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CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS
In this module the equation of motion of continuous systems or distributed mass systems
will be derived using both dAlembert principle and extended Hamiltons principles.
Different one-dimensional systems such as longitudinal vibration of rod, transverse
vibration of string, torsional vibration of rod and transverse vibration of Euler-Bernoulli
beams will be considered in this module.
Lecture 1
Introduction to Continuous systems
In the previous modules we have studied about discrete mass system, which are modeled
as single, two or multi-degrees of freedom systems. In these cases the system has a
definite number of lumped masses, stiffness elements and damping elements. For
example the cantilever beam with a tip mass as shown in Figure 10.1 is modeled as a
single degree of freedom system with a spring and a mass. The stiffness k of the system
was calculated using the following equation.
Fig 10.1
k
W
W
3EI
3
3
WL /(3EI )
L
Here W is the weight of the attached mass, is the deflection of the beam with length L,
Youngs modulus E and moment of inertia I. The natural frequency can be calculated
k
using the formula n
where m is the attached mass. In this calculation we have
m
neglected the mass of the beam. Hence it may be observed that by considering a point
mass at the tip we obtained one natural frequency of the system. Instead of modeling this
system as a single-spring mass if one consider the beam to be consist of several masses,
then the system can be modeled as a multi-degree of freedom system as shown in figure
10.2(a). But as the dimension of each elemental mass considered in the above case is
arbitrary, one may consider the beam as a continuous system with infinity number of
distributed mass and stiffness and hence has infinity number of natural frequencies.
Fig. 10.2(a,b)
It may be observed that the response of the continuous system depends time and
space coordinate (location). But in case of discrete system the response is only a
function of time. Hence while the equation of motion of discrete systems are
written in terms of ordinary differential equations, in case of continuous system
they are written in terms of partial differential equations.
It may be noted that all the real systems are continuous system.
In case of continuous system the solution yields infinite number of eigen values
and eigen functions where as in discrete system the eigen values and eigen vectors
are finite.
The eigen value problem in case of discrete system takes the from of algebraic
equations while in continuous systems differential equations and some times
integral equations are obtained. Eigenvectors of the discrete system becomes
eigenfunction of the continuous system.
The response of the system will depends on the boundary conditions. There are two
different types of boundary conditions viz., geometric boundary conditions and natural
boundary conditions. Geometry boundary conditions also known as essential or imposed
boundary conditions result from conditions of purely geometric compatibility. For
example in case of a clamped-clamped beam in both the ends deflections and slopes are
zero (Fig. 10.3).
Free-free beam Bending moment
and shear forces are zero at both ends
(natural boundary conditions at both ends)
Fixed-Fixed beam : Deflections and slope
at both ends are zero which constitute
geometric boundary conditions
Fig. 10.3
Natural boundary condition also known as additional or dynamic boundary condition,
which results from the balance of moments or forces in the boundary. For example in
case of a free-free beam which may be a model of a flying aeroplane or a spacecraft, at
both the ends in this system shear force and bending moments are zero (Fig. 10.3). Hence
they constitute the natural boundary conditions.
In some systems one may find both the geometric and natural boundary conditions. For
example in case of a simply supported beam, both deflection and bending moment at end
points are zero. Hence the boundary condition in this case may be termed as mixed
boundary conditions. Now let us consider specific examples of continuous onedimensional systems.
u(x, o)
L
(a)
2u
mdx 2
t
dx
x
Fig. 10.4
T
Strings are mostly used in musical instruments and many other applications of domestic
and industrial in nature. A string of length L is shown in Figure 10.4(a), which is
subjected to tension T. Let at time t = 0, the string is pulled in the lateral direction (y
direction) as shown in figure 10.4 (b) and left. Hence the lateral deflection u along the
string is a function of the space variable x and time t i.e., u u ( x, t )
If the lateral deflection is small, the change in tension T due to the deflection is
negligible. Figure 10.4(c) shows the free body diagram of an elemental length dx of the
string. When the string is vibrating, in the y direction inertia force is acting. Considering
the forces in the vertical direction, applying Newtons second law one may have
2u
mdx 2 T sin
dx T sin
(10.1)
t
x
Here m is the mass per unit length of the string. Now assuring small deflections u and
slope , the equation 10.1 reduces to following equation.
mdx
2u
T
.dx T
2
x
t
(10.2)
u
in equation 10.2 one may write
x
2u
2u
mdx 2 T 2 dx
t
x
2
u
2u
or,
m 2 T 2
t
x
or,
or,
2u T 2u
t 2 m x 2
2
2u
T
2 u
c
where, c
2
2
t
x
m
The above equation is known as Wave equation. One may use Hamiltons principle to
derive the equation of motion of this system also.
dx
F
Fig. 10.5
P
u
E
A
x
(1)
2u
p
p
dx p
2
x
t
Adx
(2)
2u
u
EA dx (3)
2
t
x
x
P
u
p
dx
x
u
dx
x
A x 2
t 2
or
2u
E 2u
x 2
t 2
(4)
(5)
2
E
2u
2 u
where c
(6)
c
2
2
t
x
It may be observed that we are getting the same wave equation in this case where only c
is different. It can be shown that c represent the velocity of the wave in the rod.
or
Lecture M10 L2
Sol.:
L
2 Adx u&
Kinetic Energy T =
Fig. 10.7
1
2
= Au& dx ..(7)
2
0
P.E. = strain energy stored
1 du du
E
dv
2 dx
dx
1
1
1
du
du
du
E
dv E
Adx EA
dx (8)
2
2
2
dx
dx
dx
L
1
1
du
Adu&2 dx EA dx (9)
20
2
dx
1
1 du
2
&
Adu
dx
EA
dx (10)
2 dx
0 2
1
t2
or,
2
1
1 du
2
&
Adu
dx
EA
dx
0 2
2 dx dt 0 (11)
where u t1 u t 2 0, Wnc 0
L
t
1
L
1
1
u u
&&
A 2 ududxdt
EA 2 dxdt
2
2
x x
t2
L t2
0 (12)
t l
12
1 2
u
u
& & Aududxdt
&
&
EA u EA udxdt 0 (13)
or, Audu
2 t1
2 t1 0 x
x
x
0
0 t1
t1
0
u
u
& c 2 0 where c 2 E (14)
0 or, u&
x
x
It may be noted from equation (13) that along with the equation of motion, one may get a
set of boundary conditions. The boundary conditions for some of the typical cases are
given in the following Table.
& EA
Au&
u
0
x
Fixed end
u
0
x
u (0, t ) 0
End spring
AE
u ( L, t ) 0
u
Ku
x
AE
u
ku
x
End man
AE
End dampes
u
2u
m 2
x
t
AE
u
2u
m 2
x
t
u
u
c
x
t
AE
u
u
c
x
t
AE
dx
dx
G
Ip
x
(15)
T
.dx
x
T GI p
(16)
x
Here GI p is the torsional stiffness of the shaft, G is shear modulus of the material and
I p is the polar moment of inertia of the rod.
Applying Newtons second law for the rotation in the direction
I p
2
T
dx T
dx T
t
x
(17)
GI p
2
x
x
t
2 GI p
2
or 2
I p
t
x 2
I p
or
2
2
2
C
t 2
x 2
(18)
(19)
where c 2 G / (20)
So the equation of motion of all the three cases discussed can be expressed as
c 2 L(u )
2u
t 2
The boundary conditions in case of torsional vibration of rod are given in Table 2.
Table 2: Boundary conditions for Torsional Vibration of rods
Case
Fixed end
Free end
(l , t ) 0
0
x
0
x
Torsional spring
k
Please
modify the
spring
I pG
k
x
I pG
k
x
Inertia Jp
Jp
I pG
Jp 2
x
t
2
I pG
2
Jp 2
x
t
Torsional dampoo
I pG
I pG
C
x
t
C
x
t
Lecture M10L3
Solution of Wave Equation
In the last two lectures the equation of motion of lateral vibration of string, longitudinal
vibration of rod and torsional vibration of shafts were carried out using Newtons law and
Hamiltons principle. In all these three cases the equation of motion of the system reduces
to that of Wave equation, which can be given by
2
2u
2 u
C
(1)
t 2
x 2
where the values of
Case
Lateral Vibration of taut String
(T/ )
E/
G/
To find the response of different system one may use the variable separation method by
using the following equation.
u ( x, t ) ( x) q (t )
(2)
( x) is known as the mode shape of the system and q (t ) is known as the time modulation.
Now equation (1) reduces to
2q
2
(3)
( x ) 2 C 2 q (t ) 2
t
x
1 2 q
1 2
2
x 2
q t
2
or C
(4)
Since the left side of equation (4) is independent of time t and the right side is
independent of x the equality holds for all values of t and x. Hence each side must be a
constant. As the right side term equals to a constant, it implies that the acceleration term
2 q
q (t ) , one may take the proportionality
2
x 2
q
2
d q
Hence,
2q 0
dt 2
2
2
And
0
x 2 C 2
The solution of equation (6) and (7) can be written as
q (t ) C1 sin t C2 cos t
C2
x B cos x
C
C
( x) A sin
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
Hence,
u ( x, t ) A sin x B cos x C1 sin t C2 cos t .
(10)
C
C
The coefficients A and B are to be determined from the boundary conditions and the
coefficients C1 and C2 are to be evaluated from the initial conditions. Now let us
consider several examples to study the free vibration response of strings, longitudinal
vibration of rods and torsional vibration of shaft.
Example 1: Find the mode shape of a string fixed at both the ends.
Solution:
For the string fixed at both the ends the boundary conditions are displacement at both the
ends are zero.
Hence, u (0, t ) 0 and u ( L, t ) 0 .
This implies that
(0) 0 and ( L) 0 .
()
( a,b )
( x) A sin
(c)
(d)
(e)
Here constant A is not equal to zero as this will lead to the trivial solution of the system.
Hence
sin L 0 sin n , n 1, 2,L
(f)
C
or,
C L
n T
L m
And the mode shape is given by
n
( x) A sin x A sin x
C
L
So,
(g)
(13)
(14)
Hence the string will have a number of frequencies. The fundamental frequency can
T
be given by 1
and the overtones are integer multiples of the fundamental
L m
frequency. So it may be noted that the frequency of the string depends on three factors
viz., tension in the string, mass per unit length of the string material and length of the
string. In the musical instrument as m is constant and T is kept constant, the artist vary
the length of the string to produce a mixture of different overtones.
Equation (14) represents the eigen modes of the fixed-fixed string. Hence one may write
the frequency equation as
n T
(15)
n
L m
and eigen function for a string fixed at both ends as
n
n ( x) An sin x
L
(16)
It may be noted that in equation 15, the constants An are arbitrary. Like in the case of
multi degree of freedom system, here also one may normalize the eigen modes by using
the following expression
L
( x)( x) ( x) 1
n
(17)
n
n
x An sin 1 (18)
L
L
A sin
n
Or,
n
x dx 1
L
An2 sin 2
0
As sin 2
1
(1 cos 2)
2
(19)
(21)
or, 2 n
2nx / L
1
0
(23)
1 2
An L 1 (24)
2
2
An2
or,
L (25)
or,
x x dx
r
2
r x s
x
sin
sin
dx
L 0
L
L
2
r x s
x
sin
sin
dx
L0
L
L
1
Recalling that sinsin= cos cos
2
L
2 1
r s
r s
cos
x cos
dx
L 0 2
L L
L L
x
x
sin r s
L
L
r s
r s
L
L
sin r s
1
L
r s
r s
sin
sin
L L
L L
r s
r s
L L
L L
0 when r s
1 when r s
When r=s
0
L
2
r x
sin 2
dx
L0
L
L
2
2r x
1 cos
dx
L 0
L
2L
L2
=1
x x dx
r
rs
r,s=1
2 r s
r x
s
x
cos
cos
dx
L L L 0
L
L
2 r s L
T
r s
L L L 2
Trs2
r s
L2
2r r s
T
r 2 2
L2
This shows the orthogonality property of the eigen modes.
Where 2r
x
x
dx
Y M
M
dx
v x
M
V
dx
X
When the deflection u ( x, t ) of the beam is assumed to be due to bending, then the beam is
called an Euler Bernoulli beam.
From strength of material it is known
2u
M EI 2
x
M ( x, t )
V ( x, t )
x
In the Y direction net force Fy
v
v
V
dx V
dx
x
x
2
2u
dx
Fy 2 EI
x
x 2
2u
2
dx
t 2
x 2
EI
2u
dx
x 2
4
2u
2 u
c
0 , c 2 EI / m
t 2
x 4
or,
4u
1 2u
x 4 c 2 t 2
1
u&2 dx
l
2u
1
Potential energy V EI
dx
2 0 x 2
Pinned (deflection,
moment=0
y (o, t ) 0
y
0
x
y ( o, t ) 0
y (l , t ) 0
2 y
0
x 2
2 y
0
x 2
y
0
x
3 y
0
x 3
y
0
x
3 y
0
x 3
2 y
0
x 2
3 y
0
x 3
2 y / x 2 0
3 y / x 3 0
m,Jp
Damper c and spring k
2 y
3 y
Jp
x 2
x.t 2
3 y
2 y
EI
m
x 3
t 2
EI
3 y
y
ky C
3
t
x
2
y
0
x 2
EI
2 y
3 y
Jp
x 2
xt 2
3 y
2 y
EI
m
x 3
t 2
EI
3 y
y
ky c
3
t
x
2
y
0
x 2
EI
Lecture M10L4
Transverse vibration of Beam with various boundary conditions
Solution of Euler Bernoulli equation
In the last two lectures the equation of motion of lateral vibration of string, longitudinal
vibration of rod and torsional vibration of shafts were carried out using Newtons law and
Hamiltons principle. In all these three cases the equation of motion of the system reduces
to that of Wave equation, which can be given by
2u EI 4u
0
(1)
t 2
x 4
To find the response of the system one may use the variable separation method by using
the following equation.
u ( x, t ) ( x)q (t )
(2)
( x) is known as the mode shape of the system and q (t ) is known as the time modulation.
Now equation (1) reduces to
2 q (t ) EI 4( x )
( x)
q (t )
(3)
t 2
x 4
1 2 q
EI 1 4 ( x)
or
2
( x) x 4
q t
(4)
Since the left side of equation (4) is independent of time t and the right side is
independent of x the equality holds for all values of t and x. Hence each side must be a
2 q
constant. As the right side term equals to a constant implies that the acceleration
2
t
is proportional to displacement q (t ) , one may take the proportionality constant equal to
2 to have simple harmonic motion in the system. If one take a positive constant, the
response will grow exponentially and make the system unstable. Hence one may write
equation (4) as
1 2 q
EI 1 4 ( x)
2
(5)
2
( x) x 4
q
d 2q
Hence,
2q 0
2
dt
4
( x ) 2
And
( x) 0
x 4
EI
2
Taking 4
EI
The above equation can be written as
4( x )
4 ( x) 0
4
x
The solution of equation (6) and (9) can be given by
q (t ) C1 sin t C2 cos t
( x) A sinh(x) B cosh( x) C sin(x) D cos( x)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
Hence,
u ( x, t ) A sinh x B cosh x C sin x D cos x C1 sin t C2 cos t .
(12)
Here constants C1 and C2 can be obtained from the initial conditions and constants
A, B, C , D can be obtained from the boundary conditions. Let us now determine the mode
shapes of simply supported beam, fixed-fixed beam, cantilever beam and free-free
beams.
Simply supported beam
For beam simply supported at both the end the boundary conditions can be given by
u (0, t ) 0
2u (0, t )
0
x 2
u ( L, t ) 0
Figure 1
13 (a-d)
2 u ( L, t )
0
x 2
Using equation 2 in 13(a-d) the boundary conditions reduces to
(0) 0
2
0
x 2 x 0
( L) 0
2
0
x 2 x L
14(a-d)
Now using the expression for the mode shape (equation 11) and its second order
derivative can be given by the following expression.
( x) A sinhx B cosh x C sin x D cos x
.
2 ( x)
2 A sinhx B cosh x C sin x D cos x
2
u
From 14(a) B D 0
From 14(b) B D 0
(15)
Hence both B D 0
(16)
17(a,b)
(19)
Hence, L n
(20)
Figure 2
Now from equation 8 and 20 one may write the expression for the frequency as
EI
EI
2
2
L
(21)
L4
EI
L4
and the mode shape can be given by
n
( x) C sin x C sin
n
x
L
(22)
(23)
Hence from equation (22) and (23) it may be noted that the simply supported system has
a large number of frequency and corresponding mode shapes. As E , I , , L are the system
parameters and are fixed for a particular system, the frequency of the nth mode is n2times
the fundamental frequency. For example, the second mode frequency is 4 times the
fundamental or first mode frequency and the third mode frequency is 9 times the
fundamental frequency.
Cantilever beam
In case of cantilever beam the boundary conditions are
At left end i.e.,
At x 0
u ( x, t ) 0
(Displacement =0)
u ( x, t )
0
(Slope=0)
x
At the free end i.e.,
xL
At x 0
At x L
2u( x,t )
0
x 2
3u( x,t )
0
x3
( x) 0 and
(24)
Bending moment = 0
Shear force = 0
( x)
0
x
(25)
(26)
2( x )
3( x,t )
0
and
0
x 2
x 3
(27)
(28)
B
cosh l cos l
sinh l sin l
(31)
cosh l cos l
( x) A cosh x cos x
sinh x sin x
sinh l sin l
(34)
Applying the fixed-fixed boundary condition and proceeding in the way mentioned in the
above two boundary conditions one will get the frequency equation as
cos l cosh l 1 (35)
The first five roots of l are
l = 0, 4.7300, 7.853, 10.996, 14.137, 4.730
for n>5
2
The first solution l =0 represents the rigid body mode of the fixed-fixed beam.
Thus the higher modes of a fixed-fixed beam have approximately the same
frequencies as those of the cantilever beam with same physical properties. But the
mode shapes are different.
Exercise Problems: In case of fixed-fixed beam the mode shape expression can be
given by
cosh l cos l
( x) A cosh x cos x
sinh x sin x
sinh l sin l
(36)
Free-Free beam
Frequencies for free-free beam are same as those of fixed-fixed beam, but the
displacement curves are different as the boundary conditions are different.
Exercise problem: Show that the frequency equation in case of a free-free beam can be
given by
cos l cosh l 1
The first five roots of this equation are
l 0, 4.7300, 7.853, 10.996, 14.137, 4.730
for n>5
2
Summary
The eigenvalue problem in case of discrete system takes the from of algebraic
equations while in continuous systems differential equations and some times
integral equations are obtained. Eigenvectors of the discrete system becomes
eigenfunction of the continuous system.
For one dimensional systems like transverse vibration of taut string, longitudinal
vibration of rod, torsional vibration of rod the equation of motion reduces to the
Wave equation i.e.,
2
2u
2 u
where C are given in the following table.
C
t 2
x 2
C2
Case
E/
EI/
G/
L( )
d 2 y / dx 2
2 u / x 2
4 y / x 4
2 / x 2
Exercise Problems
1.
4. Derive the equation of motion of the following system using extended Hamiltons
principle (a) Lateral vibration of taut string (b) torsional vibration of shaft (c)
transverse vibration of a cantilever beam with tip mass and supported by spring in
the middle.
5. Find the normalized mode shapes in case of (a) longitudinal vibration of rod (b)
transverse vibration of beam with (i) simply supported boundary conditions, (ii)
fixed-fixed boundary conditions, (iii) fixed-free end conditions (iv) free-free end
conditions.