Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Notificacin
Obtener informacin sobre
el paciente (usar hlc-7)
No intervenir
(informar a ancianos)
Intervenir indirectamente
Intervenir directamente
(colaborar con los ancianos)
Obtener informacin
sobre el problema mdico
Obtener informacin
sobre el mdico y el hospital
Ir al hospital
Sin conviccin:
no intervenir ms
Pedir ayuda
a la sucursal
para asuntos
mdicos, legales
o relacionados
con los medios
de comunicacin
Mdico colaborador
Mdico no colaborador
Estrategias y alternativas
Artculos mdicos
Solicitar traslado
Documentar resultados
y dar seguimiento
hlc-6-S 8/11
Informacin de contacto:
Tel.:
Cel.:
Sexo:
Nm. de afiliacin:
Bautizado?
S
No
Es firme su postura?
S
No
Familiares apoyan postura?
S
No Algunos
DPA completo?
S
No
Recin nacidos
Piso/cama:
Peso al nacer:
Congregacin:
Puntuacin APGAR
____________
Otros:
Otros:
Hematcrito (Hct %)
Otros:
Hombres
Mujeres
Nios
Bebs
Hemoglobina (Hgb)
13.5-18 g/dL
12-16 g/dL
11-13 g/dL
15-24 g/dL
Hematocrito (Hct)
42-52%
38-46%
30-40%
55-68%
Especialidad:
Postura:
Otro mdico:
Especialidad:
Postura:
hlc-7-S 1/12
Plaquetas (Plts)
150.000-450.000/L
150.000-450.000/L
150.000-450.000/L
200.000-400.000/L
ESTRATEGIAS/ALTERNATIVAS
(Especificar modalidades, protocolos o tcnicas para proponer a los mdicos)
ARTCULOS MDICOS
(Especificar artculos que puedan entregarse al personal mdico como documentacin de apoyo sobre las estrategias o alternativas sugeridas)
No
SOLICITUD DE TRASLADO
Planes de traslado confirmados
RESULTADOS/SEGUIMIENTO
(Describa los resultados y detalles del seguimiento)
Ancianos locales contactados para seguimiento
APOYO DE LA SUCURSAL
(Si necesitan apoyo por lo complejo del caso o por una posible accin legal comunquense de inmediato a la SIH y enven este formulario debidamente rellenado)
Han utilizado los mdicos las alternativas a las transfusiones? S No
Con quin se ha entrevistado el CEH?
Mdico tratante
Trabajo social
Explique los resultados de cada entrevista (si el espacio no es suficiente escriba los detalles en una hoja aparte):
Han contactado a algn mdico cooperador u hospital en la zona que pueda dar una segunda opinin, presentar un presupuesto o incluso atender el caso sin sangre en un hospital privado? S No
Ha intervenido alguna autoridad? S No
En caso de que el paciente (o sus familiares) contrate los servicios de un abogado Desean
que se les asesore? S No
Si as fue, escriba el nombre del funcionario. Tom declaraciones a los familiares? Dej nmero de expediente, citatorios, direccin o telfono?
Incluya fechas, lugares y modo en que ocurrieron las cosas, as como los nombres de las personas que intervinieron (mdicos, enfermeras, trabajadoras sociales, testigos, etc.). Si el espacio no es suficiente escriba los detalles en una hoja aparte.
hlc-7-S 1/12
Pgina 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
problemas medicos.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Con el debido juicio clnico, hay que estar preparado para modificar la
manera de proceder habitual cuando las condiciones cambian.
alogenica.
1.
2.
3.
1.
4.
5.
6.
7.
lquidos.
3.
4.
5.
Antecedentes de anemia
Antecedentes de sangrado anormal (antecedentes personales y familiares)2
b. Farmacos de venta con receta y sin receta que contengan AAS o AINE8,9
6.
B.
2.
Diagnostico de la anemia15-17
b. Ferritina serica
d. Folato serico
a. Pruebas de coagulacion
1) Tiempo de protrombina (TP), tiempo de tromboplastina parcial (TTP), tiempo
de sangra
3) Concentracion de fibrinogeno
* Este texto se ha preparado para que se utilice como documento informativo y de consulta practica con el fin de ayudar a formular planes de
tratamiento que permitan evitar las transfusiones de sangre alogenica. Ademas de respetar los deseos del paciente, los facultativos deberan
manifestar buen juicio clnico, consultar a especialistas con experiencia e individualizar el tratamiento segun las circunstancias clnicas especficas y
sobre la base de los recursos disponibles. Aunque las opiniones aqu expuestas han sido examinadas con sumo cuidado y reflejan el conocimiento clnico
8/01
Pruebas funcionales hepaticas
Pruebas funcionales renales
Notas:
anomalas corregibles.
3. Si hay antecedentes de hemorragia anormal o excesiva, o se sospechan
consultar a un hematologo.
b.
d.
c.
C.
Medicacion y coagulacion20
1.
2.
3.
4.
D.
Administracion de anticoagulantes
quirurgica (p. ej.: heparina en lugar de warfarina). Hay que considerar tambien
das)
E.
2.
3.
F.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Tratamiento de la anemia
Identificar y tratar posibles causas de anemia26
a. El hierro por va intravenosa puede reponer las reservas de hierro con mayor
administracion38
c. Hay informes del empleo de rHuEPO en lactantes y ninos sin ninguna reaccion
42-44
adversa importante
1.
2.
sanguneo que debe extraerse (V) o el hematocrito inicial optimo (Hto.i) con la
siguiente formula: V 6 VSE x (Hto.i - Hto.f) / Hto.pr (en la que VSE corresponde
3.
4.
5.
Reducir el volumen de sangre extrada para los analisis (utilizar tubos de tamano
B.
C.
3.
Estrategias clnicas para evitar y controlar la hemorragia y la anemia sin transfusiones de sangre en pacientes quirurgicos
Coloides
1) Perfluoroqumicos
2. Inotropicos
3. Vasoactivos
b.
B.
1.
2.
3.
C.
4.
Sedacion
Relajacion muscular
Ventilacion mecanica
Analgesia suficiente y adecuada
B.
Cuanto mayor sea la perdida de sangre prevista, mas indicado sera recurrir a mul
de la perdida de sangre130-133
4)
2.
3.
C.
D.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
E.
Electrocauterio y electrociruga180,181
182,183
Bistur ultrasonico
Laser198,199
F.
Embolizacion preoperatoria171-179
de la hemoglobina por el oxgeno (el pH, la presion parcial del dioxido de carbono
[PCO2], la temperatura)
114
que este provoca (p. ej.: modalidad de ventilacion, posicion de decubito prono,115
7) Derivacion venovenosa157
b. Posicionamiento intraoperatorio del paciente158,159
a. Reintervencion planificada (p. ej.: intervencion que conlleva una gran perdida de
170
sangre, traumatismo)
Tecnicas endoluminales205-207
Criociruga208-210
Radioterapia de precision
216-223
a. Acido tranexamico
b. Aprotinina224-231
Nota: Administrar una dosis de prueba.232
239-241
f. Octreotido (somatostatina)
Notas:
1. En el caso de pacientes con alto riesgo de hemorragia o con hemorragia
antifibrinolticos.242
2. Hay informes de que la aprotinina reduce la hemorragia en el caso de pacientes
quirurgica.253,254
normal, pues aumenta la concentracion serica del factor VIII y del factor
o de aminas simpaticomimeticas
b. Fenilefrina306
c. Cocana topica307,308
4.
3.
4.
G.
Normotermia y coagulacion
1.
2.
3.
H.
Mantener la normotermia
de vasodilatacion316,317
d. Calentar todos los fluidos intravenosos y la sangre procedente de la unidad de
autotransfusion318
339,340
341
342,343
hepatica,
ortopedica, pediatrica,
espinal,344 urologica345)
2.
3.
4.
5.
I.
3.
4.
J.
con irradiacion381,382
comun384
Secuestro de componentes
1.
2.
3.
L.
K.
Cuanto mayor sea la perdida de sangre prevista, mas indicado sera recurrir a la
con comorbilidad, incluso en los que presentan bajo gasto cardaco debido a
disfuncion ventricular351,352
autologa385-388
Plasma rico en plaquetas389,390
Plaquetaferesis391,392
Hemodilucion intraoperatoria
1.
2.
puede ser mas eficaz cuando se extraen 1.000 ml o mas de sangre autologa
408-410
e. La HNA es segura y eficaz en los ninos pequenos
Estrategias clnicas para evitar y controlar la hemorragia y la anemia sin transfusiones de sangre en pacientes quirurgicos
Notas:
420,421
Para optimizar el ahorro de sangre, la
recuperacion de sangre.
425
intraoperatorio mas alto se debe considerar la bomba sin cebado. Otra
3.
C.
recuperacion de sangre como una medida temporal hasta que, cuanto antes, se
D.
Hemostasia y coagulacion447
1.
2.
Hemofiltracion y hemoconcentracion
1.
2.
3.
3.
E.
1.
2.
2.
3.
4.
B.
2.
intervencion
b. Inestabilidad hemodinamica
c. Volemia
d. Signos vitales y exploracion fsica (p. ej.: mareos, nauseas, sed, disnea,
taquicardia, taquipnea, diaforesis, cambio del estado mental, shock)
mnimas)
Diagnostico de hemorragia432,433
a. Examinar la(s) zona(s) de la hemorragia:
1) La hemorragia que procede de una sola zona (p. ej.: la herida quirurgica)
Una continua perdida de sangre leve (p. ej.: sangrado lento) podra llegar a ser
434-436
a. Agentes hemostaticos sistemicos
(vease 4.F.1)
F.
TRATAMIENTO POSTOPERATORIO
A.
Fluidoterapia juiciosa
1.
5.
2.
un paciente con hemorragia (p. ej.: paciente normotenso con una presion arterial
media (PAM) de 60-70 mm Hg) mientras se toman las medidas para detener la
hemorragia
Emplear el posicionamiento adecuado y las tecnicas de ventilacion optimas
1.
2.
3.
I.
1.
2.
J.
K.
L.
6.
Profilaxis de la infeccion
Detener la hemorragia
1.
2.
3.
Emplear metodos diagnosticos que permitan obtener los resultados con rapidez
hemodinamicamente estables
Notas:
1. Evitar las demoras. El primer objetivo debe ser el control inmediato de la
hemorragia.512
B.
2.
C.
2.
3.
G.
(vease 3.A)
lquidos (PAM de 55-70 mm Hg) que sea suficiente para mantener la perfusion
tisular hasta que se consiga la hemostasia515-525 (no emplear esta medida en
pacientes con traumatismo craneal)
periferico
coagulopata
2.
H.
I.
A.
B.
2.
F.
(organos vitales)
8 g/dl tuviera ningun efecto en la mortalidad ni siquiera entre los que padecan
enfermedad cardiovascular.567
Mecanismos compensadores554
1.
Mantener la normotermia
a. Los pacientes en estado crtico tal vez no puedan ofrecer una respuesta
546-549
Suplementos de hierro por va intravenosa
7.
Prevencion de la tromboembolia
1.
1.
E.
Profilaxis antibiotica
1.
D.
b.
Tratar el shock
1.
C.
2.
3.
Estrategias clnicas para evitar y controlar la hemorragia y la anemia sin transfusiones de sangre en pacientes quirurgicos
Bibliografa
Evaluacion preoperatoria
1. McIntyre, A. J.: Blood transfusion and haemostatic
management in the perioperative period, Can J Anaesth,
Medicacion
20. Canadian Pharmacists Association: Perioperative management of medications, Compendium of Pharmaceuticals
and Specialties, 35.a ed., Ottawa, 2000, pp. L31-L34.
21. Baglin, T.: Management of warfarin (coumarin) overdose,
Tratamiento de la anemia
26. Dierdorf, S. F.: Anesthesia for patients with rare and
coexisting diseases, en P. G. Barash, B. F. Cullen,
y R. K. Stoelting (eds.): Clinical Anesthesia, 3.a ed.,
Philadelphia, Lippincott-Raven, 1996, pp. 472-474.
27. Brugnara, C., D. Zurakowski, J. DiCanzio, y otros: Reticulocyte hemoglobin content to diagnose iron deficiency
Estrategias clnicas para evitar y controlar la hemorragia y la anemia sin transfusiones de sangre en pacientes quirurgicos
Estrategias clnicas para evitar y controlar la hemorragia y la anemia sin transfusiones de sangre en pacientes quirurgicos
10
Normotermia y coagulacion
309. Schmied, H., A. Kurz, D. I. Sessler, y otros: Mild hypothermia
increases blood loss and transfusion requirements during
11
Hipotension controlada
334. Ullrich, P. F., hijo, J. S. Keene, K. J. Hogan, y E. B. Roecker:
Results of hypotensive anesthesia in operative treatment
Recuperacion intraoperatoria
de sangre
y autotransfusion
363. Joseph, N. J., J. Kamaryt, y R. Paulissian: Blood Salvage
Techniques, en M. R. Salem (ed.): Blood Conservation in
the Surgical Patient, Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1996,
pp. 252-304.
364. Tawes, R. L., hijo, (ed.): Autotransfusion: Therapeutic
Principles and Trends, Detroit, Appleton, 1997.
365. Jeng, J. C., T. M. Boyd, K. A. Jablonski, y otros: Intraoperative
blood salvage in excisional burn surgery: an analysis of yield,
bacteriology, and inflammatory mediators, J Burn Care
Hemodilucion intraoperatoria
393. Johnson L. B., J. S. Plotkin, y P. C. Kuo: Reduced transfusion
requirements during major hepatic resection with use of
intraoperative isovolemic hemodilution, Am J Surg, 176,
Hemofiltracion y hemoconcentracion
426. Duffy, C. M., P. H. Manninen, F. Chung, y otros: Assessment
of a new ultrafiltration blood processing system, Can J
Estrategias clnicas para evitar y controlar la hemorragia y la anemia sin transfusiones de sangre en pacientes quirurgicos
12
Tratamiento postoperatorio
431. Griffin, K. B.: Postoperative bleeding: current nursing
434. Ci cek,
S., U. Demirkilic, E. Ozal, y otros: Postoperative
443. Huet, C., L. R. Salmi, D. Fergusson, y otros: A metaanalysis of the effectiveness of cell salvage to minimize
perioperative allogeneic blood transfusion in cardiac and
13
Autotransfusion de emergencia
494. Smith, L. A., D. E. Barker, y R. P. Burns: Autotransfusion
Reposicion de lquidos
515. Elliott, D. C.: An evaluation of the end points of resuscitation,
cha-S
2003 Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Todos los derechos reservados. Printed in U.S.A.
14
I
NDICE
PRINCIPIOS GENERALES DEL TRATAMIENTO
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
tratamiento habitual (p. ej.: control rapido del sangrado, uso precoz de farma
equipo para la prevencion y control rapido de las hemorragias. Teniendo presentes las opciones disponibles para el manejo de la sangre, trasladar a la pa
ciente a otra institucion si esta cuenta con mejores recursos.
Adoptar un enfoque de equipo, organizado y multidisciplinario. El recono
cimiento precoz de las complicaciones y la intervencion inmediata de los espe
apoyo quirurgico, para evitar retrasos innecesarios. Cuando una paciente sufre diferentes afecciones, es de suma importancia que se mantenga una co
municacion continua entre los diferentes especialistas que la tratan.
hemorragia posparto o postoperatoria a fin de facilitar una intervencion precoz. El reconocimiento de los factores de riesgo antes y durante el parto ayu
dara al personal medico a determinar en que casos se requieren medidas preventivas adecuadas y vigilancia especial. No obstante, pueden presentarse
complicaciones repentinas e inesperadas en cualquier paciente, incluso en
aquellas consideradas de bajo riesgo.
Si fuera necesario, se trasladara a la paciente, una vez estabilizada, a un centro hospitalario especializado antes de que empeore su estado.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
La anamnesis,
la exploracion fsica y las pruebas de laboratorio juiciosas
Minimizar
la cantidad de sangre extrada para pruebas de laboratorio durante
Las pacientes
hemodinamicamente estables toleran bien la anemia
normovolemica.
2. OPTIMIZAR LA MASA
ERITROCITARIA
Y LA COAGULACION
E) Controlar la coagulacion
3. TRATAMIENTO DE LA MENORRAGIA
4. HEMORRAGIA OBSTETRICA
A) Hemorragia antes del parto
B) Factores de riesgo de la hemorragia posparto (HPP)
C) Manejo activo de la tercera etapa del parto
D) Control de la hemorragia posparto
A) Planificacion preoperatoria
C) Embolizacion angiografica
F) Hemodilucion intraoperatoria
G) Recuperacion de sangre
H) Anestesia hipotensora controlada
* Nota: Este es un documento informativo y de consulta dirigido a obstetras y ginecologos con el proposito de ayudarles a formular planes de tratamiento que permitan evitar las transfusiones
de sangre. No se trata de presentar un unico tipo de tratamiento. No todas las estrategias incluidas resultaran adecuadas o aceptables para todas las pacientes. A la vez que respetan los
deseos de la paciente, conviene que los facultativos empleen su buen criterio clnico, consulten a especialistas con experiencia e individualicen el tratamiento segun las circunstancias medicas
especficas. Igual que en cualquier otra situacion clnica, deben consultarse en las monografas pertinentes la posologa o los efectos adversos de los farmacos, en especial si el farmaco o
procedimiento es poco conocido o de uso infrecuente. Aunque el empleo de algunos tratamientos no sea general o haya poca documentacion al respecto, la informacion existente puede ser util a
la hora de tratar a las pacientes sin administrarles transfusiones de sangre. Si bien las opiniones aqu expuestas han sido examinadas con sumo cuidado y reflejan los conocimientos clnicos y cientficos
12/02
CLINICA Y PLANIFICACION
1. EVALUACION
PREOPERATORIA
1, 2
A)
Anamnesis y exploracion fsica
Antecedentes de anemia
6
y hemorragia antes y despues del parto
3. Enfermedades coexistentes
la coagulacion, la hematopoyesis
o el tratamiento clnico
(p. ej.: renales, hepaticas, cardacas o pulmonares)
4. Medicacion
anticoagulantes, inhibidores de
la
agregacion
plaquetaria,
b) Alergias farmacologicas
5. Exploracion fsica
LA MASA
ERITROCITARIA
2. OPTIMIZAR
Y LA COAGULACION
A)
2. Acido folico 24
3. Vitamina B1225, 26
1.
1.
Notas:
nibilidad
del hierro oral.32, 33 La
ingestion
simultanea de productos
lacteos,
yema
de
huevo,
cafe,
te,
antiacidos
o
fibra
disminuye la ab
reaccion anafilactica,
convendra
emplear sacarosa de hierro, comple
jo de gluconato ferrico (u otros derivados parenterales
del hierro) en
vez del hierro dextrano. Si se emplea este ultimo, administrar una dosis de prueba.
B)
57-59 Practicamente
retrasar la respuesta al tratamiento
con
rHuEPO.
todas las pacientes deberan recibir suplementos de hierro para mantener adecuadamente
la eritropoyesis estimulada por el tratamiento
con dosis multiples de rHuEPO. Conviene sopesar los pros y los contras de la administracion de rHuEPO junto con
hierro intravenoso en el
caso de pacientes con anemia grave.60 (Veanse las notas de 2.A)
Investigacion de la anemia
de transferrina serica)
Notas:
hemostasia
(p.
ej.:
ciruga
mayor,
parto),
quiza
sea
recomendable
la
C)
D)
2. Sangrado no ginecologico
puedan
resultar clnicamente importantes en algunas pacientes
quirurgicas
1.
Estrategias clnicas para evitar y controlar la hemorragia y la anemia sin transfusiones sanguneas en Obstetricia y Ginecologa
E)
Controlar la coagulacion 67
Medicacion
en el caso de pacientes
sometidas
a medicacion anticoagulante
C)
1.
i)
2)
i)
iii)
Corticosteroides
Dosis elevadas de inmunoglobulina intravenosa (IG i.v.)
Combinar dosis elevadas de esteroides
(p. ej.: metilprednisolona) con IG i.v.
ii)
Notas:
Se ha demostrado que la cesarea solo reduce el riesgo de hemorragia intracraneal en los casos de neonatos de muy bajo peso.76
2. Aunque los datos que existen son limitados, respaldan la idea de
que la anestesia epidural es segura en pacientes con recuentos
plaquetarios superiores a 100.000/$L.
b) Perinatal
4.
ha de considerarse
la posibilidad de tratar a la paciente obstetri
ca o quirurgica con dosis bajas de heparina para reducir el riesgo
de hemorragia, efectuar un seguimiento
clnico y de laboratorio
3. TRATAMIENTO
DE LA MENORRAGIA
A)
B)
c) Acido tranexamico
3.
4.
Danazol102-104
4. HEMORRAGIA
OBSTETRICA
Preeclampsia y sndrome
de HELLP72 (hemolisis, elevacion
1)
4)
Medicamentosa
i)
3)
tratamiento especfico
A)
descartado
el diagnostico de placenta previa). Evaluar el perfil
hemodinamico materno y la salud fetal
considerar el empleo
de
medidas
diagnosticas
de la sangre fetal
a un neonatologo
con experiencia en el tratamiento clnico
a) Tratamiento medico117-120
b) Tratamiento quirurgico
1) Asegurarse de la disponibilidad del equipo de ahorro
de sangre121-123
124
3. Aborto espontaneo
a) Aborto inevitable e incompleto
En vez de esperar a ver que sucede, iniciar un tratamiento activo en caso de que haya hemorragia persistente,
se inicie el parto
inercia uterina,
acelerar el parto y prevenir
la aparicion de
Notas:
b)
Nota: El parto por cesarea esta indicado en raras ocasiones (p. ej.:
sufrimiento fetal, inmadurez
del
cuello uterino que impida la amniotoma,
fracaso de la induccion).
o anomalas placentarias
y signos vitales
secuenciales,
como
mnimo,
durante
dos o tres
D)
Notas:
1. El masaje del fondo uterino puede realizarlo algun asistente o la propia mujer.
bebe173, 174
2.
B)
130-135
3. Placentacion anomala
P. ej.: placenta previa, placenta accreta, increta o percreta,
abruptio placentae
6. Coagulopatas
C)
Nota: La extraccion pausada del bebe, que permita una retraccion uterina
lenta, puede facilitar que la placenta se separe facilmente.
2.
c) Analogos de la prostaglandina
1) Carboprost176-180 (intramiometrial, i.v.)
2) Misoprostol181, 182 (rectal)
si es posible (vease 6)
Nota:
La ligadura de la arteria iliaca interna tiene un porcentaje de
Estrategias clnicas para evitar y controlar la hemorragia y la anemia sin transfusiones sanguneas en Obstetricia y Ginecologa
14.
Taponamiento
de la cavidad pelvica208, 209 o embolizacion
210-212
angiografica
controles
clnicos
seriados.
Evaluar el hematocrito,
vidas. La histerectoma
subtotal se realiza en menos tiempo, con lo
tromboembolica.
5. Realizar frecuentes
Notas:
1. Ante la sospecha de hemorragia posparto, llevar a la paciente al qui
rofano y prepararla
para ciruga. Conseguir ayuda, p. ej.: un segundo
obstetra, ginecologo o cirujano general,
un anestesiologo
y personal
nitroglicerina.
Es preciso realizar una monitorizacion hemodinamica, in
fusion intravenosa continua y disponer inmediatamente de efedrina.217
3. Las medidas conservadoras o para tratar de ganar tiempo que se
No
S
Buscar ayuda inmediata
/
Laceraciones de la vagina o del cuello uterino?
Aparicion
de hematoma
pelvico posparto?
Continuo o reiterado:
Farmacos oxitocicos
Masaje uterino
Administracion
de prostaglandina
Masaje bimanual
No
Persiste la hemorragia?
Histerectoma subtotal
&
Hipotension postural
Cambios en TP y TTP
Fibrinogeno
2,5 g/L
Buen juicio en la
fluidoterapia de reposicion
No
/
Controlar:
Estado hemodinamico
Nivel hemoglobnico
Extraccion
manual o
instrumental
/
Tratamiento
adecuado
&
/
Ligadura masiva de los
ovaricos y cervicouterinos
con suturas absorbibles
No
Retencion
de fragmentos
placentarios?
&
/
Persiste
el sangrado No
excesivo?
HPP moderada en paciente estable
Hb
100 g/L
PA estable 90/70
/
Embolizacion angiografica
inestable?
&
Persiste la hemorragia?
No
No
)
)
Persiste la hemorragia?
S
/
o embolizacion angiografica
No
)
/
)
Vigilancia estrecha
y
cuidados posparto
&
E)
Hacer preparativos
para contar con personal experimentado
a) Planificacion meticulosa
a) Prevision y preparacion
placentae,
muerte fetal intrauterina, embolia del lquido
desencadeno
la coagulopata (p. ej.: evacuacion precoz del
utero a consecuencia
del desprendimiento prematuro de la
PERIOPERATORIO
5. AHORRO
DE SANGRE
281-285
A)
Planificacion preoperatoria
1.
2.
Tolerancia a la anemia
B)
b) Laser
c) Instrumental por microondas299-301
d) Bistur ultrasonico302-305
C)
D)
E)
317
elevado de hemorragia (veanse tambien 4.E.2.c y 5.I.7)
b) Laser326, 327
c) Balon termico328-331
1.
H)
3. Administrar oxgeno
aceptable) para
evitar la normalizacion de la presion
sangunea,
356,
357
(vease tambien 6.C
lo que podra acelerar la hemorragia
nota 2)
signos
presion arterial media,
frecuencia
clnicos, por ejemplo:
cardaca y diuresis,
as como la monitorizacion
adecuada
Estrategias clnicas para evitar y controlar la hemorragia y la anemia sin transfusiones sanguneas en Obstetricia y Ginecologa
6.
7.
A)
6.
A)
Acido tranexamico387-389
3. Acido epsilon-aminocaproico390
4. Desmopresina391-394
5. Aprotinina395, 396 (emplear dosis de prueba)
2.
EXPANSORES NO HEMATICOS
DE LA VOLEMIA
Notas:
1. Se puede emplear desmopresina o aprotinina para el control de la
Cristaloides
Lactato de Ringer
Coloides
Hemosustitutos
portadores de oxgeno
Soluciones perfluorocarbonadas
Notas:
1. Tomar medidas inmediatas para detener todo sangrado activo de mayor o menor intensidad.
con anomalas
de
la
coagulacion,
disminucion
de la diuresis y acidosis
2.
C)
1.
B)
Notas:
1. Antes de realizar una ciruga mayor, insertar dos cateteres intravenosos de gran calibre y calentar
los
fluidos
intravenosos
para evitar la
sangunea
vuelva
de
forma
lenta
y
gradual
a
los
valores
normales
des
pues de que se haya controlado la hemorragia.365
4. Considerar el control postoperatorio seriado de los signos vitales, la
diuresis y la relacion hemoglobina-hematocrito para facilitar el reconocimiento clnico precoz de una hemorragia en proceso.
5. La embolizacion angiografica ha de efectuarla un radiologo intervencionista experto si la hemorragia no pone en peligro la vida de forma
inmediata.
MEJORA FARMACOLOGICA
DE LA HEMOSTASIA
10.
Crioprecipitado
8. TRATAMIENTO
DE LA ANEMIA GRAVE
A)
412-416
paciente hemorragica
no retrasar la intervencion
operatoria, aunque la paciente se
encuentre anemica
3. Mantener o restaurar la normotermia
1.
1.
2.
D)
Analgesia y sedacion
2. Ventilacion mecanica
1.
E)
Estimular
la eritropoyesis 420-426
Bibliografa
Abreviaturas de las bases de datos:
PMID: Identificador especial Medline6/PubMed6 (Index
Medicus)
Estrategias clnicas para evitar y controlar la hemorragia y la anemia sin transfusiones sanguneas en Obstetricia y Ginecologa
are they really necessary? (carta), Breast J, 7, num. 6
(2001), pp. 450-452 (PMID: 11843862).
63. Long, C. A.: Evaluation of patients with abnormal uterine
Tratamiento de la menorragia
84. Bevan, J. A., K. W. Maloney, C. A. Hillery, y otros: Bleeding
disorders: A common cause of menorrhagia in
Hemorragia obstetrica
107. Baskett, T. F.: Antepartum haemorrhage, en Essential
Management of Obstetric Emergencies, 3.a ed., Redland
(Inglaterra), Clinical Press, 1999, pp. 64-76
(ISBN: 1-85457-042-0).
108. Bodnaruk, Z. M., y D. Burrows: Clinical Strategies for
Avoiding Blood Transfusion in Neonatology and
Estrategias clnicas para evitar y controlar la hemorragia y la anemia sin transfusiones sanguneas en Obstetricia y Ginecologa
11
de Anestesiologos,
4
al
9
de
junio
de 2000, Montreal
(Canada).
Estrategias clnicas para evitar y controlar la hemorragia y la anemia sin transfusiones sanguneas en Obstetricia y Ginecologa
13
Estrategias clnicas para evitar y controlar la hemorragia y la anemia sin transfusiones sanguneas en Obstetricia y Ginecologa
LA HEMORRAGIA Y LA ANEMIA
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
INDICE
PAGINA
1. PREVENCION Y DETENCION
DE LA HEMORRAGIA
A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
F)
G)
H)
I)
J)
K)
L)
Hemostasia o anticoagulacion
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
Analgesia adecuada
Ventilacion mecanica
Tratamiento termico
7
7
7
7
5. OPTIMIZAR LA ERITROPOYESIS
A) Tratamiento precoz para estimular la eritropoyesis
C) Nutricion
6. TOLERANCIA A LA ANEMIA
A) Mecanismos compensadores
en la anemia normovolemica
9
C) Efectos del almacenamiento en los eritrocitos
* Nota: Este documento informativo y de facil consulta esta dirigido a intensivistas, anestesiologos y otros especialistas. Las opiniones aqu expuestas no se circunscriben a un unico tipo
de tratamiento. No todas las estrategias mencionadas resultaran adecuadas o aceptables para todos los pacientes. Ademas de respetar los deseos del paciente, es conveniente que los
facultativos empleen buen juicio clnico, consulten a especialistas con experiencia e individualicen el tratamiento segun las circunstancias clnicas especficas. Al igual que en cualquier otra situacion
clnica, se ha de consultar en las monografas correspondientes la posologa adecuada y los posibles efectos adversos, particularmente en el caso de farmacos o procedimientos poco conocidos
o raras veces utilizados. Aunque haya poca documentacion sobre algunos tratamientos, merece la pena tenerlos presentes cuando ya se han adoptado otras medidas para tratar al paciente sin
transfusiones de sangre y no han resultado eficaces. Los nombres comerciales que aparecen en este documento solo se incluyen para fines de identificacion e informacion, y esto no significa
que se recomienden. Aunque las opiniones aqu expuestas han sido examinadas con sumo cuidado y reflejan los conocimientos clnicos y cientficos de la actualidad, estan sujetas a modificaciones.
hisjw.org
10/04
1. PREVENCION
Y DETENCION DE LA HEMORRAGIA
para detectar hemorragias1,2
A) Vigilancia estrecha
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Inestabilidad
hemodinamica; descenso espontaneo
de la tension arterial
Exploracion fsica (p. ej.: palidez, equimosis, disnea,
taquicardia, taquipnea, diaforesis, disminucion del nivel
de consciencia, oliguria)
Notas:
fsicas seriadas
por parte de
la misma persona a fin de no demorar
la identificacion o localizacion del sangrado.3
2)
3. Intervencion
b)
c)
d)
de control de danos
24
para la hemorragia intensa
a)
un elevado
ndice
de sospecha clnica
b)
o diagnostico de la hemorragia
a)
b)
c)
Repasar
incluidos los
los antecedentes patologicos,
far
macologicos, y realizar un examen
fsico
acompanado
Determinar si la hemorragia
esta circunscrita
o se debe
una operacion
quirurgica
o
un
traumatismo
son
de ori
Detener el sangrado lo mas deprisa posible con cualquier metodo necesario. Las medidas para tratar de
ganar tiempo no deben demorar las intervenciones
definitivas 12
Considerar el empleo de procedimientos menos invasi
13,14 (p. ej.: angiograficos,
vos para detener la hemorragia
farmacologicos, endoscopicos)
Aunque el paciente este anemico, la exploracion quirurgica precoz es preceptiva si hay indicios de hemorragia
en curso
o de posible hemorragia
que pueda detenerse
quirurgicamente.
Tambien
es
preceptiva
si las tecnicas
de diagnostico por
imagen son infructuosas o pueden
demorar el diagnostico preciso y conducir a una hemorragia prolongada15-19
Optar
por tecnicas que puedan emplearse
22,23
estrategias
(p.
ej.:
inmovilizacion
de
la
pelvis, ciruga
de control de danos, taponamiento,
fijacion externa,
4. Estrategia
1. Mantener
a)
Algunas causas
de las anomalas sistemicas de la
coagulacion
son trombocitopenia,
trastornos de
la
funcion plaquetaria, fibrinolisis excesiva, dilucion
de los
componentes
de los factores de la coagulacion, anticoagulacion excesiva,
neutralizacion inadecuada de la
heparina, coagulacion
intravascular
insufi
diseminada,
b)
comprende una
intervencion
limitada
(p. ej.: grapas, pin
zas, cosido
rapido)
para
controlar
la
hemorragia
o la
5. Controlar
a)
b)
6. Tratamiento
precoz de la sepsis
y el shock septico29
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Notas:
1. No se ha visto que las transfusiones de sangre mejoren el
Estrategias clnicas para tratar la hemorragia y la anemia sin transfusiones de sangre en pacientes en estado crtico
2.
2. Evitar
inmediato de la coagulacion
intravascular diseminada (CID)
a)
7. Tratamiento
a)
b)
C) Embolizacion
a)
la fuente, recurrir
51,52 cuanto antes a la angiografa y la
embolizacion
2. Embolizacion
a)
presintomatica
Considerar
la evaluacion
radiografica precoz y la emboli
zacion angiografica
preventiva para lesiones que tal vez
D) Hipotension
b)
previos a la lesion (p. ej.: mediante reposicion de lquidos, medicamentos hipertensores) antes de detener por
completo la hemorragia puede ocasionar progresivos y
repetidos sangrados de puntos hemorragicos
incontro
lados
espontanea o romper el
al inhibir la hemostasia
coagulo protector inicial59,60
No se ha visto
permisiva que ocasio que la hipotension
a)
F)
Para mantener la tension arterial del paciente con hemorragia, detener el sangrado
c)
d)
a)
b)
plasminogeno. Considerar
la posibilidad
de usar al mismo tiempo
Notas:
de la tension arterial
E) Control
La hipotension
postoperatoria moderada (tension arterial
de la hipotension
Notas:
cortos perodos
una perfusion adecuada de los organos vitales
(perfusion cerebral,
coronaria, renal) con una hiporreposicion
moderada de lquidos.
a)
3. Tratamiento
la hipertension
h)
funcion plaquetaria
congenitos
o adquiridos,111-113 ten
114 y otras situaciones
dencias
hemorragicas
adquiridas
119
(concentrados) (los factores VIIa, VIII y IX estan disponibles como productos recombinantes120)
hisjw.org
i)
j)
2. Agentes
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
c)
2. Alimentacion
tratamiento de la infeccion
o recuperacion de sangre
2. Prevencion
infecciones
2. Postoperatoria136-138
a)
rapido o mantenimiento
de la normotermia
1. Emplear estrategias de calentamiento activo
y pasivo139,140
H) Calentamiento
Los pacientes
pierden calor por conveccion, radiacion y
evaporacion. Procurar
controlar o minimizar los posibles
2. Calentamiento
Notas:
I) Hemostasia o anticoagulacion
1. Tratamiento individualizado con protamina
de la coagulacion
a)
b)
c)
J)
1. Farmacos
a)
1. Intraoperatoria133-135
a)
por sonda165,166
K) Profilaxis y
Nota: En casos
de hemorragia
difusa o cuando el punto sangrante
G) Autotransfusion
hemostaticos topicos
Hemostaticos a base de gelatina, matrices de gelatina y trombina128-130 (p. ej.: FloSeal , Gelfoam ,
Surgifoam )
Celulosa oxidada131 (p. ej.: Oxycel , Surgicel )
Trombina, compresa empapada en trombina132
(p. ej.: Thrombogen , Thrombostat )
b)
b)
Infecciones
del torrente sanguneo relacionadas con
171,172
los cateteres
3. Higiene
L)
y tratamiento precoz de
de las manos178,179
y la tecnica quirurgica180,181
2. Tratamiento juicioso de las heridas
a)
b)
c)
3. Torniquetes
arteriales durante el
desbridamiento en las extremidades 188,189
normovolemica aguda203
6. Recuperacion de sangre204,205
a)
a)
Estrategias clnicas para tratar la hemorragia y la anemia sin transfusiones de sangre en pacientes en estado crtico
2. MINIMIZAR LA HEMORRAGIA IATROGENICA
A) Limitar
1.
2.
la flebotoma diagnostica219,220
Eliminar las flebotomas sistematicas multiples y diarias. Prescribir solo aquellas pruebas o procedimientos
que pudieran llevar a modificar el tratamiento222
Minimizar la frecuencia
de extraccion de muestras
225
con fines diagnosticos
3.
Minimizar el volumen
de muestras extradas
profilaxis
de compresion
mecanica (p. ej.: dispositivos
neumatica
intermitente, medias elasticas de compre-
farmacologicos244-248
d) En pacientes con riesgo bajo o moderado de hemorragia y tromboembolia,
considerar
la posibilidad de
terapeutico249
microqumicas229-232
c) Control mnimamente invasivo (p. ej.: oximetra de pulD) Prevision de los efectos adversos
so, oximetra
transcutanea, capnometra
sublingual,
de los medicamentos
medicion del CO2 al final de la espiracion)233,234
antes posible235,236
a) Considerar el ambito clnico (medicacion administrada,
trastorno subyacente, tiempo de estancia en la unie) Sistema cerrado para la extraccion de sangre a traves
calcio y furosemida
o venoso central, as como durante
procedimientos
239,240
cardaco
anemia iatrogenica
y la trombocitopenia: antibioticos
(p. ej.: beta-lactamicos, rifampicina), sulfamidas, antib) Realizacion juiciosa de procedimientos invasivos en
neoplasicos y quinidina 256
pacientes tratados
con
anticoagulantes
o
inhibidores
de la agregacion plaquetaria
2. Polifarmacia e interacciones farmacologicas
la administracion del farmaco o sustituirlo (p. ej.: susrecien operados o que acaban de sufrir traumatismos
tituir antihistamnicos H2 por sucralfato o por un
se debe conseguir primero la hemostasia (p. ej.: desinhibidor de la bomba de protones). En la polifarmacia,
pues de 36 a 72 horas)
la va de
administracion, la farmacoterapia
simultanea, la edad
de los farmacos260,261
c) En pacientes con alto riesgo de tromboembolia venode administracion de los farmacos nuevos o poco cosa y hemorragia, considerar la posibilidad de utilizar
nocidos
a)
hisjw.org
3. OPTIMIZAR EL APORTE DE OXIGENO
A) Evaluar la perfusion
1.
y oxigenacion tisular
signos de hipoperfusion
son oliguria, disminucion
del
bases.
Evaluar tambien
de
a) Algunos
2.
de isquemia
miocardica (anormalidades
del segmento ST),
de
disfuncion renal (disminucion del gasto urinario y elevacion de
la urea a los niveles de la creatinina), de hipoxia de la mucosa
gastrica
y de disfuncion del sistema nervioso central (altera
cion del estado mental)
a) La
2.
a) Cristaloides
282-284
de Ringer o solucion de Hartmann)
290,291 (almidon
i. Almidones
de alto peso molecular
Notas:
B) Aumentar
1.
el gasto cardaco
funcion cardaca
del paciente.
Debe evaluarse la PAM, la fre
cuencia cardaca,
el
patron
respiratorio,
el gasto urinario y el
equilibrio hdrico
rametros fisiologicos,
lo cual requiere la continua
reevaluacion
de la perfusion
y
oxigenacion
tisular,
as
como
de
la
funcion
pulmonar.
Dicha evaluacion permitira optimizar el manejo de
lquidos270-272
a) Para
1)
2)
Las
variaciones entre la presion arterial sistolica o la presion arterial diferencial
y
el
ciclo
respiratorio
del
paciente
reaccion
adecuada
a la intervencion,
se seguira con dichos
metodos.
Pero si la reaccion no fuese adecuada, entonces
e) Evitar
con
anemia
grave.275-277 Debe evitarse la administracion de
Expansores
no hematicos del volumen
282
sanguneo
3.
2)
la volemia
(cantidad,
velocidad
y
ritmo
de
la
infusion)
puede
y el riesgo de provocar
mas perdida de sangre
(debido a
una hemodilucion
hemoglobina puede
optimizar el flujo y la oxigenacion micro
vasculares, as como aumentar la tolerancia a la anemia307,308
b) Problemas
1)
2)
3)
4)
de coagulacion
En cantidades moderadas, los cristaloides no estan asociados a efectos secundarios importantes, particularmente
en la hemostasia.
Hay datos de laboratorio que indican que
Estrategias clnicas para tratar la hemorragia y la anemia sin transfusiones de sangre en pacientes en estado crtico
5)
c)
La desmopresina
puede compensar parcialmente el efecto
antitrombotico y el elevado
riesgo de hemorragia asociados
a los almidones hidroxietlicos y los dextranos321,322
2.
Problemas de microcirculacion
1)
Los almidones
de mediano y bajo peso molecular pueden
d) Otros
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
3.
4.
3.
problemas
es insuficiente (i.e.,
correccion del volumen
circulante, va
pacientes
graves
(p.
ej.:
posicionamiento
en
decubito
prono
o
353
354
hipercapnia
tolerada, administracion de un tensioactivo,
ventilacion oscilatoria de alta frecuencia355,356)
1)
2)
c)
precoz de la oxigenacion338,339
1. Oxgeno suplementario
(aumento de la FiO2)340-344
4.
La hipercapnia
puede provocar hiperventilacion, vasocons
triccion y hemorragia
reclinada
para
grave:
1)
Ventilacion mecanica
a) Si
La administracion
de soluciones salinas en gran
cantidad
esta asociada a alteraciones de la coagulacion o hemorragia, disminucion
de la diuresis y acidosis metabolica
C) Mejora
El empleo de ventilacion
mecanica o del tratamiento con OHB para
Los efectos de los farmacos vasoactivos varan de un paciente a otro. Vigilar la reaccion y ajustar el tratamiento
2)
No se consigue la adecuada
oxigenacion mediante el uso
simultaneo de multiples
oxgeno al 100%, au tecnicas, i.e.,
mento del
de las estrategias
de
gasto cardaco, adaptacion
ventilacion
del consumo de oxgeno
mecanica y reduccion
luacion clnica
Notas:
1. Cuanto antes se detecte y corrija la hipoxia tisular, mayores son las
A) Analgesia
B) Sedacion
1.
y relajantes musculares371-375
mecanica
D) Tratamiento termico
C) Ventilacion
1.
a) Considerar
no esten contraindicados
a) Vigilancia
2.
a) Reducir
2.
a) Hay
hisjw.org
5. OPTIMIZAR LA ERITROPOYESIS
A) Tratamiento
1. Posologa
de hierro por
va
intravenosa
puede
potenciar
la
respuesta
a los
2. Va de administracion
a) Para la anemia aguda grave, considerar la posibilidad de empe
zar la administracion
de
por va
eritropoyetina
intravenosa y
seguir despues por va subcutanea.
Por la va intravenosa se
consiguen concentraciones
plasmaticas de eritropoyetina mas
con
eritropoyetina.416,417 Considerar la administracion por va intravenosa de media dosis de eritropoyetina cada 12 horas418
eritropoyetina endogena419-422
tropoyetico de los pacientes en estado crtico continua respondiendo a los tratamientos con altas dosis de estimulantes de la
eritropoyesis 423,424
4. Otras consideraciones
Aparte de la ferropenia, otros factores asociados a la mala respuesta al tratamiento estimulante de la eritropoyesis son, por
ejemplo, procesos infecciosos,
inflamatorios o malignos,
hemorragia oculta y hemopatas429,430,
f) Segun ultimos informes, la administracion sistemica de eritropoyetina recombinante puede tener un efecto neuroprotec
1. Reposicion de hierro
B) Reposicion
435,436
en dosis
multiples.
Considerar
la administracion de hierro
Notas:
1. Hay datos que parecen indicar que a los pacientes en estado crtico
que reciben eritropoyeticos para estimular la eritropoyesis se les pue441-443 Los pacientes con alto riesgo de
de administrar
hierro sin peligro.
infeccion bacteriana ya deberan estar recibiendo los antibioticos adecuados en dosis suficientes.
447 En cambio, el
del hierro oral
y
la
liberacion
del
hierro
almacenado.
en solucion salina normal (p. ej.: 500 ml) mediante infusion intravenosa
2. Considerar
C) Nutricion
1. Alimentacion
a)
2. Nutricion
Estrategias clnicas para tratar la hemorragia y la anemia sin transfusiones de sangre en pacientes en estado crtico
6. TOLERANCIA A LA ANEMIA
A)
y frecuencia cardaca)
3.
4.
B) Aceptacion
4.
Notas:
cos (concentracion
de
hemoglobina
9
g/dl),
normovolemicos,
en
estado
crtico
y
de la viscosidad sangunea466
a)
(IECA), 471 betabloqueantes472 y otros farmacos.473-475 En pacientes con riesgo de hemorragia debe emplearse con cuidado el tratamiento con heparina, antiagregantes plaquetarios o aspirina
El umbral
de transfusion 10/30 no tiene base
476-480
cientfica
a)
de la anemia normovolemica
anemia normovolemica460-463
La transfusion de eritrocitos
almacenados puede reducir el
sangunea468,469
2.
3.
1.
b)
b)
c)
C) Efectos
1.
2.
organos491-494
3.
b)
497-500
riesgo de infeccion
y a una estancia hospitalaria mas
501
larga, y esta independientemente asociada a una mortalidad
mas elevada502-506
507,508
gada,
problemas de cicatrizacion, inflamacion510 y lesion
511,512
pulmonar aguda postransfusional (TRALI)
Factor
Tratamiento
Gasto cardaco
Funcion cardaca
Inotropicos negativos
Farmacos vasoactivos
Apoyo inotropico
Oxigenacion arterial
Funcion pulmonar
Oxgeno suplementario
Posicionamiento del paciente
Ventilacion mecanica
Permeabilidad vascular
Microcirculacion
Viscosidad sangunea
Farmacos vasoactivos
Consumo de oxgeno
Activacion
simpatica (dolor, agitacion, ansiedad, escalofros)
Indice metabolico
(aumentado por fiebre, infeccion, respuesta
Ventilacion mecanica
Temperatura
Nivel de CO2 (PCO2)
pH
2,3-DPG
hisjw.org
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468. Shah DM, Gottlieb ME, Rahm RL, et al. Failure of red blood cell transfusion to increase oxygen
transport or mixed venous PO2 in injured patients. J Trauma 1982;22(9):741-6. [PMID: 7120526]
469. Robbins JM, Keating K, Orlando R III, Yeston NS. Effects of blood transfusion on oxygen
delivery and consumption in critically ill surgical patients. Contemp Surg 1993;43(5):281-5.
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470. Hebert PC, Yetisir E, Martin C, et al. Transfusion Requirements in Critical Care Investigators,
Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. Is a low transfusion threshold safe in critically ill patients
with cardiovascular diseases? Crit Care Med 2001;29(2):227-34. [PMID: 11246298]
471. Yusuf S, Sleight P, Pogue J, et al. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation (HOPE) Study
Investigators. Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular
events in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med 2000;342(3):145-53. [PMID: 10639539]
472. Urban MK, Markowitz SM, Gordon MA, et al. Postoperative prophylactic administration
of beta-adrenergic blockers in patients at risk for myocardial ischemia. Anesth Analg
2000;90(6):1257-61. [PMID: 10825304]
473. Khot UN, Novaro GM, Popovi ZB, et al. Nitroprusside in critically ill patients with left ventricular
dysfunction and aortic stenosis. N Engl J Med 2003;348(18):1756-63. [PMID: 12724481]
16
chi-S
474. Spencer FA, Allegrone J, Goldberg RJ, et al, en nombre de GRACE Investigators. Association
of statin therapy with outcomes of acute coronary syndromes: the GRACE study. Ann Intern
Med 2004;140(11):857-66. [PMID: 15172899]
475. Bosenberg C, Royston D. Protect the heart in the intensive care unitbut how? Curr Opin Crit
Care 2002;8(5):417-20. [PMID: 12357109]
476. Shapiro MJ, Gettinger A, Corwin HL, et al. Anemia and blood transfusion in trauma patients
admitted to the intensive care unit. J Trauma 2003;55(2):269-74. [PMID: 12913636]
477. Crosby E, Ferguson D, Hume HA, et al. Expert Working Group. Guidelines for red blood cell and
plasma transfusion for adults and children. CMAJ 1997;156(11 Supl.):S1-24. [ISI: XC079]
478. Audet AM, Goodnough LT. Practice strategies for elective red blood cell transfusion. American
College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med 1992;116(5):403-6. [PMID: 1472172]
479. Sittig KM, Deitch EA. Blood transfusions: for the thermally injured or for the doctor? J Trauma
1994;36(3):369-72. [PMID: 8145318]
480. Fortune JB, Feustel PJ, Saifi J, et al. Influence of hematocrit on cardiopulmonary function after
acute hemorrhage. J Trauma 1987;27(3):243-9. [PMID: 3560265]
481. Lieberman JA, Weiskopf RB, Kelley SD, et al. Critical oxygen delivery in conscious humans is less
than 7.3 ml O2kg-1min-1. Anesthesiology 2000;92(2):407-13. [PMID: 10691227]
482. Weiskopf RB, Viele MK, Feiner J, et al. Human cardiovascular and metabolic response to acute,
severe isovolemic anemia. JAMA 1998;279(3):217-21. [PMID: 9438742]
483. Hopf HW, Viele M, Watson JJ, et al. Subcutaneous perfusion and oxygen during acute
severe isovolemic hemodilution in healthy volunteers. Arch Surg 2000;135(12):1443-9. [PMID:
11115350]
484. McLoughlin TM, Fontana JL, Alving B, et al. Profound normovolemic hemodilution: hemostatic
effects in patients and in a porcine model. Anesth Analg 1996;83(3):459-65. [PMID:
8780263]
485. Mathru M, Kleinman B, Blakeman B, et al. Myocardial metabolism and adaptation during extreme
hemodilution in humans after coronary revascularization. Crit Care Med 1992;20(10):1420-5.
[PMID: 1395663]
486. Stehling LC, Doherty DC, Faust RJ, et al. Practice guidelines for blood component therapy.
Informe de American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Blood Component Therapy.
Anesthesiology 1996;84(3):732-47. [PMID: 8659805]
487. Hardy JF. Current status of transfusion triggers for red blood cell concentrates. Transfus
Apheresis Sci 2004;31(1):55-66. [PMID: 15294196]
488. Napolitano LM. Scope of the problem: epidemiology of anemia and use of blood transfusions in
critical care. Crit Care 2004;8 Supl. 2:S1-8. [PMID: 15196313]
489. Rao SV, Jollis JG, Harrington RA, et al. Relationship of blood transfusion and clinical outcomes in
patients with acute coronary syndromes. JAMA 2004;292(13):1555-62. [PMID: 15467057]
490. Tinmouth A, Chin-Yee I. The clinical consequences of the red cell storage lesion. Transfus Med
Rev 2001;15(2):91-107. [PMID: 11309731]
491. Berezina TL, Zaets SB, Morgan C, et al. Influence of storage on red blood cell rheological
properties. J Surg Res 2002;102(1):6-12. [PMID: 11792145]
492. Riquelme BD, Foresto PG, Valverde JR, Rasia JR. Alterations to complex viscoelasticity of
erythrocytes during storage. Clin Hemorheol Microcirc 2000;22(3):181-8. [PMID: 10976711]
493. Hovav T, Yedgar S, Manny N, Barshtein G. Alteration of red cell aggregability and shape during
blood storage. Transfusion 1999;39(3):277-81. [PMID: 10204590]
494. Simchon S, Jan KM, Chien S. Influence of reduced red cell deformability on regional blood flow.
Am J Physiol 1987;253(4 Pte. 2):H898-903. [PMID: 3661739]
495. Hebert PC, Hu LQ, Biro GP. Review of physiologic mechanisms in response to anemia. CMAJ
1997;156(11 Supl.):S27-40. [ISI: XC077]
496. Hogman CF, Meryman HT. Storage parameters affecting red blood cell survival and function
after transfusion. Transfus Med Rev 1999;13(4):275-96. [PMID: 10553271]
497. Shorr AF, Duh MS, Kelly KM, Kollef MH; CRIT Study Group. Red blood cell transfusion and
ventilator-associated pneumonia: a potential link? Crit Care Med 2004;32(3):666-674. [PMID:
15090945]
498. Taylor RW, Manganaro L, OBrien J, et al. Impact of allogenic packed red blood cell transfusion
on nosocomial infection rates in the critically ill patient. Crit Care Med 2002;30(10):2249-54.
[PMID: 12394952]
499. Offner PJ, Moore EE, Biffl WL, et al. Increased rate of infection associated with transfusion of
old blood after severe injury. Arch Surg 2002;137(6):711-7. [PMID: 12049543]
500. Chang H, Hall GA, Geerts WH, et al. Allogeneic red blood cell transfusion is an independent
risk factor for the development of postoperative bacterial infection. Vox Sang 2000;78(1):
13-8. [PMID: 10729806]
501. Vamvakas EC, Carven JH. Allogeneic blood transfusion, hospital charges, and length of
hospitalization: a study of 487 consecutive patients undergoing colorectal cancer resection.
Arch Pathol Lab Med 1998;122(2):145-51. [PMID: 9499357]
502. Corwin HL, Gettinger A, Pearl RG, et al. The CRIT Study: anemia and blood transfusion in
the critically illcurrent clinical practice in the United States. Crit Care Med 2004;32(1):39-52.
[PMID: 14707558]
503. Malone DL, Dunne J, Tracy JK, et al. Blood transfusion, independent of shock severity, is
associated with worse outcome in trauma. J Trauma 2003;54(5):898-907. [PMID: 12777902]
504. Vincent JL, Baron JF, Reinhart K, et al. Anemia and blood transfusion in critically ill patients. JAMA
2002;288(12):1499-507. [PMID: 12243637]
505. Purdy FR, Tweeddale MG, Merrick PM. Association of mortality with age of blood transfused in
septic ICU patients. Can J Anaesth 1997;44(12):1256-61. [PMID: 9429042]
506. Moore FA, Moore EE, Sauaia A. Blood transfusion. An independent risk factor for postinjury
multiple organ failure. Arch Surg 1997;132(6):620-5. [PMID: 9197854]
507. Hebert PC, Blajchman MA, Cook DJ, et al. The Transfusion Requirements in Critical Care
Investigators, Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. Do blood transfusions improve outcomes
related to mechanical ventilation? Chest 2001;119(6):1850-7. [PMID: 11399714]
508. Fransen E, Maessen J, Dentener M, et al. Impact of blood transfusions on inflammatory
mediator release in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. Chest 1999;116(5):1233-9. [PMID:
10559080]
509. Chmell MJ, Schwartz HS. Analysis of variables affecting wound healing after musculoskeletal
sarcoma resections. J Surg Oncol 1996;61(3):185-9. [PMID: 8637204]
510. Voelkel NF. Hidden inflammatory potential of the red blood cell. Crit Care Med
2000;28(6):2149-50. [PMID: 10890688]
511. Kopko PM, Marshall CS, MacKenzie MR, et al. Transfusion-related acute lung injury: report of a
clinical look-back investigation. JAMA 2002;287(15):1968-71. [PMID: 11960539]
512. Williamson LM, Lowe S, Love EM, et al. Serious hazards of transfusion (SHOT) initiative: analysis
of the first two annual reports. BMJ 1999;319(7201):16-9. [PMID: 10390452]
2007 Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Todos los derechos reservados. Printed in U.S.A.
2. Con buen juicio clnico, estar preparado para modificar el tratamiento habi
3.
y su rapida detencion.
5.
clnico principal.
gia o anemia ayudara a los clnicos a determinar si han de tomar medidas preventivas o de control.
mas bajo para la intervencion precoz de los pacientes que no aceptan trans
fusiones de sangre alogenica.
Si es necesario, una vez estabilizado, trasladar al paciente a un centro hospitalario especializado antes de que empeore su estado.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
sangunea.
INDICE
PAGINA
B) Reanimacion inicial
E) Intervenciones diagnosticas
2
2
2
2
2
4
B) Neutralizar la anticoagulacion
5
5
5
5
5
G) Inhibir la fibrinolisis
C) Desgarros de Mallory-Weiss
D) Lesion de Dieulafoy
6
E) Angiomas gastrointestinales y otros trastornos
A) Tratamiento medico
7
B) Hemorragia diverticular
7
C) Angiodisplasias (aneurismas, malformaciones arteriovenosas)
7
D) Hemorragia anorrectal
7
F) Enfermedad intestinal inflamatoria
(como colitis o enfermedad de Crohn)
G) Lesion de Dieulafoy
H) Divertculo de Meckel
8. TRATAMIENTO DE LA ANEMIA
A) Tratamiento precoz para estimular la eritropoyesis
9. TOLERANCIA A LA ANEMIA
* Nota: Este documento informativo y de facil consulta esta dirigido a gastroenterologos, medicos de cabecera, cirujanos, anestesiologos, hematologos y otros especialistas. Las opciones
aqu expuestas no se circunscriben a un unico tipo de tratamiento. No todas las estrategias mencionadas resultaran adecuadas o aceptables para todos los pacientes. Ademas de
respetar los deseos del paciente, es conveniente que los facultativos empleen buen juicio clnico, consulten a especialistas con experiencia e individualicen el tratamiento segun las circunstancias
clnicas especficas. Al igual que en cualquier otra situacion clnica, se ha de consultar en las monografas correspondientes la posologa adecuada y los posibles efectos adversos, particularmente
en el caso de farmacos o aparatos poco conocidos o raras veces utilizados. Aunque haya poca documentacion sobre algunos tratamientos, merece la pena tenerlos presentes cuando ya se
han adoptado otras medidas para tratar al paciente sin transfusiones de sangre y no han resultado eficaces. Los nombres comerciales que aparecen en este documento solo se incluyen
para fines de identificacion e informacion, y esto no significa que se recomienden. Aunque las opiniones aqu expuestas han sido examinadas con sumo cuidado y reflejan los conocimientos
hisjw.org
10/06
1. EVALUACION
Y TRATAMIENTO INICIAL
1-7
averiguando
paciente,
haciendole
una exploracion fsica y fijandose en
su estado
hemodinamico, sus sntomas y los resultados de la exploracion endoscopica.
Si el paciente
esta
sangrando, la evaluacion inicial puede hacerse durante
la reposicion de lquidos.
A) Antecedentes
1.
b)
c)
d)
e)
b)
b)
5.
1.
a)
2.
a)
b)
Ulcera
gastroduodenal
(infeccion por Helicobacter pylori), varices gastroeso
c)
2) Puede que ya se sepa de trastornos hemorragicos, congenitos o adquiridos, sea desde el nacimiento
de
la
persona
o
con
posterioridad,
debido
b)
c)
las ulceras gastroduodenales (p. ej.: acido acetilsaliclico [AAS], farmacos que
contienen AAS, antiinflamatorios no esteroideos [AINE]), particularmente en
el caso de pacientes de edad avanzada15-18
Identificar otros medicamentos recientes o interacciones medicamentosas
que puedan perjudicar
la hemostasia (p. ej.: esteroides,
inhibidores selectivos
B) Reanimacion
inicial
2. Oxgeno suplementario
1.
a)
de globulos rojos
sin nefropata
previa es un signo de importante perdida de sangre
ser indicio de reflujo gastroesofagico, el cual puede ocasionar una esofagitis erosiva grave que propicie la hemorragia
4) Antecedentes de tos, vomitos o arcadas antes del comienzo de la hemorragia apuntan a un desgarro de Mallory-Weiss
E) Intervenciones
diagnosticas
Antecedentes farmacologicos
a)
del paciente8-12
D) Diagnostico
Antecedentes de anemia
Antecedentes de enfermedades
gastrointestinales
o trastornos hemorragicos
a)
6.
c)
4.
b)
Caractersticas de la hemorragia
a)
3.
a)
Antecedentes personales patologicos y exploracion fsica
a)
2.
2.
Si tras
digestiva alta,
hemorragia
Exploracion anorrectal 34
a)
Estrategias clnicas para tratar la hemorragia gastrointestinal aguda y la anemia sin transfusiones sanguneas
Hemorragia gastrointestinal
/
/
Evaluacion inicial
Antecedentes de hemorragia
gastrointestinal
Exploracion fsica
Pruebas analticas
Reanimacion
Oxgeno suplementario
Tratamiento antiacido
Mejora farmacologica
de la hemostasia
Taponamiento temporal con globo
Pronta localizacion
del foco de la hemorragia
S
/
Gravedad de la hemorragia
Riesgo
moderado
o bajo
Tratamiento endoscopico
precoz
Tratamiento endoscopico
de emergencia
/
Hemorragia recurrente?
No
S
/
Tratamientos angiograficos
&
&
No
No
Riesgo
grave
o alto
/
Hemorragia recurrente?
S
/
/
Hemorragia recurrente?
No
S
/
Capsula endoscopica
Taponamiento temporal con globo
/
) Vigilancia cuidadosa y tratamiento de la anemia
/
Tratamiento para evitar la recurrencia
No
No
Perdida de sangre
750 ml
Sospecha de varices
Alto riesgo de que
vuelva a sangrar
Deterioro
hemodinamico
Comorbilidad
S
/
Gravedad de la hemorragia
Riesgo
moderado
o bajo
Riesgo
grave
o alto
/
Considerar la interconsulta
con un cirujano
/
Colonoscopia
Tratamientos angiograficos
/
) Ciruga
inmediata
Gammagrafa
Tratamientos angiograficos
Capsula endoscopica
Ciruga
/
Hemorragia recurrente?
No
S
/
&
Este algoritmo indica los pasos basicos para el cuidado de los pacientes. El procedimiento dependera de la situacion clnica, los recursos locales, el personal y su pericia.
hisjw.org
3.
b)
c)
4.
Considerar
la purga rapida del paciente. Hay mas posibilidades de una per
foracion u otras complicaciones cuando la visibilidad no es buena debido a que
el colon no esta limpio
a)
b)
c)
7.
F) Mantener
1.
b)
2.
Nota: El empleo
de una capsula endoscopica inalambrica
en las primeras fases del estudio
diagnostico
permite
llegar mas deprisa al diagnostico y atender mejor al enfermo.
Tambien podra reducir los gastos vinculados a las hemorragias de origen oscuro.71
Enteroclisis 77,78
10. Enteroscopia
6.
9.
5.
8.
Se llama endoscopia
precoz o urgente a la que se efectua menos de doce
horas despues de la admision del paciente. Se ha observado que la endoscopia precoz reduce la incidencia de posteriores hemorragias y eleva las tasas de
supervivencia. Algunos investigadores recomiendan que, particularmente en
el caso de pacientes con hemorragia,
se haga la endoscopia antes (menos de
explicacion
Los descensos en el hematocrito retrasan la evolucion clnica y no son indicadores confiables de la magnitud de la hemorragia aguda, pero pueden servir para
detectar una hemorragia en curso
En el caso de los pacientes a los que no se les puede transfundir, considerar la posibilidad
de basarse
en otros
indicadores
no tan obvios para recurrir
a la intervencion endoscopica, radiologica o quirurgica a fin de localizar y detener la hemorragia lo antes posible
2. DETENCION
INMEDIATA DE LA HEMORRAGIA
A) Diagnostico
y tratamiento rapidos
inhibidor de la bomba
de protones o el tratamiento farmacologico simultaneo con octreotido
o somatostatina
92,93
y farmacologico
a)
b)
c)
2.
A los pacientes con alto riesgo de sufrir otra hemorragia o de morir se les debe
hacer una endoscopia tan pronto como pueda efectuarse sin peligro94
El tratamiento endoscopico
rapido facilita la pronta toma de decisiones y ayu
da a reducir la perdida de sangre, la estancia hospitalaria, los costes y el riesgo
de hemorragia
recurrente
y de tener
que practicar una intervencion
Ciruga inmediata
a)
b)
c)
Si la hemorragia
activa no se puede controlar con tratamiento farmacologi
co, endoscopico o angiografico,
o
si
se
trata
de
una
hemorragia
exanguinante,
Si se decide operar, habra que limitar la intervencion a lo estrictamente necesario para controlar la hemorragia
3. REPOSICION
JUICIOSA DE LA VOLEMIA
2.
En el caso de pacientes
hemodinamicamente inestables,
la rapida pero
juiciosa reposicion de lquidos
y
la
administracion
de
oxgeno
suplemen
tario optimizan la circulacion de los eritrocitos que quedan y mejora
el aporte de oxgeno.
no sanguneos de la volemia
Cristaloides
a)
b)
B) Evitar
1.
b)
c)
Pentaalmidon o hetaalmidon
Gelatina
Dextran
Notas:
1. Los almidones hidroxietlicos (HES) de alto peso molecular (p. ej.: 450 kDa) con
b)
Coloides
a)
3.
Mientras que todos los coloides y cristaloides diluyen las plaquetas y los factores
de coagulacion,
los dextranos tienden a ocasionar
hemorragias porque inhiben la
agregacion plaquetaria, reducen la activacion del factor VIII y estimulan la fibrinolisis. 108
c)
arterial (p. ej.: mediante reposicion de lquidos o medicamentos hipertensores) antes de controlar definitivamente
el sangrado puede hacer que se
efectuados en el campo de la
gastroenterologa y la traumatologa indican que hasta que se pueda controlar definitivamente una hemorragia aguda
potencialmente mortal se
debe
considerar la posibilidad de una reposicion moderada y controlada de lquidos
y permitir
una hipotension entre leve y moderada,
i. e., una tension arterial
lo
mas baja
tension arte posible que mantenga la perfusion tisular (p. ej.: una
115,120-123
rial sistolica de 90-100 mm Hg en un paciente normotenso)
Estrategias clnicas para tratar la hemorragia gastrointestinal aguda y la anemia sin transfusiones sanguneas
4. MEJORA FARMACOLOGICA
DE LA HEMOSTASIA
A) Aumentar
Nota: La carencia
de vitamina K puede deberse a una dieta desequilibrada,
desnutricion,
malabsorcion (p. ej.: pacientes debilitados),131 obstruccion biliar, antibioticos o
anticoagulantes (p. ej.: nicoumalone, warfarina).
3.
1.
b)
c)
d)
133
134-136 o divertculos
137
ocasionada
sangrantes;
138-142por ulcera, varices
143-146
ciruga; hemorragia postoperatoria;
coagulopata asociada a
154-158
renal;145,152,153
hepatopata;147-151 insuficiencia
trombocitopenia;159-161
trastornos de la funcion plaquetaria, congenitos o adquiridos;
Considerar dosis mas bajas del farmaco para los pacientes de riesgo
2.
a)
b)
Crioprecipitados
3.
b)
Nota: Los factores VIIa, VIII y IX estan disponibles como productos recombinantes.
B) Neutralizar
1.
la anticoagulacion
Tratamiento farmacologico
a)
b)
c)
Vitamina K (fitonadiona)169
Concentrado de complejo de protrombina170-172 (p. ej.: Autoplex , Beriplex )
C) Tratamiento
1.
1.
fibrinolisis
3. Dado que la hemorragia comporta riesgos mas graves e inmediatos que la morbilidad
asociada
a las complicaciones
tromboticas, debera considerarse el uso a corto plazo
del acido tranexamico, tal vez en combinacion con un antagonista de los receptores H2.
la vasoconstriccion visceral
G) Inhibir la
D) Inducir
F) Modificar
agentes hemostaticos
de sangra
prolongados
y
detienen
la
hemorragia
en
pacientes
con trastornos de la
4.
E) Otros
2.
personal especializado en
endoscopia, considerar la
intervencion quirurgica o bien administrar farmacos (p. ej.: dosis elevadas de antiacidos, octreotido, terlipresina), emplear el taponamiento con
balon y trasladar al paciente.
mecanico
o politerapia), farmacologico o angiografico no se puede dete
ner rapidamente una hemorragia grave o resistente
al tratamiento, debe
c)
2.
b)
5) Tratamiento laser218,234,235
b)
Antiacidos
Notas:
2. Los inhibidores de la bomba de protones son mas eficaces que los antihistamnicos
H2 y los antiacidos.
c)
Inyeccion de escleroterapia
1) Epinefrina236-238
246-248
1) Ligadura de banda elastica
hisjw.org
Hemostasia con clips endoscopicos (endoclips o hemoclips)242,249-252
para controlar
la
hemorragia
hasta
que
se practique la intervencion
hemostatica definitiva253,254
Politerapia
b)
2)
d)
5.
b)
c)
Notas:
1. Para las ulceras sangrantes activas, ulceras con vasos visibles no sangrantes
y ulceras
con coagulos adherentes no sangrantes
es mejor la politerapia (p. ej.:
inyeccion de epinefrina seguida de hemostasia termica o mecanica).256,258,259
4.
5.
Embolizacion angiografica268
Empleo
selectivo de una endoscopia de revision con fines exploratorios o
terapeuticos269,270
Administracion
de inhibidores de la bomba de protones o antihistamnicos H2
Nota: Evitar la hemorragia recurrente en los pacientes de alto riesgo que toman
AINE. 279-281
B) Varices
1.
gastroesofagicas sangrantes282,283
Farmacoterapia
precoz
endoscopico 285-287
a)
284
c)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
C) Desgarros
D) Lesion
b)
E) Angiomas
1.
c)
2.
d)
Politerapia
u octreotido92,291,293
de argon313,314
a)
b)
c)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
la hemorragia en casi todo tipo de varices, este procedimiento debe verse como
una
d)
a)
a)
b)
c)
4. Tratamiento quirurgico
b)
c)
d)
5.
b)
7.
Reseccion quirurgica
Fstula aortoenterica
a)
6.
Antihistamnicos
H2, inhibidores de la bomba de protones, sucralfato
y antiacidos
Somatostatina u octreotido
Vasopresina
Tratamiento farmacologico181-183,193,201,203
393,394
Termocoagulacion
4.
392
Tratamiento laser
Tratamiento farmacologico179,193
Telangiectasia,
angiodisplasia o malformaciones vasculares
hemorragicas hereditarias
298-300
3.
Nota: En todos
los casos
graves, incluidos los de hemorragia recurrente, la ligadura
de Dieulafoy
a)
Inyeccion de escleroterapia309-312
de Mallory-Weiss
Derivacion portosistemica
transyugular intrahepatica366,367 sola o con
Trasplante de hgado204
cardioselectivos
(p. ej.: propranolol, nadolol), ligadura endoscopica
de banda
Terlipresina
sola o con nitroglicerina
Vasopresina301,302 sola o con nitroglicerina303,304
295-297
Somatostatina u octreotido288-291
Nota: Esta documentado que el tratamiento con octreotido combinado con metodos
endoscopicos e iniciado tan pronto como ingresa
en el hospital un paciente que
pudiera tener
ulceras sangrantes contribuira al inmediato control de la hemorragia
2.
b)
2) Vagotoma supraselectiva
3) Gastrectoma267
Notas:
endoscopicamente
o si tras la hemostasia endoscopica hay una recidiva
hemorragica.
desbridamiento de
puede
necesitarse
la ulcera. En el caso de ulceras mas grandes
una
gastrectoma para conseguir la hemostasia. La ciruga debera reducirse al
mnimo necesario para detener la hemorragia.
Escleroterapia transcateter349,350
Prevencion
de la hemorragia digestiva recurrente por rotura
de varices esofagicas
a)
Tratamiento quirurgico204,262,263
a)
Tratamiento radiologico
a)
6.
Oclusion temporal402,403
Hemobilia
a)
Embolizacion arteriografica406
a)
Tratamiento endoscopico407-409
Tratamiento quirurgico410,411
Estrategias clnicas para tratar la hemorragia gastrointestinal aguda y la anemia sin transfusiones sanguneas
412
Los pacientes
que no responden al tratamiento endoscopico
Si el caso
requiere una intervencion quirurgica,
conviene remitirse
D) Hemorragia
1.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
2.
b)
c)
d)
1.
B) Hemorragia
1.
f)
b)
c)
d)
2) Electrocoagulacion bipolar54,419,420
3) Tratamiento laser418,421
Inyectoterapia418,422,423
b)
c)
d)
e)
b)
Embolizacion angiografica428,429
Infusion de vasoconstrictores
1) Terlipresina o vasopresina430,431
Notas:
1. Para controlar temporalmente la hemorragia a fin de operar al paciente se
puede administrar
una infusion de terlipresina o vasopresina. La embolizacion
1.
b)
c)
d)
2.
b)
b)
c)
2.
F) Enfermedad
b)
c)
d)
e)
(aneurismas, malformaciones
Somatostatina u octreotido414,415
Estrogenos conjugados178
Factor VII activado recombinante (rFVIIa)164
Tratamiento angiografico439,440
4. Ciruga
3.
2.
Colonoscopia480
TAC o angiografa481
Tratamiento hemostatico
a)
b)
c)
Tratamiento farmacologico
a)
Tratamiento angiografico440,471
4. Ciruga
a)
3.
Tratamiento endoscopico
a)
Tratamiento farmacologico
a)
arteriovenosas)
1.
Tratamiento endoscopico
a)
3. Ciruga432,433
C) Angiodisplasias
Glubran o Histoacryl )
Ciruga
E) Lesion
Tratamiento angiografico
a)
Tratamiento con
formalina455-457 (i. e., solucion acuosa
de formaldehdo al 4%)
Tratamiento laser462
Tratamiento quirurgico463,464
Crioterapia465
Varices anorrectales
a)
diverticular
Tratamiento endoscopico416,417
a)
2.
e)
3.
Reseccion quirurgica446
Bistur ultrasonico452,453
A) Tratamiento medico
anorrectal
d)
e)
Inyeccion de escleroterapia485
Factor VII activado recombinante (rFVIIa)146,486
Reseccion quirurgica490-492
G) Lesion
1.
de Dieulafoy
H) Divertculo
de Meckel
hisjw.org
7. EVITAR LA ANEMIA IATROGENICA
diagnosticos501
3.
Minimizar
el volumen de muestras extradas con fines
diagnosticos
microqumicas504,505
8. TRATAMIENTO DE LA ANEMIA
e)
gran perdida de sangre y entonces tener que administrar un tratamiento para la anemia grave.
Si el paciente
necesita recibir cuidados
b)
Un ensayo aleatorio
y controlado llevado a cabo con 160 pacientes
c)
En un ensayo
aleatorio y controlado llevado a cabo con treinta pacien
tes anemicos debido a hemorragia digestiva, el empleo de rHuEPO
junto con hierro
por va intramuscular acelero significativamente mas
la recuperacion de la anemia que el empleo de hierro solo513
una respuesta
favorable.
Con
relacion
a los que se encuentran en
estado crtico,
hay datos de que la administracion de rHuEPO a in-
tervalos mas frecuentes (p.
ej.: 150-300 U/kg/da) puede ser mas
eficaz que la administracion de una sola dosis semanal (p. ej.:
507
600 U/kg). Si no se puede identificar o corregir la causa de la
mala respuesta
a la rHuEPO, considerar la posibilidad de emplear
una dosis mas alta508,514-518
d)
f)
Para la anemia
aguda grave, considerar
la posibilidad de empezar la
administracion
por va intravenosa y seguir despues
de eritropoyetina
por va subcutanea.
Por la va intravenosa
se consiguen concentracio
g)
se ha calculado que la dosis terapeutica de darbepoetina alfa equivalente a 400-900 U/kg/sem de rHuEPO es de 2,0-4,5 $g/kg/sem526
Notas:
pacientes con
prolongado con eritropoye insuficiencia renal cronica bajo un tratamiento
tina subcutanea (i. e., pacientes sometidos a dialisis renal).531
En casos
de anemia grave, la administracion simultanea de
hierro
B) Tratamiento
1.
los depositos de hierro y evita la posible malabsorcion o irritacion gastrica (p. ej.: hierro
oral).
2. Despues de la dosis de prueba, para reducir el riesgo de una reaccion adversa convie
ne administrar
hierro
dextran
diluido
en
solucion
salina
normal
(p.
ej.:
500 ml) mediante
2.
Acido folico
3.
Vitamina B12
1.
9. TOLERANCIA A LA ANEMIA
a)
normovolemica547
2.
1.
3.
Hay pruebas
de que la hemorragia digestiva alta provoca respuestas
fisiologicas locales
la hemostasia:
que protegen al paciente fomentando
549
hipercoagulabilidad. La transfusion de sangre almacenada (conservada
con citrato empleado como anticoagulante) neutraliza el estado de
hipercoagulabilidad y vuelve a producirse una hemorragia115,117,550
La transfusion
de sangre alogenica esta asociada
a un mayor riesgo
559-562
cancer
y problemas de cicatrizacion,
y
esta
independientemente
Estrategias clnicas para tratar la hemorragia gastrointestinal aguda y la anemia sin transfusiones sanguneas
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