FLIR Technical Series

Application Note for Research & Science

Detection of Defects in Pipelines

Using Transient Analysis 0f
Thermal-Induced Flux
G. Basile, C. Clienti, G.A. Fargione, A.L. Geraci,
A. Risitano
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale e Meccanica,
Facolt di Ingegneria, Universit di Catania, Italy
Abstract
Through a study of the current state-of-the-art techniques used to find
hidden defects in steel elements (as well as in other metals including
pipes made of titanium, inox steel, etc.) and on the basis of the application
procedures of the different methodologies existing in literature for plane
geometry, this experiment attempted to create a new methodology,
simple and practicable on the field, for risk assessment, monitoring, and
planning control of interconnected piping in oil refineries with the use of
thermal infrared imagery. This methodology adds to the array of nondestructive testing methods, traditionally indicated as appropriate by
rules of good technique and praxis and by sector-specific guidelines. The
methodology, developed in the laboratory, elaborates on a technique used
for safety verification of pipe in industrial plants. These pipes are subjected
to corrosion phenomena with the subsequent risk of a break that could
result in a spill of highly inflammable and polluting products. The technique
allows an accurate scan of the critical pipe components, in spite of what
the traditional thickness measurements do by sampling. Additionally, the
proposed methodology enables checking warm pipe, while the traditional
ones require the pipe to be at room temperature or within a certain range.
This is based on the fact that heat deposited on a surface by a thermal
impulse, very brief and of the order of few milliseconds, will disperse mostly
along the plate thickness. Several trials, performed in order to find the
most appropriate method to uniformly heat the pipe surface, pointed out
the possibility of using thermography to locate defects artificially created
on the pipes internal surface. The proposed technique consists of the
generation of a warm or cold flux, inside or outside the pipe, and in the
observation of the thermal pattern development on the external surface.
The methodology leads to a quick diagnosis, highlighting areas that need to
be controlled more accurately, once the critical points have been located.
Introduction
In many sectors, and not only in the industrial ones, the control of the
surface temperature map, as a reference to detect working anomalies, is
of fundamental importance. In the end, all physical and chemical processes
degrade in heat and temperature is the parameter that best represents
this process. There are several industrial applications of thermography:
control of temperature balance in remote heating plants, efficiency control
of heat exchangers to locate partial or total obstructions in internal pipes,
control of insulation in pipes conveying steam or other hot or cold fluids,
control of valves to locate internal encrustations, inspection in conditioning
plants, verification of steam traps working, inspection and monitoring of
furnaces, management of loss of resistance to heat, verification of tank
level, diagnosis of condenser tabs, etc. To this end, applied research
has allowed the development of new investigation techniques. The first
technique developed, passive thermography, relied on the principle of the

energy conservation in which a certain amount of heat is released by any

process. Subsequently, other new thermography techniques have extended
available applications including the development of active thermography,
pulsed thermography, lock-in thermography, step heating thermography,
transient thermography, and vibro-thermography [1].
Lock-in Thermography (LT) is based on the use of thermal waves, generated
inside the material under investigation, and in their remote detection.
Wave generation is obtained though periodic heating (for example, a light
modulated in a sinusoidal way), while the oscillating temperature field,
in stationary condition, is detected remotely by the receiving of infrared
radiation. Therefore, lock-in refers to the need to record the output signal
as a function of the input one (the modulated heating). This can be done
using a lock-in amplifier, in the case of point-by-point heating through a
laser, or using a computer in the case of heating the entire field through
a light, in order to produce images of the amplitude and phase of the
temperature field. In Step Heating Thermography (SHT), increments of
surface temperature are detected during the application of a thermal
gradient of long duration (long impulse). SHT is used for thickness
evaluation of coatings (including multilayer coatings composed of more than
one material), inspection of the connection between a coating and a sublayer or study of composite structures [1]. Transient Thermography (TT)
can be considered as a combination of LT and SHT. The sample is heated
with a long duration impulse. Heating and subsequent cooling are recorded
to get information on phase and amplitude through Fourier analysis of local
sequences of temporal data. Results are similar to LT, but with images for
more than one frequency. [1]. VT is an active technique in which mechanical
vibrations are induced in the structure and their effects are studied
externally: heat is released from friction in the locations where defects,
like fractures or detachments, exist (conversion of mechanical energy into
thermal one) [1].

Figure 1. Artificial defects made on the internal surface

of the pipes.

Therefore, thermography can be used to detect discontinuity conditions

and the trigger points of corrosion phenomena in piping. It is necessary to
define the external apparatus, allowing the transfer of typical laboratory
analysis directly to the field. The extent of the defects involved, the number
of factors directly or indirectly affecting the investigations, and the nonuniformity of the surfaces to be examined make this difficult. Laboratory
and field trials had the aim, in this first phase, of analyzing through active
thermography tracts of pipes, of differing diameters, thicknesses, and
degrees of surface oxidation, that are usually employed in petrochemical
industry. The purpose was to locate eventual thickness reductions caused
by internal corrosion and to evaluate the main factors that directly affect
thermal analysis when conducted in the field.
First Trials
In order to define the methods of thermographic analyses to be tested
in the field, two pipe tracts were prepared in the laboratory. One was a
smooth pipe, with a diameter of 219 mm (8 in) and a thickness of 5.54
mm with center welding. The other was a rough pipe, with a diameter
of 273 mm (10 in) and a thickness of 7.11 mm. Notches and grindings
with different depths and shapes were made on the internal surface of
the tracts (ASTM A-106 Gr.B), to simulate the effects of an accentuated
internal corrosion (Figure 1 and Figure 2). Infrared monitoring was
performed with a FLIR thermal camera, the ThermaCAM SC 3000, which
has the capability to read temperature variations as low as 0.02 C.
Heat deposited on the whole plane surface by the thermal impulse, very
brief and of the order of few milliseconds, disperses mostly along the plate
thickness, as seen in Figure 3.

Figure 2. Artificial defects made on the internal surface

of the pipes.

This phenomenon is described by the equation:

Q=Q+Q+Q
where Q is the reflected component, Q is the absorbed one, and
Q the transmitted one. Obviously, the velocity of heat transmission
and the resulting thermal flux will depend, in preponderant way, on the
material itself, or more specifically on its thermal conductivity k [Wm1K-1], that represents the ability of the material to conduct heat. After
heat is deposited in a uniform way on the whole surface, it diffuses in
the material zones that are at a lower temperature than the surface
layers. Initially, this will generate nearly linear heat diffusion across the
thickness with a homogeneous temperature decrease over the whole
monitored surface. When the heat diffusion will reaches the top of each
defect, the surface heat reduction of the affected zone slows, since the
heat no longer has layers of material below in which to diffuse. This will
involve the appearance, for a very short time, of hot spots on the analyzed
surface, observable through thermographic analysis that corresponds
to the various defects. The greater the residual surface temperature is,
the greater the depth of the located defect will be. Uniform heating of the
surface to be observed is a fundamental condition for homogeneous heat
diffusion across the thickness.

Figure 3. Diagram of heat transmission through a wall.

Experimental Approach
The first factor to be considered in field analysis is the surrounding
environment. It is not easy to deposit a certain amount of heat on a
surface, ideally in a uniform way, so as to trigger in the material a diffusive
phenomenon which can then produce the mentioned distributive anomalies
of the thermal profile that are in correspondence to the found defect.
This is especially true in a petrochemical environment which is at a high
risk of relevant accidents. Indeed, the environmental thermal exchange
phenomena necessary to achieve the rate of thermal flux needed for
observation and quantification would require a powerful heat generator.
To this end, chambers with reduced capacity for thermal exchange with
the surrounding environment were made, so that the thermal flux would
directly hit the surface under investigation. This tactic fulfilled the twofold
aim of reducing the magnitude of the thermal source needed to trigger
the diffusive phenomenon and of isolating the zone under investigation
from direct external influences, such as reflections, incidental direct and/
or indirect thermal sources, and incoming solar radiation. Some examples
of these chambers, used to contain the thermal flux generated and for
the thermographic acquisition of transient temperatures exhibited during
the heating and subsequent cooling of the surface under investigation, are
shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Example of adiabatic chamber used for the

experimental trials.

The results obtained, using active thermography (acquisition of thermal

transients) with generation of thermal fluxes (streams of warm water,
incandescent lamps) external to the surface under investigation, allowed
the detection of surface defects (Figure 5). However, they did not
significantly aid in the location of possible defects within the material
thickness. Therefore, other investigation techniques, such as LT, SHT,
TT, need to be investigated. The generation of thermal flux, inside the
pipe examined, allowed the location of artificially-created defects within
the pipe. Using the flux configuration shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7
(involving the whole pipe tract), the results reported in Figure 8 and
Figure 9 were obtained.
Reducing the tract exposed to the thermal flux by using insulated walls
(Figure 10), it was possible to highlight the defects the tract under
investigation even better (Figure 11).

Figure 5. Example of surface defect detection (pitting

corrosion, paint detachment, etc,).

Varying the flux configuration so that the pipe welding is involved (Figure
12), it was possible to highlight defects inside the weld (Figure 13).
Conclusions
Experimental studies, designed to transfer laboratory thermographic
investigations directly to the field, were conducted. The laboratory
analyses concerned pipes tracts, some painted and some not, typical of
petrochemical environments. The lab work allowed us to lay the foundations
for the application of techniques, such as LT, SHT; TT in the field, taking into
account not only environmental conditions, but also the highly dangerous
application ambit. The preliminary study on the use of warm air streams
and the acquisition of thermal transients inside the pipe under investigation
allowed the detection of defects, artificially made inside the pipe itself.
Vice versa, thermal transients, generated with external warm air fluxes,
demonstrated relative effectiveness. Therefore, on the basis of trials
carried out, it is possible to assert that, using the warm or cold process
fluids carried inside the pipes as thermal flywheel, it is possible to scan the
whole surface. This can be done, utilizing a thermal contrast source (for
example a cloth moistened with warm or cold water) as external impulse to
start the thermal transient.

Figure 6. Experimental configuration for internal flux

generation ( 219 mm smooth pipe with center welding).

Figure 7. Flux direction inside the pipe tract.

Summary
A field methodology was developed for risk assessment, monitoring, and
check planning of piping in petrochemical plants. It includes the use of
thermal infrared, assisted by traditional NDT (Non-Destructive Testing)
methods suggested by the pertinent codes, guidelines, and good technique.
The thermographic methods suggested by literature are not suitable for
field investigation because of equipment involved and procedures required
for use in an industrial plant. The proposed methodology focuses on the
peculiarities of the pipelines, with or without coating paint, characterized
by a large extension and a number of factors affecting the investigation.
The methodology emphasizes the concept of verification and safety
analysis of pipes which are subjected to corrosion phenomena with risk of
spillage of highly inflammable and polluting substances. Heat deposited on
a surface by a very short thermal impulse is mostly dispersed along the
element thickness. Heat transmission velocity, and so thermal flux, will
depend significantly on the material. Subsequently, heat will diffuse in the
material parts at lower temperature that are beneath the surface. When
diffusion reaches the top of each defect, heat reduction slows down, since
material is not available below. As a consequence, hot spots observable
by thermography at the defects will appear for a very short time. The
proposed technique consists in the generation of a warm or cold fluid flux,
inside or outside the pipe, and in the thermographic observation of the
thermal transient condition of the external surface.

References

Figure 8. Location of internal defects (Figure 6

configuration, smooth pipe, 219 mm, center welding).

Carosena Meola, A New Approach for Estimation of Defects Detection

with Infrared Thermography, Materials Letters, 2006.
Clienti, C., D. Corallo, A.L. Geraci, and A. Risitano, Location of Defects
in Pipelines Using Thermal Infrared Imagery, Proceedings of the Infrared
Camera Application (InfraMation) Conference, Reno, Nevada, USA, 2008.

Figure 9. Location of internal defects (Figure 7

configuration, rough pipe, 273 mm, 7.11 mm thickness).

Geraci, A.L., G. La Rosa, and A. Risitano, Applications of Remote

Sensing Techniques to Industrial Plants, International Conference on
Monitoring, Surveillance, and Predictive Maintenance of Plants Structures,
Associazione Italiana Prove non Distruttive, Taormina - Giardini Naxos,
Italy, 1989.
Geraci, A.L., G. La Rosa, and A. Risitano, A Thermographic Method
for the Localization of Leaks in- Service Buried Piping Systems, Second

Figure 10. Experimental configuration for internal flux

generation ( 219 mm smooth pipe with center welding).

International Congress on Water Ecology and Technology, International

Water Supply Association, Moscow, Russia, 1996.
Geraci, A.L., A. Risitano, and M. Dicembre, Innovative Methodology
to Monitor the Condition of Aged Pipelines in Petrochemical Plants,
Proceedings of the Infrared Camera Application (InfraMation) Conference,
Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, 75-78, 2007.
Grinzato, E., P.G. Bison, S. Marinetti, and V. Vavilov, Hidden Corrosion
Detection in Thick Metallic Components by Transient IR Thermography,
Infrared Physics & Technology, 49, 234-238, 2007.
Maldague, X.P., Theory and Practice of Infrared Technology for NonDestructive Testing, Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, USA, 2001.

Figure 11. Location of internal defects (Figure 9

configuration, smooth pipe, 219 mm, center welding).

Maldague, X.P., H. D. Benitez, C. Ibarra Castenado, A. Benada, H. Laiza,

and E. Caicedo, Definition of a New Thermal Contrast and Pulse Correction
for Defect Quantification in Pulsed Thermography, Infrared Physics &
Technology, 51, 160-167, 2008.
Sagakami, T., and S. Kubo, Application of Pulse Heating Thermography and
Lock-In Termography to Quantitative Non-Destructive Evaluations, Infrared
Physics & Technology, 43, 211-218, 2002.
About the Authors
A.L. Geraci and A. Risitano are Professors at the University of Catania,
Italy, and have been using thermal infrared imagery for more than 30 years
in different applications. G.A. Fargione is an Assistant Professor at the
same University with great experience in thermographic applications. C.
Clienti and G. Basile are researchers at the same institution.

Figure 12. Experimental configuration for internal flux

generation ( 219 mm smooth pipe with center welding).

Figure 13. Location of internal defects (Figure 9

configuration, smooth pipe, 219 mm, center welding).

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