Metabolism

Processes by which living organisms obtain

and utilize energy
Two p
parts to metabolism
Catabolism
Degradation, pathways by which nutrients
and cellular components are broken down for
reuse or to generate energy
Anabolism
Biosynthesis, building up of biomolecules
from simpler components

Trophic Strategies
Comes from Greek trophos meaning to feed
Classification of organisms based on anabolic patterns
Autotrophs synthesize all cellular components from simple
inorganic molecules (e.g. H2O, CO2, NH3, H2S)

Chemolithotrophs energy derived from oxidation of

inorganic compounds (e.g. NH3,
H2S, Fe2+)

Photoautotrophs energy derived via photosynthesis

Heterotrophs energy derived from oxidation of organic
compounds; existence dependent on autotrophs

Trophic Strategies (continued)

Classification based on ultimate electron acceptor
Obligate aerobes use O2 and only O2 as electron acceptor
Anaerobes can use electron acceptors other than O2 (e.g.
SO4, NO4 or organic compounds); i.e. do not
require O2 to live.

Facultative anaerobes can grow either aerobically or

anaerobically

Obligate anaerobes poisoned by O2; must grow without O2

Overview of Catabolism

Thermodynamics, as Related to Metabolism

A + B

C + D

[C ][ D]

G = G o ' + RT ln
[ A][ B]

Two types of reactions in metabolism

Reactions near equilibrium G close to zero
majority of reactions
Reactions far from equilibrium G << 0
minority of reactions; control points

Thermodynamics, as Related to Metabolism (continued)

Reactions near equilibrium
Easily switch direction depending on relative
concentrations of reactants and products
Enzymes act to restore equilibrium
Reactions far from equilibrium
Irreversible
Enzymes act as dams have insufficient activity to
allow reaction to approach equilibrium; reactants build
up; changes in activity of enzyme change flux

Three Major Implications of Thermodynamics

for Metabolism
Metabolic pathways are irreversible.
Biological systems are governed by thermodynamics!
For a process to be spontaneous G must be negative
Every metabolic pathway has a committed step.
Usually the first irreversible step unique to a pathway.
Usually an important site of regulation
Catabolic and anabolic pathways differ
A
1

2
Y

Control of Metabolism is Regulation of Enzymes

v=

Vmax S
k E S
= cat T
Km + S Km + S

Allosteric Control
+
D
A

C
E

Genetic Control
Alterations in the rate of transcription or translation
result in alterations in the amount of protein made
(i.e. [E]T).

Covalent Modification

Substrate Cycles

vf and vr catalyzed by
different enzymes
Net flux (vf-vr) can be
increased by increasing vf or
decreasing vr.
Such systems are more
sensitive than single
(unopposed) enzymes.

ATP A High Energy Compound

ATP A Rationalization

l
less
resonance stabilization
t bili ti
and
more electrostatic repulsion

than here!

ATP is not the Only High Energy Compound

Coupled Reactions

Hydrolysis of Pyrophosphate is Used to Provide

Extra Energy for Some Reactions

Phosphocreatine An ATP Buffer

NH

OOCCH2NC NH P O
CH3

NH

+ ADP

OOCCH2NC NH2

+ ATP

CH3

G0 = -12.6 kJ/mol

Nucleoside Diphosphate Kinase

ATP + NDP

ADP + NTP

Adenylate Kinase
ATP + AMP

2 ADP

Thioesters Coenzyme A

Redox Carriers NAD+

Redox Carriers Flavins (FAD / FMN)

O
H3C

H3C

NH
N

Ribose-5-phosphate

H
H

FNM
H3C

H3C

O
NH
N

Ribose-5-phosphate

FNMH
(radical)

FNMH

H
H

H
H3C

H3C

O
NH
N

H
Ribose-5-phosphate

10

Electrochemical Cells

For reaction:
Aox + Bred

Ared + Box

[ A ][ B ]
G = G O + RT ln red ox
[ Aox ][ Bred ]

E = E O

RT [ Ared ][ Box ]

ln
nF [ Aox ][ Bred ]

11