MATERIALS

QUESTION:
21.89
Investigate and prepare a short report on the properties, structure, degradation and performance
of timber, metals and concrete.

TIMBER:
1. Properties of Timber:
Timber differs in color, texture and pattern or grain. Timber is durable, light weight and
manageable:
a. Hardness Timber hardness refers to the natural resistance of the timber to
penetration. Hardness of timber is important for flooring, with harder species wearing
better and requiring less maintenance than softer species. Baltic pine is a soft timber
and easily dented or damage by high heel shoes for example.
b. Density Density of timber is influenced by cell structure and size, the actual
thickness of the cell walls and the timbers moisture content. Moisture content of
timber is usually around 12% moisture substance in a given volume, expressed as
kilograms per cubic metre. Density is one of the most reliable indicators of ease of
machining/workability, stiffness, joint strength and hardness, fire resistance and the
drying characteristics of the timber.
c. Thermal properties timber is also natural insulator, the air pockets within its cellular
structure making timber a barrier to atmospheric heat and cold. The thermal
conductivity of timber structures varies slightly with moisture content, and natural
characteristics. Air spaces in the building, such as the void between wall studs and
plaster linings are good heat insulators. One of the advantages with houses of timber
framed construction is that additional insulating material can be placed in the spaces
like wall cavities, roof cavities and the sub floor. During Mr Inspectors inspections
the insulation is checked for correct installment and maintenance/age like issues.
d. Acoustic properties Timber can dampen noise vibrations. Timbers has more
damping capacity than many other materials available in construction. The damping
basically reduces tendency of structures to transmit vibrations through them. Timber
can also has a reduced amount of resonant vibrations, therefore it is commonly used
where good acoustics are required.

e. Chemical resistance Some timber offers considerable resistance than others to

attack by a wide variety of chemicals. Timber resistance to a chemical attack is
greater in softwoods than in hardwoods. Strong acids and alkalis will destroy timber
in time, but the decaying process is relatively slow time wise.
f. Fire resistance Fire resistance of a timber is mainly affected by the density, and type
of extractives. Fire resistance may be enhanced by a number of treatments that
include application of fire retardants or surface application of intumescent coatings
onto the timber.
g. Termite resistance is influenced by cell size, and type of extractives. Termite
resistance can be improved by treatment processes using chemicals. The chemical
used has changed over the years with some very effective chemicals being banned.
Chemical application is now normally placed in the soil under the home and acts as a
barrier, rather than directly on the timber. Some building inspection we attend reveal a
red dust on timber members this is arsenic and was used to eradicate termites.

Diagram of Cross Section of Tree Trunk

2. Structure: The strength and stiffness of timber varies with species, largely as a result of
changes in timber density and moisture content. For classification purposes, species with
similar properties are grouped together. Structural Timber-Strength Classes outlines the
characteristics of strength and stiffness for softwoods and hardwoods.. Timber is graded
visually in accordance with IS EN 518 or by machine in accordance with IS EN 519.
Factors that determine the strength classification of timber include species, density, and
slope of grain, knots, ring width and defects such as checks, splits and rot. Other
important factors for strength include timber moisture content, temperature and load
duration. All structural timber is required to be marked with an information stamp
detailing the strength class, and species.
3. Degradation: mechanisms are chemical reactions; the principal degradation mechanisms
for wood are biological attack, namely decay and termites. Decay fungi feed on wood and
require oxygen, mild temperatures, and moisture to thrive. Most damaging fungi affect

wood only when the moisture content is above the fiber saturation point, so preventing
decay is usually a matter of keeping moisture away. Several species of termite can
damage wood, but most damage is due to subterranean termites. The usual method for
preventing subterranean termite infestation is to prevent access; that is, isolating wood
from the ground surface and thereby denying the termites a bridge to the structure.

4. Performance:
Timber is
a. Environmentally friendly
b. Readily available and a renewable resource
c. Strong and lightweight: Timber is strong, light and reliable making timber construction
simpler and safer than steel or concrete construction. The lightweight structures possible
in wood confer flow-on advantages in terms of reduced foundation costs, reduced
earthquake loading and easier transport.
d. Safe: Timber has low toxicity and therefore requires no special safety precautions to work
with it, other than normal protection from dusts and splinters.
e. Ease of Use: Increasingly specialist timber frame and truss manufacturers use high tech
prefabrication enabling accurate and speedy installation. Recyclable -Timber is a
forgiving material that can be easily disassembled and reworked.

d.

Cost effective: Comparative studies of the economics of different wall framing

systems indicate that, in terms of direct building expenses, timber frames are consistently
the most cost-effective solution.
e. Durable: Good detailing, coating and maintenance ensure that timber structures last
for lifetimes. Although many buildings become obsolete and are demolished long before
the end of their natural lives, timber buildings correctly designed and maintained can
have an indefinite life.
f. Flexible: A particular feature of timber is the flexibility of design forms and finishes
that can be used. This flexibility also extends to the ease with which existing buildings
can be added to or modified to suit changing circumstances.

METALS:
1. Properties of Metals:
The versatility of metals attests to the very wide range of properties of the more than 70
metals on the periodic table. A description of all of these properties and the applications
in which they are used is well beyond the scope of this section. The following therefore
provides an introduction to some of the more prominent properties:
a. Chemical:
Metals combine with other metals and some non-metallic elements to form a vast
number of alloys that enhance the properties of metals in specific applications, e.g.,
the combination of iron, nickel and chromium provides a series of stainless steel
alloys that are in common use. Metals such as nickel, vanadium, molybdenum, cobalt,
rare earths and the platinum group metals enable the catalytic reactions for the
synthesis of many organic chemicals from petroleum. A wide variety of metal
compounds and salts impart beneficial properties to products like plastics in terms of

colour, brightness, flame resistance and resistance to degradation. Photography has

been made possible by the effect of light on metal salts.
b. Mechanical:
The properties of strength and ductility enable the extensive use of metals in
structures and machinery. Metals and alloys exhibit ductility, malleability and the
ability to be deformed plastically (that is, without breaking), making them easy to
shape into beams (steel beams for construction), extrusions (aluminum frames for
doors and windows), coins, metal cans and a variety of fasteners (nails and paperclips). The strength of metals under pressure (compression), stretching (tensile) and
sheer forces makes them ideal for structural purposes in buildings, automobiles,
aircraft frames, gas pipelines, bridges, cables, and some sports equipment.
c. Conductivity:
Metals are excellent conductors of both heat and electricity. In general, conductivity
increases with decreasing temperature, so that, at absolute zero (-273C), conductivity
is infinite; in other words, metals become superconductors.
d. Magnetic:
Ferromagnetism is exhibited by iron and several other metals. In addition, other
metals and alloys can be magnetized in an electrical field to exhibit paramagnetism.
Magnetic properties are employed in electric motors, generators, and speaker systems
for audio equipment.
e. Emission Properties: Metals emit electrons when exposed to radiation (e.g. light) of a
short wavelength or when heated to sufficiently high temperatures.

2. Structure:
These properties also offer clues as to the structure of metals. As with all elements,
metals are composed of atoms. The strength of metals suggests that these atoms are
held together by strong bonds. These bonds must also allow atoms to move; otherwise
how could metals be hammered into sheets or drawn into wires? A reasonable model
would be one in which atoms are held together by strong, but delocalized, bonds.
a. Bonding :
Such bonds could be formed between metal atoms that have low electronegativities
and do not attract their valence electrons strongly.

b. Because these valence electrons are shared by all the atoms, they are not considered
to be associated with any one atom. This is very different from ionic or covalent
bonds, where electrons are held by one or two atoms. The metallic bond is therefore
strong and uniform. Since electrons are attracted to many atoms, they have
considerable mobility that allows for the good heat and electrical conductivity seen in
metals.
c. Above their melting point, metals are liquids, and their atoms are randomly arranged
and relatively free to move. However, when cooled below their melting point, metals
rearrange to form ordered, crystalline structures.

3. Degradation:
a. Resistance to Wear, Corrosion, Fatigue and Temperature: Metals are hard and
durable. They are used in applications sensitive to corrosion such as chemical plants,
food preparation, medical applications, plumbing and lead in storage batteries.
b. Wear resistance is critical in bearings for all modes of transportation and in machine
tools.
c. Fatigue resistance - the ability to resist breaking after repeated deformation such as
bending - enables the use of metals in springs, levers and gears.
d. Temperature resistance makes metals suitable for jet engines and filaments in lightbulbs.

4. Performance:
a. Thermal conductivity is harnessed in automobile radiators and cooking utensils.
b. Electrical conductivity provides society with the ability to transmit electricity over
long distances to provide lights and power in cities remote from electrical generating
stations..
c. Optical Characteristics: Metals are uniformly lustrous and, except for copper and
gold, are silvery or greyish. This is because all metals absorb light at all frequencies
and immediately radiate it. Metals impart mirrors with their reflective surface.

d. Appearance: The lustre of metals gives them the attractive appearance that is so
important in jewellery and coins. (Interestingly, metals also provide the intangible,
distinctive "metallic ring" that is associated with coins.)

CONCRETE:
1. Properties of Concrete:
Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but significantly lower tensile
strength, and as such is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension (often
steel). The elasticity of concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts
decreasing at higher stress levels as matrix cracking develops. Concrete has a very
low coefficient of thermal expansion, and as it matures concrete shrinks. All concrete
structures will crack to some extent, due to shrinkage and tension. Concrete which is
subjected to long-duration forces is prone to creep.
2. Structure:
There are many types of concrete available, created by varying the proportions of the
main ingredients below. In this way or by substitution for the cementitious and aggregate
phases, the finished product can be tailored to its application with varying strength,
density, or chemical and thermal resistance properties.
a. "Aggregate" consists of large chunks of material in a concrete mix, generally a coarse
gravel or crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite.
b. "Cement", most commonly Portland cement is associated with the general term
"concrete." A range of materials can be used as the cement in concrete. One of the most
familiar of these alternative cements is asphalt. Other cementitious materials such as fly

ash and slag cement, are sometimes added to Portland cement and become a part of the
binder for the aggregate.
c. Water is then mixed with this dry composite, which produces a semi-liquid that workers
can shape (typically by pouring it into a form). The concrete solidifies and hardens
through a chemical process called hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which
bonds the other components together, creating a robust stone-like material.
d. "Chemical admixtures" are added to achieve varied properties. These ingredients may
speed or slow down the rate at which the concrete hardens, and impart many other useful
properties including increased tensile strength and water resistance.
e. "Reinforcements" are often added to concrete. Concrete can be formulated with
high compressive strength, but always has lower tensile strength. For this reason it is
usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension (often steel).
f. "Mineral admixtures" are becoming more popular in recent decades. The use of recycled
materials as concrete ingredients has been gaining popularity because of increasingly
stringent environmental legislation, and the discovery that such materials often have
complementary and valuable properties.
g. The mix design depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete is mixed
and delivered, and how it is placed to form the structure.
3. Degradation:
Concrete degradation may have various causes. Concrete can be damaged by fire,
aggregate expansion, sea water effects, bacterial corrosion, calcium leaching, physical
damage and chemical damage (from carbonatation, chlorides, sulfates and distilled
water). This process adversely affects concrete exposed to these damaging stimuli.
4. Performance:
The performance benefits of concrete are:
a. fire resistance
b. thermal mass
c. durability
d. acoustics
e. flood resilience
f. vibration control
g. whole-life costing
h. airtightness
i. re-usable