi and arrived in Bangkok two hours
late.
When will you arrive at the office?
Do you work in an office?
I have a meeting in New York.
Do you live in Japan?
Jupiter is in the Solar System.
The author's name is on the cover of the book.
There are no prices on this menu.
You are standing on my foot.
There was a "no smoking" sign on the wall.

I live on the 7th floor at 21 Oxford Street in London.

Notice the use of the prepositions of place at, in and on in these standard
expressions:
at
in
on
at home
in a car
on a bus
at work
in a taxi
on a train
at school in a helicopter on a plane
at universityin a boat
on a ship
at college in a lift (elevator)
on a bicycle, on a motorbike
at the top in the newspaper
on a horse, on an elephant
at the bottom
in the sky on the radio, on television
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at the side in a row

on the left, on the right
at reception in Oxford Street
on the way

Prepositions of Time:
at, in, on
We use:
at for a PRECISE TIME
in for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS
on for DAYS and DATES
at
in
on
PRECISE TIME
MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG
PERIODS DAYS and DATES
at 3 o'clock in May
on Sunday
at 10.30am in summer
on Tuesdays
at noon
in the summer on 6 March
at dinnertimein 1990
on 25 Dec. 2010
at bedtime in the 1990s
on Christmas Day
at sunrise
in the next century
on Independence Day
at sunset
in the Ice Age on my birthday
at the moment
in the past/future
on New Year's Eve
Look at these examples:
I have a meeting at 9am.
The shop closes at midnight.
Jane went home at lunchtime.
In England, it often snows in December.
Do you think we will go to Jupiter in the future?
There should be a lot of progress in the next century.
Do you work on Mondays?
Her birthday is on 20 November.

Where will you be on New Year's Day?

Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following standard
expressions:
Expression
Example
at night
The stars shine at night.
at the weekend
I don't usually work at the weekend.
at Christmas/EasterI stay with my family at Christmas.
at the same time We finished the test at the same time.
at present
He's not home at present. Try later.
Notice the use of the prepositions of time in and on in these common expressions:
in
on
in the morning on Tuesday morning
in the mornings on Saturday mornings
in the afternoon(s) on Sunday afternoons
in the evening(s)on Monday evening
When we say last, next, every, this we do not also use at, in, on.
I went to London last June. (not in last June)
He's coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)
I go home every Easter. (not at every Easter)
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We'll call you

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this evening. (not in this evening)

Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that "joins". A conjunction joins two parts of a sentence.
Here are some example conjunctions:
Coordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating Conjunctions
and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so although, because, since, unless
We can consider conjunctions from three aspects.

Form
Conjunctions have three basic forms:
Single Word
for example: and, but, because, although
Compound (often ending with as or that)
for example: provided that, as long as, in order that

Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)

for example: so...that

Function
Conjunctions have two basic functions or "jobs":
Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that
are grammatically equal. The two parts may be single words or clauses,
for example:
- Jack and Jill went up the hill.
- The water was warm but I didn't go swimming.
Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent
clause to a main clause, for example:
- I went swimming, although it was cold.

Position
Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses
that they join.
Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the
subordinate clause.
In this lesson we will look in more detail at:

Subordinating
Conjunctions
The majority of conjunctions are
"subordinating conjunctions". Common
subordinating conjunctions are:
after, although, as, because,
before, how, if, once, since, than,
that, though, till, until, when,
where, whether, while
A subordinating conjunction joins a
subordinate (dependent) clause to a main

A subordinate or dependent clause "depends" on a

main or independent clause. It cannot exist alone.
Imagine that somebody says to you: "Hello! Although
it was raining." What do you understand? Nothing!
But a main or independent clause can exist alone. You
will understand very well if somebody says to you:
"Hello! Ram went swimming."

A subordinating conjunction always comes at the

beginning of a subordinate clause. It "introduces" a
subordinate clause. However, a subordinate clause
can sometimes come after and sometimes before a
main clause. Thus, two structures are possible:
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(independent) clause:

Look at this example:

main or
independent
clause

subordinate or
dependent clause

Ram went
swimming

although

it was
raining.

subordinating
conjunction

Coordinating
Conjunctions
The short, simple conjunctions are
called "coordinating conjunctions":
and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so
A coordinating conjunction joins
parts of a sentence (for example
words or independent clauses) that
are grammatically equal or similar.
A coordinating conjunction shows
that the elements it joins are similar
in importance and structure:

+
Look at these examples - the two
elements that the coordinating
conjunction joins are shown in
square brackets [ ]:
I like [tea] and [coffee].
[Ram likes tea], but
[Anthony likes coffee].
Coordinating conjunctions always
come between the words or clauses
that they join.

When a coordinating conjunction joins

independent clauses, it is always correct to
place a comma before the conjunction:
I want to work as an interpreter in the
future, so I am studying Russian at
university.
However, if the independent clauses are short
and well-balanced, a comma is not really
essential:
She is kind so she helps people.
When "and" is used with the last word of a
list, a comma is optional:
He drinks beer, whisky, wine, and
rum.
He drinks beer, whisky, wine and rum.
The 7 coordinating conjunctions are short, simple
words. They have only two or three letters. There's an
easy way to remember them - their initials spell:

For

And

Nor

But

Or

Yet

So

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Interjections
Hi! That's an interjection. :-)
Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations
like Oh!, Um or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite
often, usually more in speaking than in writing. When interjections are inserted
into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the sentence. An
interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written.
The table shows some interjections with examples.
Interjections like er and um are also known as "hesitation devices". They are extremely common
in English. People use them when they don't know what to say, or to indicate that they are
thinking about what to say. You should learn to recognize them when you hear them and realize
that they have no real meaning.

ah

alas
dear
eh

er
hello, hullo
hey

interjection meaning
example
expressing pleasure "Ah, that feels good."
expressing realization
"Ah, now I understand."
expressing resignation
"Ah well, it can't be heped."
expressing surprise "Ah! I've won!"
expressing grief or pity
"Alas, she's dead now."
expressing pity "Oh dear! Does it hurt?"
expressing surprise "Dear me! That's a surprise!"
asking for repetition "It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today."
expressing enquiry "What do you think of that, eh?"
expressing surprise "Eh! Really?"
inviting agreement "Let's go, eh?"
expressing hesitation "Lima is the capital of...er...Peru."
expressing greeting "Hello John. How are you today?"
expressing surprise "Hello! My car's gone!"
calling attention
"Hey! look at that!"
expressing surprise, joy etc "Hey! What a good idea!"
expressing greeting "Hi! What's new?"
expressing hesitation, doubt or disagreement
"Hmm. I'm

hi
hmm
not so sure."
oh, o
expressing surprise "Oh! You're here!"
expressing pain"Oh! I've got a toothache."
expressing pleading "Oh, please say 'yes'!"
ouch
expressing pain"Ouch! That hurts!"
uh
expressing hesitation "Uh...I don't know the answer to that."
uh-huh
expressing agreement
"Shall we go?" "Uh-huh."
um, umm
expressing hesitation "85 divided by 5 is...um...17."
well
expressing surprise "Well I never!"
introducing a remark "Well, what did he say?"

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English Grammar

Hasham Raza

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