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Cronbachs Alpha
One problem with the split-half method is that the reliability estimate obtained using any random
split of the items is likely to differ from that obtained using another. One solution to this problem
is to compute the Spearman-Brown corrected split-half reliability coefficient for every one of the
possible split-halves and then find the mean of those coefficients. This is the motivation for
Cronbachs alpha.
Cronbachs alpha is superior to Kuder and Richardson Formula 20 since it can be used with
continuous and non-dichotomous data. In particular, it can be used for testing with partial credit
and for questionnaires using a Likert scale.
Definition 1: Given variable x1, , xk and x0 =
and Cronbachs alpha is defined to be
Property 1: Let xj = tj + ej where each ej is independent of tj and all the ej are independent of
each other. Also let x0 =
Cronbachs alpha.
and t0 =
. Then the reliability of x0 where is
Here we view the xj as the measured values, the tj as the true values and the ej as the
measurement error values. Click here for a proof of Property 1.
Observation: Cronbachs alpha provides a useful lower bound on reliability (as seen in Property
1). Cronbachs alpha will generally increase when the correlations between the items increase.
For this reason the coefficient measures the internal consistency of the test. Its maximum value is
1, and usually its minimum is 0, although it can be negative (see below).
A commonly-accepted rule of thumb is that an alpha of 0.7 (some say 0.6) indicates acceptable
reliability and 0.8 or higher indicates good reliability. Very high reliability (0.95 or higher) is not
necessarily desirable, as this indicates that the items may be entirely redundant. These are only
guidelines and the actual value of Cronbachs alpha will depend on many things. E.g. as the
number of items increases, Cronbachs alpha tends to increase too even without any increase in
internal consistency.
The goal in designing a reliable instrument is for scores on similar items to be related (internally
consistent), but for each to contribute some unique information as well.
Observation: There are an number reasons why Cronbachs alpha could be low or even negative
even for a perfectly valid test. Two such reasons are reverse coding and multiple factors.
Reverse coding: Suppose you use a Likert scale of 1 to 7 with 1 meaning strongly disagree and 7
meaning strongly agree. Suppose two of your questions are: Q1: I like pizza and Q20: I
dislike pizza. These questions ask the same thing, but with reverse wording. In order to apply
Cronbachs alpha properly you need to reverse the scoring of any negatively phrased question,
Q20 in our example. Thus if a response to Q20 is say 2, it needs to be scored as 6 instead of 2
(i.e. 8 minus the recorded score).
Multiple factors: Cronbachs alpha is useful where all the questions are testing more or less the
same thing, called a factor. If there are multiple factors then you need to determine which
questions are testing which factors. If say there are 3 factors (e.g. happiness with your job,
happiness with your marriage and happiness with yourself), then you need to split the
questionnaire/test into three tests, one containing the questions testing factor 1, one with the
questions testing factor 2 and the third with questions testing factor 3. You then calculate
Cronbachs alpha for each of the three tests. The process of determining these hidden factors
and splitting the test by factor is called Factor Analysis (see Factor Analysis).
Example 1: Calculate Cronbachs alpha for the data in Example 1 of Kuder and Richardson
Formula 20 (repeated in Figure 1 below).
Figure 1 Cronbachs Alpha for Example 1

The worksheet in Figure 1 is very similar to the worksheet in Figure 1 of Kuder and Richardson
Formula 20. Row 17 contains the variance for each of the questions. E.g. the variance for
question 1 (cell B17) is calculated by the formula =VARP(B4:B15). Other key formulas used to
calculate Cronbachs alpha in Figure 1 are described in Figure 2.
Figure 2 Key formulas for the worksheet in Figure 1
Since the questions only have two answers, Cronbachs alpha .73082 We see that this is the same
as the We see that this is the same as the KR20 reliability calculated for Example 1 of Kuder and
Richardson Formula 20.
Observation: If the variances of the xj vary widely, the xj can be standardized to obtain a
standard deviation of 1 prior to calculating Cronbachs alpha.
Observation: To determine how each question on a test impacts the reliability, Cronbachs alpha
can be calculated after deleting the ith variable, for each i k. Thus for a test with k questions,
each with score xj, Cronbachs alpha is calculated for for all i where =
.
If the reliability coefficient increases after an item is deleted, you can assume that the item is not
highly correlated with the other items. Conversely, if the reliability coefficient decreases, you can
assume that the item is highly correlated with the other items.
Example 2: Calculate Cronbachs alpha for the survey in Example 1, where any one question is
removed.
The necessary calculations are displayed in Figure 3.
Figure 3 Cronbachs Alpha for Example 2

Each of the columns B through L represents the test with one question removed. Column B
corresponds to question #1, column C corresponds to question #2, etc. Figure 4 displays the
formulas corresponding to question #1 (i.e. column B); the formulas for the other questions are
similar. Some of the references are to cells shown in Figure 2.
Figure 4 Key formulas for worksheet in

Figure 3
As can be seen from Figure 3, the omission of any single question doesnt change the Cronbachs
alpha very much. Removal of Q8 affects the result the most.
Observation: Another way to calculate Cronbachs alpha is to use the Two Factor ANOVA
without Replication data analysis tool on the raw data and note that:
Example 3: Calculate the Cronbachs alpha for Example 1 using ANOVA.

We begin by running Excels Anova: Two Factor without Replication data analysis tool using
the data in range B4:L15 of the worksheet shown in Figure 1.
Figure 5 Calculation of Cronbachs alpha using ANOVA

As you can see from Figure 5, Cronbachs alpha is .73802, the same value calculated in Figure 1.
Observation: Alternatively, we could use the Real Statistics Two Factor ANOVA data analysis
tool, setting the Number of Rows per Sample to 1. We can also obtain the same result using the
following supplemental function.
Real Statistics Functions: The following functions are provided in the Real Statistics Resource
Pack:
CRONALPHA(R1, k) = Cronbachs alpha for the data in range R1 if k = 0 (default) and
Cronbachs alpha with kth item (i.e. column) removed if k > 0
CALPHA(R1): array function which returns a row of Cronbachs alpha for R1 with each item
removed
Thus for the data in Example 1, we can obtain the results shown in Figure 1 and 3 using
CRONALPHA(B4:L15) = .738019 and CRONALPHA(B4:L15, 1) = .76321. Also the formula
CALPHA(B4:L15) can be used to produce the results shown in range B43:L43 of Figure 3.
Example 4: Calculate Cronbachs alpha for a 10 question questionnaire with Likert scores
between 1 and 7 based on the 15 person sample shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6 Calculation of Cronbachs alpha for Example 4

As you can see from Figure 6, Cronbachs alpha is 0.59172, a little below the generally
acceptable range. We get the same answer by using the supplemental formula in the Real
Statistics Resource Pack, namely CRONALPHA(B4:K18) = 0.59172.
Real Statistics Data Analysis Tool: The Real Statistics Resource Pack provides the Reliability
data analysis tool which can be used to calculate Cronbachs alpha.
We now show how to calculate Cronbachs alpha for Example 4 using the Reliability data
analysis tool. Start, as usual, by pressing Ctrl-m and choose the Reliability option from the
menu that appears. Fill in the dialog box that appears as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7 Dialog box for Reliability data analysis tool
The output is shown in Figure 8. Cronbachs alpha is shown in cell M3, while the Cronbachs
alpha values with one question removed are shown in range M8:V8, which is the same as the
output from =CALPHA(B4:K18). Note too that the split-half measures are also shown in N12
and N13.
Figure 8 Cronbachs alpha option of Reliability data analysis tool
Additional information about Cronbachs Alpha can be found by clicking here. This includes
how to perform hypothesis testing on Cronbachs Alpha, confidence intervals, statistical power
and sample size requirements.
175 Responses to Cronbachs Alpha

1.
jeena says:
August 16, 2013 at 6:26 am
the test contains 18 questions in which 12 mcqs,5 two marks questions and 1 three marks
questions ,how can i calculate alpha coefficient
Reply
Charles says:
August 17, 2013 at 4:49 pm
Hi Jeena,
I believe that for each question you simply score 1 for a correct answer and 0 for
an incorrect answer, whether the multiple choice question has 2,3 or 4 choices.
Then follow the procedure described in Example 1 or Example 3 on webpage
http://www.real-statistics.com/reliability/cronbachs-alpha/. You can also use the
supplemental formula CRONALPHA provided in the Real Statistics Resource
Pack.
Charles
Reply
Hammad Anjum says:
May 29, 2014 at 1:12 pm

Dear Charles,
as if you have different parts of questionnaire e.g. Yes, No and with 5 scale
options.. So would there be two separate evaluations of C Alpha or may i
find the one single value as well for both segregated portions of
questionnaire ?
Reply
Charles says:
May 29, 2014 at 1:36 pm

Dear Hammad,
Are you saying that if they answer Yes they have to evaluate
something on the scale of 1 to 5, while if they say No they have a
separate evaluation also using a scale of 1 to 5?
Charles
Reply
koel says:
August 25, 2014 at 4:05 pm
Hi,
I would like to know, if i have 5 variables that i want to
categorize into a single variable. Out of them, 4 questions
are likert scale and 1 is a yes/no question. how can i find
the chronbach alpha for the 5 questions?
Charles says:
August 25, 2014 at 5:43 pm

Hi Koel,
Provided all the questions measure the same thing you can
calculate one Cronbachs alpha for all the questions.
However, I would not mix Likert scale questions (rate your
opinion of Columbus from 1 to 5) with knowledge
questions (did Columbus discover America? T/F).
Generally for the Likert scale questions use the Likert scale
(say 1 to 5) in calculating Cronbachs alpha. For True/False
questions you can use values that correspond to the Likert
scale (e.g. 5 if True means you have an extremely high
opinion of Columbus and 3 if No means that you have
neutral opinion). Most of the time True/False questions are
measuring knowledge and so as stated above it is not
appropriate to mix them with Likert scale questions in
calculating Cronbachs alpha.
In general with knowledge-based questions (e.g. True/False
or multiple choice questions) you can code them as 1 for
the correct answer and 0 for an incorrect answer when
calculating Cronbachs alpha.
Charles
Charles
2.
Mary Ann says:

September 9, 2013 at 4:57 am
how can i calculate five point scale survey in excel and get the cronbach alpha??? its
quite confusing.
Reply
Charles says:
Mary Ann,
Enter your data as in Example 4 on http://www.realstatistics.com/reliability/cronbachs-alpha/. The example shows what to do for a
seven point scale, but a five point scale works exactly the same. Then carry out
the calculations as in Figure 6 on the same webpage or simply use
CRONALPHA(R1) where R1 is the the range containing your data (without
headings). CRONALPHA is a supplemental function which is contained in the
Real Statistics Resource Pack.
Charles
Reply
3.
alberto rivas says:

September 29, 2013 at 6:08 pm
Thank you, Sir. Its a great example. it contains all that I have searched. Arent you
teacher?
Reply
4.
Krsna says:
November 11, 2013 at 1:53 am
Hi. I got negative cronbach alpha which made it unacceptable but the questions are just
right and fit to my study. What should I do? Thank you for your response. God bless.
Reply
Charles says:
Hi Krsna,
There are an number reasons for getting a low (or even negative) value for
cronbachs alpha for a perfectly valid test. Two reasons are reverse coding and
multiple factors.
Reverse coding: Suppose you use a Likert scale of 1 to 7 with 1 meaning strongly
disagree and 7 meaning strongly agree. Suppose two of your questions are: Q1: I
like pizza and Q20: I dislike pizza. These questions ask the same thing, but with
reverse scoring. In order to apply Cronbachs alpha properly you need to reverse
the scoring of the negatively phrased question, Q20. Thus if a response to Q20 is
say 2, it needs to be scored as 6 instead of 2 (i.e. 8 minus the score).
Multiple factors: Cronbachs alpha is useful where all the questions are testing
more or less the same thing, called a factor. If there are multiple factors then
you need to determine which questions are testing which factors. If say there are 3
factors, then you need to split the questionnaire/test into three tests, one
containing the questions testing factor 1, one with the questions testing factor 2
and the third with questions testing factor 3. You then calculate cronbachs alpha
for each of the three tests. The process of determining these hidden factors and
splitting the test by factor is called Factor Analysis. See the webpage
http://www.real-statistics.com/multivariate-statistics/factor-analysis/ for more
details about how to do this in Excel using Real Statistics.
Charles
Reply
5.
sivapriyagirish says:
November 24, 2013 at 12:42 pm
this method was very helpful for an average student like me,thank you very much
Reply
6.
Dalia says:
December 11, 2013 at 12:18 pm
Hi,
Thank you for the great explanation.
My work includes using a 5 point scale by 2 separate groups of raters (trained Vs
untrained in that field). Each group will rate 20 different cases.
My questions are:
1- Do I need to use Cronbachs alpha for each case separately (20 cases x 2 groups) (i.e.
40 times)?
2- How can I assess the consistency within each group for all the cases collectively?
3- How can I know if there is a significant difference between the 2 groups for all the
cases collectively?
Apologies for the long questions, but I really appreciate your help.
Best regards,
Dalia
Reply
Charles says:
December 15, 2013 at 8:18 am

Hi Dalla,
From what you have described I have the following suggestions:
1. to assess the agreement/disagreement between the two raters you probably want
to use something like Cohens kappa
2. to assess the consistency within each of the two groups you can use Cronbachs
alpha
3. to assess whether there is a significant difference between the two groups you
can use either a t test or Mann-Whitney
All of these tests are described on the Real Statistics website and the Real
Statistics Resource Pack can be used to carry out each of these tests.
Charles
Reply
7.
Mukesh says:
January 9, 2014 at 11:58 am
Hi,
I have approximately 200 respondense, could you please let me know how to ho about
getting the results of the Cronbach test. Do I have to enter a figure for each respondent to
a question?
Thanks,
MC.
Reply
Charles says:
January 10, 2014 at 7:44 pm
Mukesh,
If you have say 200 people taking the test and each test has 20 questions, then you
would create a range similar to that in Figure 1 with 200 rows and 20 columns.
You need to enter a figure to each question.
Charles
Reply
8.
Jonathan says:
Great site. Thank you.
I am looking for simple consistencies within a singular column of measured data, to see
how volatile it is. I tried to use your CRONALPHA function to simply analyze one
column of data of designated cells, and am getting the #VALUE response.
Am I missing something? Thanks much.
Jonathan
Reply
Charles says:

Jonathan,
Cronbachs alpha is not designed to do what you want. There is no internal
consistency to measure when only have one response per subject. To use
CRONALPHA you need at least two columns.
Charles
Reply
Jonathan says:
Thank you Charles.
Perhaps I am asking the wrong question. Lets say I have 120 responses
from one subject over time, and what I am trying to do is to look at the
consistency and repeatability of the answers from that subject. In other
words, I want to see if the data, once I reach a certain point, has a stability
to it. While I could do an even-odd correlation from the set, 1st-half / 2ndhalf, or something like that, that introduces the limitations you discuss.
Is there something that considers the stability of a great number of data
from one subject alone, to look at stability purposes? Thanks very much
for a great site.
Reply
Charles says:

Jonathan,
I am afraid that I dont have much help to offer. I checked the
Internet and found a number of sites addressing statistical analysis
of single subject data and single subject consistency statistics,
including the following:
http://www.physther.net/content/74/8/768.full.pdf
http://www.u.arizona.edu/~dusana/psych290Bpresession06/notes/C
h%2014%20Single-Subejct%20Research%20Designs.ppt
Unfortunately these sites seem to be addressing something
different from what I think you are looking for.
Charles
Reply
9.
Mabel says:
If I have a 2 group study and want to conduct a cronbach alpha test, do I have to separate
it into 2 groups?
Reply
Charles says:

Mabel,
It really depends on what you want to study. E.g. if the groups are just a random
split of the sample you could use the split-half method instead of Cronbachs
alpha to measure reliability.
Charles
Reply
10.
Krsna says:
Thank you Charles. Your response is highly appreciated. My apology for this late reply.
God bless.
Reply
11.
Vien says:
January 31, 2014 at 10:26 pm
Do you have a reference for thisA commonly-accepted rule of thumb is that an alpha of
0.6-0.7 indicates acceptable reliability? Thank you very much!
Reply
Charles says:
February 1, 2014 at 4:53 pm

Vien,
I believe that I got this from the following reference (this is also referenced in
Wikipedia)
Ref 1: Kline, P. (2000). The handbook of psychological testing (2nd ed.). London:
Routledge, page 13
I have generally seen that .7 is viewed as the minimum acceptable level. Here is
such a reference.
Ref 2: George, D., & Mallery, P. (2003). SPSS for Windows step by step: A
simple guide and
reference. 11.0 update (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. p. 231
The rules of thumb there are:
> .9 Excellent, _ > .8 Good, _ > .7 Acceptable, _ > .6 Questionable, _ > .5
Poor, and < .5 Unacceptable
Here is yet another example where .6 is used as the minimal acceptable level.
Ref 3: "Cronbachs alpha (Cronbach, 1951) which quantifies the degree of
internal consistency (reliability) of a set of items, was calculated for each
subscale, as well as the overall scale. In general, a Cronbachs alpha of at least .7
is the criterion used to establish an acceptable level of reliability. However, the
recommended minimum Cronbachs alpha for exploratory studies is .6"
(Nunnally, J.C. (1978). Psychometric Theory (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill;
Robinson, J. P., Shaver, P. R., & Wrightsman, L. S. (Eds.). (1991). Measures of
personality an social psychological attitudes. San Diego: Academic Press).
Reply
12.
hadia says:
March 2, 2014 at 10:56 pm
Im not a student of mathematics. I am leading a research in applied linguistics and I need
to calculate a result using Cronbach alpha. I asked my students about the extent to which
they became autonomous after introducing language learning strategies on a five-graded
Likert scale with scores from 1 to 5. However, I didnt know how to calculate. On the
vertical column, I have to mention the respondents (students) and on the horizontal line, I
have only one question (so one item??). Could I calculate alpha with only one column?
I am seeking guidance and I would be very grateful if you could help me.
Thank you.
Reply
Charles says:
March 3, 2014 at 7:20 am
Hadia,
You cant measure consistency between the items (which is what Cronbachs
alpha does) since you only have one item. You need more than one item to use
Cronbachs alpha. My question to you is why do you want to use Cronbachs
alpha? What are you trying to demonstrate?
Charles
Reply
joseph mukolwe says:
July 17, 2014 at 7:21 pm

Enriching information.Kudos
Reply
joseph mukolwe says:
July 17, 2014 at 7:28 pm

What percentage of the population is recommended for purpose of
determining Cronbach Alpha?
Reply
Charles says:
July 17, 2014 at 11:04 pm

Joseph,
I have generally used the entire population of subjects who have
filled in a questionnaire to calculate Cronbachs alpha.
Charles
Reply
13.
Karen says:
March 8, 2014 at 6:54 am
Hi,
Im using a sample of 40 and I have 2 sets of questions, one with 9 and the other with 10
questions. Ive calculated the alpha for both using the formula as you explained and then
using the Real Statistics toolpack. Im getting different alphas when I use the two
methods with the toolpack function giving an alpha higher by around 0.08. Why is that?
Reply
Charles says:
March 8, 2014 at 7:06 pm

Karen,
Please email me the Excel worksheet(s) so that I can figure out happened.
Charles
Reply
14.
krisliz says:
March 10, 2014 at 8:16 am
how did you get the var in example 4. i just dont get it how it can be computed. is there a
formula needed?
Reply
Charles says:
March 10, 2014 at 9:18 pm

Krisliz,
Cell B24 contains the formula =VARP(L4:L18).
Charles
Reply
15.
Colleen Royle says:

March 11, 2014 at 3:11 pm
Hello,
I am using an instrument that has been previously tested for reliability with a Cronbach
Alpha of .91 and .93 for overall instrument (there are two variables being tested). The
instrument has four subscales and each subscale has a Cronbach Alpha number of >.61
(three subscales are in the .80 range). I used the same instrument and tested Cronbach
Alpha and received an overall number of .87 and .86. All of my subscales are
substantially lower than the original testing by the instrument author. How do I explain
that? We used a similar population. Her study was larger with 64 participants and mine
had 40.
Thank you.
Colleen
Reply
Charles says:
March 14, 2014 at 6:59 am

Colleen,
A few reasons why your alpha values may differ are: population not really the
same as that for the original instrument, randomness (you say that your values
were substantially lower, but it may turn out that the difference is not statistically
significant), differences in the way the test was administrated(e.g. a noisy
environment, people under stress, etc.).
Charles
Reply
16.
Dianna says:
April 3, 2014 at 9:36 pm
Hello,
I am having trouble with measures that has items with reverse coding. When I calculate
the data with reverse coding, the Cronbachs Alpha is very low (.2), however when I
calculate the Cronbachs Alpha without using the reverse coding, it is very high (.9). I am
wondering if you know why that happens, and what I should do?
Reply
Charles says:
April 4, 2014 at 7:39 am

Dianna,
It is hard for me to tell without seeing the data, but I can think of the following
possibilities:
the questions that you have identified as reverse coded are not really reverse
coded
there is an error in the coding or calculation
reliability is low (not sure why alpha would be high if reverse coding is not
done)
Charles
Reply
17.
Zargoon says:
April 4, 2014 at 1:11 am
Regarding example number 3, I have performed Anova: Two Factor without Replication
in Excel, but could not see Alpha value as it has been shown in Figure 5 above.
Reply
Charles says:
April 4, 2014 at 7:34 am

Zargoon,
I just rechecked and I believe it is correct. Please make sure you analyzed the data
from Example 1 (0s and 1s only) and not from Example 2.
Charles
Reply
18.
colene says:
April 5, 2014 at 2:50 am
Hi there hopefully you can answer me
I would like to run a Cronbachs alfa test (or similar if you have an alteriour suggestion) to
include it in my reliability part. (using SPSS)
I have a mixture of variables Nominal, Ordinal and scale.

Which have a whole range of diferent ranges in values. Some variables have 0-1, others
have 1-5, while others go from 0-14000. None are similiarly kategorized. Like, sex is a 01. Work hours range pr week from 0-30. A satisfactory question ranges from 1-5, rent
payed ranges from 500- 13000 etc..
Ive kategorized rent, and when I lump them all togheter in SPSS Cronbachs alfa I get a
Cronbachs Alfa of around ,500.
BUT I have a feeling this is quite pointless? Because of the state of the values is this
so, is Cronbachs Alfa usless how would I explain that I cant use Cronbachs Alfa? My
corriculum states that it is restricted to indexes But I cant quite understand what this
means by indexes. Certainly we have an index of questions that all aim to answer an
underlying question but its not an index where all numbers are grouped simillarilly
so i am unsure what it means Cant I use it ?
Reply
Charles says:
April 11, 2014 at 3:39 pm
Colene,
I have read a lot of conflicting information regarding the subject you are raising
and so I dont have a precise answer for you. My understanding is that Cronbachs
alpha is most relevant when the test is evaluating a single factor. You can
certainly calculate Cronbachs alpha even if the questionnaire contains a mix of
multiple choice, true-false and other types of questions. What I would be
especially cautious about is when the test is performing different types of
evaluations (e.g. Likert scale to assess your satisfaction with a product plus
multiple choice to assess your ability to use the product). You definitely need to
calculate separate Cronbach alpha for each concept/factor that you are testing.
Im nor sure what your curriculum means by indexes. Cronbachs alpha itself
can be used as an index, but it doesnt sound like this is what is meant.
The following are a couple of articles on the web that may give you further
information (although they may confuse things even more). I suggest that you
speak to your professor to get further insights from him/her. Please share with the
rest of us any insights you glean.
http://www.ctbassessments.com/assessment_insights/february_2011/research_insi
ghts.html
http://psychweb.psy.umt.edu/denis/datadecision/front/cortina_alpha.pdf
Charles
Reply
19.
James Selby says:

April 5, 2014 at 3:28 pm
Thank you very much for this website!! Absolutely excellent and very useful!
Reply
20.
dee says:
April 14, 2014 at 4:31 pm
hi. i gor high Cronbach for my 4 variables but the correlations are zero. Is it somehing
wrong wih my calculations or the data? Need help. Tq
Reply
Charles says:
April 15, 2014 at 8:20 pm

Dee,
Can you send me a file with the example so that I can take a look at it?
Charles
Reply
21.
noor hafizah hassan says:

April 14, 2014 at 7:11 pm
Hye, i would like to run cronbach alpha on each item as my on likert scale..as you show
in example 4 that run crunbach alpha on all the items..
How can i do it on each item?
Possible?
Seems it does not clear with me here..

Thanks
Reply
Charles says:
April 16, 2014 at 6:49 am

Im not sure what you mean by run cronbach on each item. You run cronbach
on all the items. You can also run cronbach on all the items except one (as in
Example 2). In any case, how you calculate cronbach is described on the
referenced webpage and you can get more information by looking at the example
worksheet which you can download for free at webpage http://www.realstatistics.com/free-download/real-statistics-examples-workbook/.
Charles
Reply
22.
Luke says:
April 24, 2014 at 6:03 am
Hi Charles,
Thanks so much for this site. Very helpful.
Reading from one of your observations above, and I quote, If the variances of the xj
vary widely, the xj can be standardized to obtain a standard deviation of 1 prior to
calculating Cronbachs alpha, end of quote. just wondering how do you do that. Would
be grateful for your response.
Thanks
Reply
Charles says:
April 24, 2014 at 7:57 am
Hi Luke,
If you have a column of data in range A1:A10. You calculate the mean of the
values (say in cell A12) by =AVERAGE(A1:A10) and the standard deviation (say
in cell A13) by =STDEV(A1:A10). Now put the formula
=STANDARDIZE(A1,A$12,A$13) in cell B1. B1 now contains the standardized
value of the data in cell A1. If you highlight the range B1:B10 and press Ctrl-D
then column B will contain the standardized values of all the data in range
A1:A10.
Charles
Reply
23.
Luke says:
April 24, 2014 at 9:32 am
Thanks so much indeed Charles. I got it.
You have a Blessed day.
Best,
Reply
24.
Arin says:
April 25, 2014 at 10:58 pm
Hi Charles,
Thanks so much for the explanation. Its really easy to follow.
However, I have a question about example 1. How do you get the value for cell B20?
In figure 2, you just said its from M17. But how do you calculate it?
Any explanation on this would be very much appreciated.
Thx
Reply
Charles says:
April 26, 2014 at 7:32 am

Arin,
M17 contains the formula =SUM(B17:L17).
Charles
Reply
25.
Arin says:
April 25, 2014 at 11:24 pm
Hi Charles,
I think I got it. Is it the sum of all the variance?
I got 1 different last digit than yours, instead of 3, I got 4.
I dont know if it matters or not or if I am mistaken.
Thx again.
Reply
Charles says:
April 26, 2014 at 7:39 am

Arin,
Yes. It is the sum of the variances. I used the formula =SUM(B17:L17) which
sums the values in each of the cells B17 through L17. Although the value
displayed for each of these cells contains 5 digits, more than this number of digits
are actually stored. If you simply add the numbers that are displayed you get a
number which ends in 4. If instead you add the complete numbers (as the formula
=SUM(B17:L17) does) then the result will end in 3.
Charles
Reply
26.
ricky says:
April 29, 2014 at 10:23 am
Hello Charles,
I really need your help.
I am process of Writing my thesis and I need to find Cronbachs alpha to state the
reliability of my research. I tried usingg SPSS but I keep getting -4 as the alpha which I
know is not right. It is a likert scale based questioonaire with a scale of 1 to 5 and the
number of questions that I selected to find the Cronbachs alpha is 10.
I will be glad to send you the questionnaire to see how you can help me.
regards, ricky
I would be willing to send you the data that I used.
I will be very grateful if you can assist me to solve this problem.
Reply
Charles says:
April 29, 2014 at 4:09 pm

Ricky,
The referenced webpage explains how to calculate Cronbachs alpha in Excel. If
you have downloaded the Real Statistics software you can use the formula
=CRONALPHA(R1) where R1 is the range containing your data (formatted as
described on the webpage) and the software will do all the calculations for you.
Charles
Reply
27.
Ricky says:
April 30, 2014 at 9:26 am
Hi Charles,
Thanks for your prompt response and the info that you provided. Ill download the
software and give it a try. The 15-day trial version of the SPSS that I initially used kept
outputing -4 as my alpha and it was frustrating.
Let me try again and if I encounter any problem, Ill let you know.
Thanks again.
Ricky
Reply
28.
juliet says:
May 1, 2014 at 3:59 pm
Pls can someone send me how to solve cronbach alpha of the example1 above.thanks
Reply
29.
Ness says:
May 5, 2014 at 7:06 pm
Hello,
Thank you for the explanation and the answers that you gave, it is very helpful !
I hope that you can help me with my problem, since it is more or less specific..
Im trying to calculate Cronbachs alpha for a specific purpose: inter-rater reliability
(rather than internal consistency reliability) where raters used Liker-scale to judge some
behaviors shown in videos. 8 items were used for the Likert-scale. Until now it seems
fine, I can measure Cronbachs alpha coefficient for one behavior (one observed video)
while considering 8 rows (for the 8 items) and n columns (for n raters).
However, there are many videos, and each rater evaluated only 16 videos (among around
600 videos). Each video was rated 24 times. My purpose is to measure the inter-rater
reliability for each group of videos (the videos that share a common concept), and later,
the overall inter-rater reliability..
My proposition is to measure the Cronbachs alpha coefficient for each video, and then to
measure the average of those coefficients in order to asses the global Cronbachs alpha
coefficient related to one group of videos. I only need to know whether this approach is
reliable, I mean computing the average of n Cronbachs alpha coefficients (that were
computed separately for each video) to get the inter-rater reliability for a group of videos
makes a sense !
Thank you in advance for your help, I really appreciate it since I could not find an answer
anywhere..
Best regards,
Ness
Reply
Charles says:
May 12, 2014 at 8:55 am
Ness,
I am not sure what you mean by measuring Cronbachs alpha for one video. I
would think that you would need more than one video even to use Cronbachs
alpha, unless you are comparing what you call items. In your explanation you
reference 8 items, but I am not sure what the items represent.
My key question to you is why you want to use Cronbachs alpha in this way,
when, if I understand what you are trying to accomplish well enough, there are
other tests which fit better with your goal? Perhaps you should be using Fleisss
Kappa instead. See, for example, the webpage http://www.realstatistics.com/reliability/fleiss-kappa/.
Charles
Reply
30.
Ermira says:
May 23, 2014 at 3:32 pm
Hi,
I have 4 questions of type Likert Scale ( each of them contain 4 questions describing the
main question).
As far I saw that cronbach alpha is for internal consistency, or it shows how good items
are related to describe the main question.
I want to measure inter-rater agreement. Is Cronbach Alpha the right metric for doing
this?
Thank you
Reply
Charles says:
May 23, 2014 at 7:05 pm
Hi Ermira,
Depending on your specific requirements, you could use Cohens kappa,
Weighted kappa, Fleisss kappa, ICC or Kendalls W. These all measure inter-rater
agreement and are described in the website. See http://www.real-
statistics.com/reliability/ for more details.

Charles
Reply
31.
marzieh says:
May 26, 2014 at 7:42 pm
Dear Charles,
I have made a series of multiple choice questions with 70 items and gave them to a group
of ten for piloting but it is really hard to estimate Cronbachs alpha. I know that it should
be more than 0.7 but I dont know how. Please help me. Thank you so much in advance.
Sincerely,
Marzieh
Reply
Charles says:
May 27, 2014 at 7:07 am

Dear Marzieh,
If the person answered the question correctly they score 1 for that question. If
they answered it incorrectly they score 0 for that question. Then use the approach
in Example 1 of the referenced page or the CRONALPHA formula to calculate
Cronbachs alpha.
Charles
Reply
32.
farah says:
June 13, 2014 at 7:07 pm
I still dont understand about why should we change into 6 instead of 2
N Q20.Q20 in our example. Thus if a response to Q20 is say 2, it needs to be scored
as 6 instead of 2 (i.e. 8 minus the recorded score).
And why must be 8?
Im very confius
Hope u can help me
Thanks
Reply
Charles says:
June 15, 2014 at 5:15 pm

Farah,
Suppose you pose the following four questions and ask your respondents to give a
rating of 1 to 7 for each, where 1 is the weakest response and 7 is the strongest
response:
Do you like pie?, Do you like steak?, Do you like green beans? and Do
you dislike pizza?
The fourth question is reverse phrased: dislike instead of like. A response of 7
to the first question means that the respondent really likes pie, while a response of
7 to the fourth question means that the respondent really dislikes pizza. This last
response is equivalent to a response of 1 to the question Do you like pizza?. So
in order to compare apples with apples (pun intended) you pretend that the last
question was Do you like pizza? and use a score of 1 instead of 7.
In a similar way, a response of 6 to the question Do you dislike pizza? is
equivalent to a score of 2 to the question Do you like pizza? Note that with a
Likert scale of 1 to 7, the reverse coded score is always 8 minus the actual score
(here 8 is 7+1). Similarly, if the Likert scale is 1 to 5, the reverse coded score is 6
minus the actual score (here 6 is 5+1).
I hope this helps.
Charles
Reply
33.
farah says:
June 13, 2014 at 7:20 pm
I have multiple choice question with one correct answer

How can i get internal consistancy for my questionnaire, should i use similar method in
spss to get chronbach alpha vlue for likert scale for my 15 question of MCQ??
First in coding a b c d with 1.2.3.4
But now..i coding them 1 for correct answer and 0 for uncorrect answer
So what should i do next??
Reply
Charles says:
June 14, 2014 at 7:16 pm

Farah,
When using a Likert scale (such as 1, 2, 3, 4) you should use the appropriate value
1, 2, 3 or 4 for each question, but multiple choice questions are not like questions
using a Likert scale. When you are analyzing multiple choice questions you
should code 0 (incorrect) and 1 (correct). After the coding just following any of
the approaches described on the referenced webpage to obtain Cronbachs alpha.
Charles
Reply
farah says:
June 16, 2014 at 1:40 pm

A lot of thank for replied my massage..:)
By the way, what do you mean by following any approaches described on
reference webpage to obtain cronbach alpha?
I hv difficulties to analyze my data to get alpha value..
What should i use..anyway..any suggestions?
Reply
Charles says:
June 16, 2014 at 4:48 pm
Farah,
On the referenced page I showed three ways of computing
Cronbachs alpha:
1. Directly using the definition of Cronbachs alpha (as in
Example)
2. Using ANOVA (as in Example 3)
3. Using the CRONALPHA function found in the Real Statistics
Resource Pack (as in Example 4)
Charles
Reply
farah says:
June 16, 2014 at 11:43 pm
Thank you very much charles:)
34.
MJ says:
June 22, 2014 at 3:08 pm
Hi,
for my thesis I conducted CRONBACH alpha on several measures- the core
questionnaire is the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ). My sample is 265
Norwegian University students.
These are the scores I need to explain: FFMQ (0,582) where the individual facets never
reach even 0.5, for the Perceived Stress questionnaire (0,345) and for AUDIT (0,396).
My supervisor thinks these are too low and would like me to explain why, and thinks we
cannot be sure what the instruments were actually measuring. He wants me to give
reasons for this.
Also, the CORRELATION between measures was low even though in the past it usually
shows to be high. I am not sure what was different now, and what both a low cronbachs
alpha and correlation could indicate.
I have found some reasons that could explain it like Participant Fatique.
I would truly appreciate any help as my thesis defence is due very soon and I am still
stuck at this problem.
Best,
MJ
Reply
Charles says:
June 29, 2014 at 11:55 am

MJ,
Since this is a standard test, I assume that your supervisor finds that your results
are too different from the typical results for the test. You mention that a possible
reason is Participant Fatigue, but you need to ask yourself why would students
taking this questionnaire have higher levels of fatigue than the typical respondents
to this questionnaire? In general, I can only think of two categories of reasons for
the discrepancy: (1) the people taking the test are different from the typical people
taking the test (different culture, problems with language, etc.) or the environment
where the questionnaire is administered is different (too noisy, poor lighting, etc.)
or (2) you arent measuring the the same thing as is typically measured e.g. if I
remember correctly the FFMQ has 5 different dimensions (factors), in which case
you need to calculate Cronbachs alpha not on the whole questionnaire but for the
questions in each of the five dimensions separately.
Charles
Reply
35.
Gabriel says:
June 24, 2014 at 11:11 am
Hi Charles, firstly thank you very much for providing this informative platform for
everyone. Your effort is greatly appreciated.
Anyway, i do have some issues regarding alpha cronbach. Hoping that you can give me
some clarification. Issues are stated as follows;
(i) In one full set of questionnaire, i have 42 items/ questions measuring different and
diverse concepts/ factors. In another word, i cannot put all the items together at one go for
Cronbach test (as this will lower the cronbach value as they are measuring different
things), so i separate them into few groups say 8 groups of factors (consists of 3-5 or 2-3
items). So theoretically, each group i have different value of Cronbach if i executed
cronbach for all the items. The question is do i need to execute the cronbach test for ALL
items or groups? Is it necessary to cronbach all the items? Can i just cronbach just one
group?
(ii) In exension of above issue, as you mentioned earlier, in order to use Cronbach, you
have at least 2 items right? but we know that the lesser the items, the lower alpha
cronbach will be. Say i have low cronbach value for 2 items, but these two items are valid
to be in questionnaire just the reported reliability is low, so, do i need to do the cronbach
test for that group? or i just ignore it? or there is a better alternative?
(iii) For your information, another issue is there are some items, like 2-3 items they are
unique (maybe i have to say, they are not ordinal data, they are nominal data- yes or no
etc, meaning to say, they are representing individual factor, so cronbach cannot be used
right? is there alternative to replace the cronbach if this is the case? One more issue is
multiple choices questions, i have about 8 of them, so, how can i establish reliability of
them, is that possible?
Thank you very much
Reply
Charles says:
June 30, 2014 at 5:02 pm

Gabriel,
(i) You only need to calculate Cronbachs alpha for the group(s) you are interested
in.
(ii) As you know, all other things being equal, in general the more questions you
have the higher the value of Cronbachs alpha will be. For this reason the value of
Cronbachs alpha for two items (i.e. two questions) might seem low compared to
a group with more items. There may be better alternatives to Cronbachs alpha for
two items, but I am not aware of them.
(iii) Cronbachs alpha handles true/false and multiple choice questions with no
problem. You code these with 0 for the wrong answer and 1 for the correct answer
(as in Example 1 of the referenced webpage).
Charles
Reply
36.
Chris says:
July 1, 2014 at 8:30 am
Just wanted to say what a fantastic resource you have put together here. Im an
educational researcher from a purely Arts background.
I put together a Likert survey, made up of 6 root statements (or factors?), and chose to
analyse 3 of them using this method. I had 79 respondents and used a 5 point scale. The
first factor consisted of 7 items and the second and third of 4 and 3 respectively. The
spreadsheet returned scores .88, .84, and .79. I am well pleased!
I may even have a go at using your site for Factor Analysis and go a step further
Much, much appreciated.
Chris, New Zealand.
Reply
Charles says:
July 2, 2014 at 4:12 pm

Chris,
I am very pleased that you found the site useful. Interestingly enough the original
impetus for creating the site was that I wanted to perform Factor Analysis in
Excel. Once I figured out how to do this I decided to share what I had learned
with others who might want to do real statistical analysis using Excel.
Charles
Reply
37.
Martin says:
July 6, 2014 at 7:07 pm
Ive just discovered Real Statistics, and so far it looks fantastic!
Im looking to automate lots of calculations on a complex data set.
Is it possible to make the formula only calculate certain questions (for a subscale)?
How does the formula handle missing items/participants?
Kind regards,
Martin
Reply
Charles says:
July 6, 2014 at 7:33 pm

Martin,
Real Statistics has a lot of useful statistical functions and data analysis tools. I am
also adding new features all the time.
There are various functions for selecting only certain data from a data range.
These consist of standard Excel capabilities (Data > Filter, etc.) and Real
Statistics capabilities (e.g. Extracting Columns from a Data Range data
analysis tool and ExtractCol function).
Many of the statistical functions ignore any rows with missing data, but the
CRONALPHA doesnt have this capability. You need to first remove any missing
data (e,g, by using the Real Statistics function DELROWBLANK or
DELROWNonNum or via the Reformatting a Data Range by Rows data
analysis tool) and then apply the CRONALPHA function to the reduced data
range.
Charles
Reply
38.
Darius says:
July 12, 2014 at 1:47 pm
Dear Charles,
I have followed the chat, however, still did not get how to calculate alpha with multiple
choice questions.
What do you mean by correct (1)/incorrect(0)? For instance, my questionnaire contains
some questions, beside of Likert scale questions, with 5 sentences and the respondent is
asked to mark those sentences which he associate with the particular subject. That means
many different combinations could be marked.
Also there are such questions which require to range 5 sentences from most favourable to
least favourable also the answers could vary alot. How to cope with such questions
while calculating alpha?
Thank you very much
Reply
Charles says:
July 14, 2014 at 7:40 am

Dear Darius,
For multiple choice questions of the form Select one of the following four
choices a, b, c or d the approach that I suggested should work, namely if say (c)
is the correct choice then use the value 1 if the person selects choice (c) and use
the value 0 if the person selects a, b or d.
Questions of the form Select one or more of the following four choice a, b, c or
d, can be viewed as four True/False questions, namely choice (a) is correct (True
or False)?, choice (b) is correct (True or False)?, choice (c) is correct (True or
False)? and Choice (d) is correct (True or False)? If say the correct choices are (a)
and (d), and a person chooses (a) and (b) instead, then score 1 for question (a), 0
for question (b), 1 for question (c) and 0 for question (d).
I am not sure how best to handle questions of the form List the following five
choices from most favourable to least favourable. They are similar to having five
questions where you rate each on a Likert scale of 1 to 5, but the difference is that
you cant use the same Likert score twice. Perhaps someone else has an idea about
how to handle these types of questions
Charles
Reply
39.
Kyan says:
July 20, 2014 at 9:27 am
Hi, I am currently working on my research. I face problem when i generating Cronbach

Alpha. My questionnaire contains such question :
If yes,please answer Section B.
If no, please answer Section C.
Its quite complicated, how to obtain the Cronbach Alpha value after i key in all?
If answer section B, what i need to fill for section C items? With missing value or without
missing value?
Need a guide to complete it as I running out of time.
Reply
Charles says:
July 20, 2014 at 9:38 pm

Kyan,
Perhaps the easiest approach is to calculate Cronbachs alpha for the questions in
section B (ignoring the people who didnt answer the questions in section B) and
calculate a separate Cronbachs alpha for the questions in section C (ignoring the
people who didnt answer the questions in section C).
Charles
Reply
40.
FFX-3 says:
July 29, 2014 at 7:47 pm
Hello Charles,
I wish to use cronbach to demonstrate some internal consistency of a survey. If this has
different sections and the sections each have mixtures of types of questions e.g,
likert,dichotomous,multiple choice..how do I test for cronbach please? Thanks
Reply
Charles says:
August 19, 2014 at 11:03 am
The important thing is to calculate a separate Cronbach alpha for each group of
questions that are testing the same thing. Stated the other way around, you
shouldnt calculate Cronbachs alpha for a set of questions that are testing
different things.
In my view there is no problem mixing true/false and multiple choice questions
provided the above paragraph is adhered to.
For multiple choice questions of the form Select one of the following four
choices a, b, c or d if say (c) is the correct choice then use the value 1 if the
person selects choice (c) and use the value 0 if the person selects a, b or d.
Questions of the form Select one or more of the following four choice a, b, c or
d, can be viewed as four True/False questions, namely choice (a) is correct (True
or False)?, choice (b) is correct (True or False)?, choice (c) is correct (True or
False)? and Choice (d) is correct (True or False)? If say the correct choices are (a)
and (d), and a person chooses (a) and (b) instead, then score 1 for question (a), 0
for question (b), 1 for question (c) and 0 for question (d).
I would not mix Likert scale questions (rate your opinion of Columbus from 1 to
5) with knowledge questions (in which year did Columbus discover America?).
Charles
Reply
41.
Debbie says:
August 20, 2014 at 6:39 pm
Hi there,
I have a questionnaire which contains:
1) Yes/No items
2) Likert-scale items
Can I use Cronbach? If yes, how do I perform the coding for 1) & 2) in SPSS?
Appreciate your advice.
Debbie
Reply
Charles says:
August 21, 2014 at 7:12 am

Hi Debbie,
different things.
I would not mix Likert scale questions (rate your opinion of Columbus from 1 to
5) with knowledge questions (did Columbus discover America?).
I dont use SPSS and so am not familiar with the coding in SPSS. For the Real
Statistics Resource Pack you would code a Likert scale of 1 to 5 with the numbers
1 through 5. You would code True/False (as well as multiple choice questions)
with 1 for the correct answer and 0 for the incorrect answer.
Charles
Reply
Debbie says:
August 25, 2014 at 2:56 am

Dear Charles,
Thank you so much! Much appreciated.
Debbie
Reply
42.
Rizalina G. Gomez says:

August 23, 2014 at 5:15 am
Dear Charles,
Is it possible to determine the reliability of a survey questionnaire even if there are no

established correct answer since it deals with their opinions? Should it be possible, what
are the steps in computing it using the spreadsheet?
Riza
Reply
Charles says:
August 23, 2014 at 6:57 am

Dear Riza,
Yes. E.g. if the answers are in the form of a Likert scale then you could use the
Likert scale score to calculate Cronbachs alpha.
Charles.
.
Reply
43.
Theophilus says:
August 30, 2014 at 10:47 am
please, how do I compute the correlation
between a particular item and the
sum of the rest of the items.
Reply
Charles says:
August 31, 2014 at 7:44 am

Say the the data is in range A1:F50 and you want the correlation between the data
in column E and the sums of the rest of the items. Now place the formula
=sum(A1:F1)-E1 in cell G1, highlight range G1:G50 and press Ctrl-D. The result
that you are looking for is calculated by the formula =CORREL(E1:E50,G1:G50).
Charles
Reply
44.
sadhna says:
I have a mixed set of questions in my questionnaire where some questions are based on 5
point likert scale and some are single response questions not dichotomous. So, how
should I calculate the cronbachs-alpha value for all set of questions in my questionnaire.
Reply
Charles says:

Sadhna,
different things.
Regarding your specific request, can you give me some idea of the single
response questions that you are using?
Charles
Reply
sadhna says:

Got your point, thanks. lets say I have question 1. Which parameter do you
look for while selecting the service provider?a)call charges b)network
availability c)Customer care services d) offer and schemes e) any other.
For these types of questions, how to calculate cronbachs alpa value.
Reply
45.
Faisal says:
Thank you very much for your valued information given above. I really learn a lot. Only I
have one question. If I have three different companies answering same questions? Can I
measure the internal consistency by conducting Cronbachs alpha? Even ratters from
company A have different circumstances than B or C?
Reply
Charles says:

Faisal,
Cronbachs alpha doesnt work with only one question, although there are some
other procedures for dealing with one question. I gave a link to one of these in a
previous comment. I wouldnt expect much with such a limited amount of data.
Charles
Reply
Faisal says:

Dear Charles,
Thank you very much for your prompt replay. I mean I would like to ask
only one question. I am sorry it was my fault not describes my question
very well. I have 10 groups with 43 factors and I have 36 response from
three different companies rate my factors. If I have three different
companies answering same questions? Can I measure the internal
consistency by conducting Cronbachs alpha? Even ratters from company
A have different circumstances than B or C?
Reply
Charles says:
Dear Faisal,
Yes, you can use Cronbachs alpha to create one value of alpha (or
three values, one for each company). It would be interesting to see
whether you get different values for the three different companies.
Charles
Reply
46.
Phoenix says:
Dear Charles,
Really hope you can solve my problems.
My questionnaire consist 3 parts which are
1. Knowledge in action research Using test form (5 multiple choice answers and 5
open-ended questions)
2. Skills in implementing action research Using 5 point likert scale
3. Attitude towards action research Using 5 point likert scale
My problem is how to run reliability test for part 1. Because in this part have few
difference types of questions.
Example:
1. multiple choice (A , B , C , D )
2. list out 4 data collection techniques
3. pls arrange 10 steps of implementing action research using number 1 to 10.
My friend advise me to run Kuder Richardson, which one more suitable?
If use Kuder Richardson to get reliability for part 1, then how about the overall reliability
for the questionnaire? How to run the test?
Anyway thanks a lot.
Reply
Charles says:
The multiple choice questions can be coded as 0 for a wrong answer and 1 for a
correct answer. You could code the 4 data collection techniques as four questions
with 0 for an incorrect technique and 1 for a correct tecnique. I am not sure how
you want to code the 10 steps question as right or wrong (this is necessary if you
want to use Kuder Richardson).
You can use Cronbachs Alpha. If all the scores are 0 or 1 the result for Kuder
Richardson is the same as for Cronbachs alpha (the referenced webpage). You
can also look at the webpage http://www.real-statistics.com/reliability/kuderrichardson-formula-20/.
What is most important is that Kuder Richardson (or Cronbachs alpha) is
calculated only from questions that are measuring/testing the same thing.
Charles
Reply
47.
ghazala says:
October 2, 2014 at 4:45 pm
i need draw backs of cronbach alpha test.
Reply
ghazala says:

why cronbach is important for internal consistency?????
Reply
Charles says:

Cronbachs alpha measures internal consistency. Internal consistency is
important because it determines whether a questionnaire or some other
measuremnt tool is measurin the same thing. If for example you design a
questionnaire to determine whether someone is bipolar, you want to make
sure that all the questions are measuring the same thing,
Charles
Reply
Charles says:

A couple of drawbacks:
Cronbachs alpha measures internal consistency, but the more items the higher
Conbachs alpha will be even though the internal consistency isnt any higher.
Redundant items (e.g. the same question phrased slightly differently) will
increase Cronbachs alpha
Charles
Reply
48.
Roy Hepner says:

Charles,
First, let me thank you for these excellent tools. They provide wonderful access to
statistical results related to educational outcomes.
I run Excel 2010 and have the downloads installed. However, I can run cronalpha, but not
with the k switch. Nor can I run calpha. What do you think is missing, misplaced, or
uninstalled.
Roy
Reply
Charles says:

Roy,
I introduced these capabilities quite recently. If you are using a version of the
software prior to Release 3.0 these capabilities are not included. I suggest that you
download the latest version of the software.
Charles
Reply
49.
Giacomo says:

Hi Charles
Thank you very much for the resource you provide.
My question is the following: I usually run alpha on a very limited sub-sample (about 10
cases) before delivering any questionnaire in order to asses the consistency of it; btw I
have no reason for choosing this number, 10 cases. Is there any rule suggesting a
minimum number of cases or a minimum ratio cases/variables to have a solid alpha?
Giacomo
Reply
Charles says:

Giacomo,
I have seen a number of websites that have information about the minimum
sample size for Cronbachs alpha. I used the following search on google:
minimum sample size for cronbach alpha
I have also seen the following paper which you may find helpful:
Research in Nursing & Health, 2008, 31, 180191
Considerations in Determining
Sample Size for Pilot Studies
Melody A. Hertzog*
Charles
Reply
Giacomo says:
Thank you again!
Cheers
Giacomo
Reply
50.
maggy says:
October 13, 2014 at 11:07 am
hie,
what percentage of respondents do i need when using cronbach alpha during pretest?
where can i get this reference. a friend told me that i need 10% of the respondence, is it
true please help.
Reply
Charles says:

Maggy,
I have seen a number of websites that have information about the minimum
sample size for Cronbachs alpha. I used the following search on google:
minimum sample size for cronbach alpha
I have also seen the following paper which you may find helpful:
Research in Nursing & Health, 2008, 31, 180191
Considerations in Determining
Sample Size for Pilot Studies
Melody A. Hertzog*
Charles
Reply
51.
Napoli Martin says:

Charles, thank you so much for this article; it is very helpful for a math novice like
myself. I would be grateful if you could assist me with some questions regarding the
calculation of the Cronbach Alpha.
We have a test which deals in direct assessment. To be brief, I would like to calculate the
reliability of our testbank broken down into topical groups. While our testbank will
contain about 300-400 questions per topic alone, each student is only presented with 10
random questions. I have a population of 800. Does it matter if the questions (all multiple
choice) are different for each student? Can I still create 10 columns with 800 rows?
My assumption tells me I cannot, because Q1 for student 1 may have gotten it correct,
and student 2 and 3 may have also gotten it correct, however, Q1 for student 2 and 3
could be the same, or, most likely entirely different (although all the concepts are the
same).
Please advise
Reply
Charles says:

I dont know how to calculate Cronbachs alpha in this situation.
Charles
Reply
52.
Reggie says:
October 23, 2014 at 10:02 pm
Charles:
I am conducting multi-variable regression using 5 independent variables to predict the
impact on transportation costs as a proportion of income in 75 metropolitan statistical
areas. The data includes employment rates, population density, and value of exports. Is
Chronbachs Alpha an appropriate test for reliability or should I be using a different type
of test? If is is appropriate, should I be including the dependent variable in the
calculation? Thank you very much.
Reply
Charles says:

Reggie,
I cant see why you would want to use Cronbachs alpha in this case. What is the
objective of the reliability test you want to pperform?
Charles
Reply
53.
Lou says:
There are typos in your equations for x_0 and t_0. You should be summing over x_j and
t_j (i.e.: $x_0 = /sum_{j=1}^k x_j$ and $t_0 = /sum_{j=1}^k t_j$), respectively.
Reply
Charles says:

Lou,
Thanks for identifying these typos. These sorts of mistakes can really cause
confusion for people who are less familiar with the notation, and so I really
appreciate your comment. I have now made both corrections.
Charles.
Reply
54.
Shiba Parhi says:

This a great websites I have gone through several books and websites nowhere I got all
these information My sincere respect to you.
Regards
Shiba
Asst Prof
Reply
Charles says:

Shiba,
I am very pleased that you find the website valuable. I am trying to create an
easy-to-use, yet powerful resource that is available to everyone who needs to
learn, teach or use statistics.
Charles
Reply
55.
Sona says:
Good afternoon sir.
my tool is checklist. It has three catageries 6 Year(1 catg),7 Year(2catg),8 year(3 catg). 1
catg contains 6 items,2 catg and 3 catg contains 7 items. How i will calculate reliability.
thank you
Reply
Charles says:

Sona,
Unfortunately, you havent provided enough information for me to make any
recommendations.
Charles
Reply
56.
sona says:

good afternoon sir. I am conducting a comparative study to assess the developmental
milestones of children in rural and urban areas. I am using checklist as a tool. My tool
have three categories 6 years,7 years,8 years. Each categories has different questions. 6
years contain 6 question. 7 years category contain 7 questions. 8 years category contains
7 question. I want to check the reliability of tool. Than how I will check the reliability of
tool
Reply
57.
Gracefield says:
What Statistical tool can best be used to test hypothesis of significant INFLUENCE of
one variable over the other. the two variables have separate instruments measuring them.
Is it T-test, Correlation, Regression, Chi-square, or which
Thanks
Reply
Charles says:

Influencers is a term used in association with residuals in regression. See the
webpage http://www.real-statistics.com/multiple-regression/outliers-andinfluencers/ for more details.
Charles
Reply
58.
Frank says:
December 3, 2014 at 6:39 am
Thanks for the great resource pack and website. My question: While using Fleiss Kappa
to measure rater agreement, I experimented with various agreement scenarios but now
have trouble interpreting the kappa. With 11 subjects and 5 raters on a 5 point scale, I set
everyones agreement on the middle of the scale (e.g., 3 on a 1 to 5 scale). Kappa would
not calculate until I moved 1 score into another column. So, with all raters=3 for all
subjects except one, kappa calculated to -0.01852. Intuitively, I expected a number close
to 1. Im left wondering if the answer is 1 minus the calculation.
I appreciate your help.
Reply
Charles says:

Frank,
Interpretation of Fleiss Kappa seems to be very difficult and depends on many
factors (sample size, variability, bias, etc.). See the following article for a
description of some of the problems. http://digital-activism.org/2013/05/pickingthe-best-intercoder-reliability-statistic-for-your-digital-activism-content-analysis/
As mentioned in this article the problem you have identified is inherent in the
measure (and not my implmentation).
I am about to look into Krippendorffs Alpha-Reliability as an alternative
measure. The following is an article that explains this measure:
http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1043&context=asc_papers
Charles
Reply
Frank says:

Many thanks for your reply. I look forward to new your new insights.
Frank
Reply
59.
Udo says:
I have 6 items with SA, A, SD, D, how do I apply cronbach alpha with these figures.
Reply
Charles says:

Udo,
Just assign the values 4 to SA, 3 to A, 2 to D and 1 to SD and use the approach
described in the referenced webpage.
Charles
Reply
60.
Martin says:
Charles,
I have done the split-half methodology against our set of multiple-choice questions; and
thus far, the results look good. Since students may not get the same question (although all
questions measure the same concept(s)) on their specific exam, I had to sample each
conceptual question into groups of 30.
For example, I would have thousand rows with the columns of NumQuestionOffered=30,
and NumQuestionCorrect=X
Provided I have the Odd/Even Anlysis Means, StdDevs, etc. ..is it possible to use that
data to produce a standardized Cronbachs Alpha?
Reply
Charles says:
Sorry Martin, but I dont completely understand what you are trying to do. I see
that you are trying to combine questions, but I dont understand how the split half
accomplishes this.
Charles
Reply
61.
Yvonne says:
Hi firstly thank you so much for this website it has been so helpful. I am doing an MSc
just now and am looking at managers self-awareness and how closely their
followers/direct reports assessment of their leadership styles agree. I have only 7
managers and 26 direct reports results.
I have a few queries from when I apply Cronbachs alpha should I be looking at the
manager and their direct reports results as individual cronbachs alpha? Or can I combine
all the data as one set of 33 results? Also when I first ran Cronbach alpha on the 6
questions which made up one scale, I got a figure of >1. I worked out this was because
the missing data points must be being used as 0s. I first excluded the whole column of
data (ie 3 of the criteria for the scale) and got a figure, then I ran it again removing the
people with the missing data and got a similar figure to that of removing the question.
Which is correct way of doing this? or how else should I deal with missing data? Also,
looking at an earlier response Cronbachs alpha may not be very accurate/reliable with
such a small sample? Any other ideas of how I could analyse the data? The purpose of my
MSc question was to discover if the managers view of their leadership style matched that
of their direct reports. So possibly I do need to do cronbachs alpha on each manager
rather than using it as one data set?
Reply
Charles says:
Yvonne,
The current implementation of Cronbachs alpha doesnt accept any missing data.
If you remove an item, this item wont be included in your analysis. If there is a
lot of missing data for one item you might consider removing this item, but in this
case you should try to understand why there is so much missng data for this item.
Otherwise, I would tend to remove the data for subjects with missing data. Of
course this approach only works if there is a small amount of missing data.
Otherwise you should consider imputing values for the missing data.
Based on your description, it seems that you are interested in measuring the
agreement between raters. Usually intraclass correlation, Cohens kappa, Fleiss
kappa, etc. are used for this (and not Cronbachs alpha). You can get more
information about these measurements on the webpage http://www.realstatistics.com/reliability/

Your situation is the agreement between one rater and a group of raters. This
discussed in Chapter 4 of http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/bitstream/2268/39575/1/vanbellethesis-5-5-2009.pdf
Charles
Reply
62.
Yvonne says:
Hi I have another query to add to this. I have run the Cronbachs alpha for 2 of the
individual managers sets of results for one of the scales and a set of data I would have
thought should have shown far lower inter correlation than the other came out the other
way round. Is it because I only have about 6 individuals results which is too low?
Reply
Charles says:

Yvonne,
It is difficult to answer your question without seeing the data, but as I said in my
previous response it doesnt sound like Cronbachs alpha is the correct
measurement to use in any case.
Charles
Reply
63.
Karen Monaghan says:

January 16, 2015 at 12:32 am
Thank you, thank you, thank you for this clear and logical explanation of how to apply
Cronbachs Alpha to a Likert scale.
Reply
64.
nasir mirza says:

what about sample size shoud be taken to test reliability having 20 questions with 7 piont
scale likert type
Reply
Charles says:

Nasir,
To answer this question you need to spply additional information such as the
expected/minimum value of Cronbachs alpha, minimum power, etc.
Charles
Reply
65.
terry says:
love the info. thanks so much.
so nice to have experts share their knowledge on the net.
Reply
66.
Mark Campbell says:

I am trying to determine the reliability of an exam in which there are 25 multiple choice
exams with a variable number of response choices (4, 5 or 10). Blank answers are given
1/4 credit. What is the most appropriate way to measure the exam reliability?
Reply
Mark Campbell says:

exams should have read questions
Reply
Charles says:
January 21, 2015 at 10:34 am

Mark,
The number of response choices shouldnt really matter since each question is
scored 1 for correct or 0 for incorrect. However things are more complicated with
1/4 credit for a blank answer. Perhaps one way to address this is to assign a score
of 0 for incorrect, 4 for correct and 1 for blank and then use Cronbachs alpha.
Charles
Reply
67.
Kent says:
January 24, 2015 at 10:15 pm
Hi Charles,
Hope you can help. We did a survey on identifying comparison in students attitude
towards a list of 10 sub-factors (5 point Likert scale) on advantages of using a tool. The
Cronbach alpha for each of the 2 colleges (A and B) with 2 columns (A and B) is over .9
which should reflect good reliability. My question is, if we then look into overall gender
comparison analysis on students of the same two colleges using the same sub-factors with
2 columns (male and female), is it necessary to evaluate the Cronbachs alpha for the
gender comparison or can we assume that the reliability is the same?
Thanks in advance.
Reply
Charles says:

Kent,
If you suspect there is a gender bias to one of the questions, then I would evaluate
Cronbachs alpha for each gender. If one question seems to lower the score for
one gender, then I would either reword or eliminate that question. If your goal is
to compare the results by gender then you want to use a different test (e.g. t test,
Mann-Whitney, etc.).
One other comment. The value you obtained for Cronbachs alpha was high, but
since it is over .9 it may be too high, meaning that the questions may be too
similar and are just testing the same things.
Charles
Reply
Kent says:
January 25, 2015 at 11:02 am

Tqvm Charles for your response.
Yes, we do conduct the t-test for comparison. I wonder if it is necessary to
provide Cronbachs alpha value to indicate good reliability and internal
consistency when we are using the same set of questions for college and
gender comparisons. Is it a necessity to provide Cronbachs alpha value to
validate good reliability before doing a comparison between colleges or
gender?
Thanks in advance.
Reply
Charles says:
Kent,
If you have gotten high values of Cronbachs alpha in your test
sample it is not necessary to repeat Cronbachs alpha for new
samples, unless you suspect there is something different about the
new sample. As I stated in my previous response, if you suspect

there is a gender bias, not in the responses per se, but in the
internal consistency (perhaps because one question is
misinterpreted by men or women), then you should repeat
Cronbachs alpha. In any case, since you will be testing the data
anyway you probably should run CRonbachs alpha just to make
sure there is nothing strange going on.
Charles
Reply
Kent says:
January 27, 2015 at 12:06 am

Tqvm, Charles.
You have been a great help.
Take care.
68.
Azili says:
February 4, 2015 at 3:42 am
Hi Charles,
I want to ask you about cronbach alpha.I have questionnaire which in this questionnaire
have Likert type scale (1-4) and question yes/no.In questionnaire also have question like
gender,marital status etc.How to get the cronbach alpha value using these data?Thank you
Reply
Charles says:
Hi Azili,
The idea of Cronbachs alpha is to measure the internal consistency of the
questionnaire. If the yes/no questions are measuring something different from the
Likert questions (e.g. the yes/no questions are testing the subjects knowledge and
the Likert scale questions are determining their satisfaction) then there may be no
point in calculating one Cronbachs alpha; better to calculate two or more values.
If instead the yes/no questions are measuring something similar to the Likert
questions then perhaps you can decide to treat the yes/no questions in a manner
similar to the Likert scale questions. E.g. if the Likert scale questions measure
satisfaction (with 0 very dissatisfied and 4 very satisfied) and yes = satisfied and
no = not satisfied, then perhaps a coding like yes = 3 and no = 1 will work. In
most cases, I suspect that the yes/no questions are measuring something different
from the Likert scale questions and so you need to calculate multiple Cronbach
alphas.
Charles
Reply
69.
Raman says:
Hi Charles,
My querry regarding Cronbachs alpha values. No of respondand =100, The questionaire
having 5 point scale ans consisit of 22 input and 4 output facors. I used the procedure
expalined by you in figure 1. I got value. But some researcher are showing Cronbachs
alpha values for every input and output factors. If there need to compute the value if
Cronbachs alpha for for every input and output factors. If yes then how.. Kindly do
needfull
Reply
Charles says:

Raman,
I dont know what you mean by input and output factors in the context of
Cronbachs alpha.
Charles
Reply
70.
Sammie says:
For example 1, can you explain why cells B20 and B21 do not have the same value? Im
trying to follow the formulas, but it seems like M17 in B20 would have the same value as
the result of the formula for B21. Thank you!
Reply
Charles says:

Sammie,
B21 contains the variance of the row sums, i.e. VARP(M4:M15), while B20
contains the sum of the variances of the column sums, i.e. SUM(B17:L17). There
is no reason why these should be equal.
Charles
Reply
71.
Raman says:
Thanks Charles for ur kind reply. I want to check the influence of input parameres on the
output parameters of a system. for this questionnaire study was performed.
the data collected table has 100 rows and 15 column.
I got the single value of Cronbachs alpha. If there need to compute the value if
Cronbachs alpha for every column. If yes then how.. Kindly do needfull
Reply
Charles says:
Raman,
In the examples I have given on the referenced webpage, the columns correspond
to items in a questionnaire (these are variables). Not only dont you need to
compute Cronbachs alpha for each column, but such a calculation would yield an
error since Cronbachs alpha requires more than one item. On the website,
however, Cronbachs alpha on one column corresponds to Cronbachs alpha on all
the item leaving out that one column. This tells you the influence that specific
item has on the entire questionnaire.

Charles
Reply
Raman says:

Thanks a lot
Reply
72.
Brenda says:
Hello,
Thank you for this very helpful site! I am curious about the use of Excels VarS function
(instead of VarP). I notice you use VarP above, and Im wondering why that is. If I
understand Excels explanation, VarS would be used for a sample whereas VarP is used
for a population. Wouldnt most, if not all, of the scales we may develop require the
formula for sample variance? Can you help me understand your choice to use VarP so
that I can distinguish its use in my application of Cronbachs Alpha for scales I am
creating?
Thank you in advance,
Brenda
Reply
Charles says:

Brenda,
This is more of a mathematical issue. If you replace Var.P by Var.S throughout
you will get the very same answer (since the n or n-1 terms in the denominator
cancel out).
Charles
Reply
Brenda says:

Oh yes, of course! Thank you!
Reply
73.
Raman Kumar says:

Hello Sir,
Firstly i want to say thanks for helping me to compute Cronbachs alpha Value.
I go through almost all study material provided by you. But still in confusion which more
statistical tools can be implement on my questionnaire data.
There are 22 input and 4 output.
I collected data for every input with respect to every output on likert scale
Q1 Rate the effect of Input 1 on Output 1
(Importance scale for every question)
(Extremely (Very Neither Imp (Very (Extremely
Important) Important) Nor UnImp. Unimportant) Unimportant)
12345

and so on
Q 87 Rate the effect of Input 22 on Output 3
The no of respondent : 100
Thanking you in anticipation
Reply
Charles says:

Raman,
If I understand correctly, you have 88 questions using a Likert scale of 1 to 5 and
100 subjects. This is just like Example 4 of the referenced webpage but with 100
rows and 88 columns. You can use the CRONALPHA function or the Reliability
data analysis tool to calculate Cronbachs alpha.
Charles
Reply
Raman Kumar says:

Sir,
I have computed the value of Cronbach alpha.
But my query is now let me know which more tools such as Z test,
correlaion, regression, factors could be used. The objective of my survey
is to examine the impact of input factor in output.
Reply
Charles says:

Raman,
The phrase examine the impact of input factor in output is too
vague. You need to create a hypothesis and then decide which test
best tests this hypothesis.
Charles
Reply
Raman Kumar says:

Sir,
Thanks for replying
i want to know how many input parameters significantly
influence output1; how many parameters significantly
influence output2,parameters significantly influence
output3, parameters significantly influence output4.
Charles says:
Raman,
What do you mean by significantly influence?
Charles
74.
Raman says:
Sir,
I want to know which input or inputs (out of 22) has more impact on output 1
which input/ inputs (out of 22) has more impact on output 2
which input/ inputs (out of 22) has more impact on output 3
which input/inputs (out of 22) has more impact on output 4
Reply
Charles says:

Raman,
Sorry, but the term more impact is unclear to me.
Charles
Reply
75.
K says:
March 2, 2015 at 1:57 pm
Good day sir.
In my experiment survey of Y/N(1-0) questions, where all 3 questions got a perfect score
of 1 from 15 respondents, I was not able to compute the alpha. The value of all the
variances is 0.
The final result is k=3, eVar=0, var=0.
What could it mean?
Is it also possible to get a perfect score of 1 or 0 for the alpha? What would each result
mean?
Thank you.
-K
Reply
Charles says:
March 3, 2015 at 8:51 am
K,
Unfortunately, in these circumstances Cronbachs alpha is undefined because of
division by zero. The good news is that all the respondents answered the same
way, it is pretty easy to make evaluate the effectiveness of the survey even
without using Cronbachs alpha.
If on each of the three questions the subjects didnt have identical scores, but if
each subject got the same score on all three questions, then Cronbachs alpha
would be 1.
If you assign all scores of 0 or 1 at random, then Cronbachs alpha is likely to be

low (even negative).
Charles
Reply
76.
AriesMW says:
March 6, 2015 at 7:50 am
Hi Charles,
I am so glad to find your website. Your demonstration of how to calculate Cronbach
alpha is very relevant to my research. May I ask you one question?
I used a spelling test from a published study for my own research and I want to report the
internal consistency reliability of this test based on the data I have collected. The spelling
test examines how students spell four English vowel sounds. In such case, do I need to
calculate Cronbach alpha for each target vowel sound? Is it appropriate to calculate
Cronbach alpha for all items (all sounds) and report internal consistency reliability of the
whole test?
Thank you so much for helping me.
Reply
Charles says:
March 6, 2015 at 9:47 am

If the test is for spelling of vowel sounds then one Cronbachs alpha should be
sufficient, but if you suspect there may be differences between vowels then I
would compute separate Cronbachs alphas for each vowel sound. I would do
both and explain the results.
Charles
Reply
AriesMW says:
March 8, 2015 at 2:47 am
Thank you very much for answering my question.

Reply
77.
watan says:
March 14, 2015 at 11:48 am
Dear sir,
I want to use a test with high zero frequency in scoring , if the answer is rarely or
sometimes or never then the score is equal zero (represent the same number) ?! so
Cronbachs alpha is low ?! but if I insert the data as, never represent=6 , rarely=5,
sometimes=4,usually=3, often=2, always=1 then Cronbachs alpha will increase !!
can I do that only to calculate Cronbachs alpha ?! I mean changing the scoring only for
the pilot study?!
Best,,
Reply
Charles says:
March 14, 2015 at 6:56 pm

I just recalculated Example 4 on the referenced webpage using a Likert coding of
0 to 6 (instead of 1 to 7) by reducing each code by 1. The calculated value of
Cronbachs alpha did not change. Is this the sort of thing you are referring to?
Charles
Reply
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Real Statistics Resources
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o Reliability
Split-Half Methodology
Kuder-Richardson Formula 20
Cronbachs Alpha
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Weighted Kappa
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Real Statistics Using Excel

Everything you need to do real statistical analysis using Excel

and Cronbachs alpha is defined to be

. Then the reliability of x0 where is

Figure 1 Cronbachs Alpha for Example 1

Figure 2 Key formulas for the worksheet in Figure 1

Figure 3 Cronbachs Alpha for Example 2

Figure 4 Key formulas for worksheet in

Example 3: Calculate the Cronbachs alpha for Example 1 using ANOVA.

Figure 5 Calculation of Cronbachs alpha using ANOVA

Figure 6 Calculation of Cronbachs alpha for Example 4

Figure 7 Dialog box for Reliability data analysis tool

Figure 8 Cronbachs alpha option of Reliability data analysis tool

175 Responses to Cronbachs Alpha

Hammad Anjum says:

May 29, 2014 at 1:12 pm

May 29, 2014 at 1:36 pm

August 25, 2014 at 5:43 pm

Mary Ann says:

alberto rivas says:

December 15, 2013 at 8:18 am

January 14, 2014 at 7:45 am

January 20, 2014 at 6:37 pm

January 16, 2014 at 8:01 am

February 1, 2014 at 4:53 pm

joseph mukolwe says:

July 17, 2014 at 7:21 pm

joseph mukolwe says:

July 17, 2014 at 7:28 pm

July 17, 2014 at 11:04 pm

March 8, 2014 at 7:06 pm

March 10, 2014 at 9:18 pm

Colleen Royle says:

March 14, 2014 at 6:59 am

April 4, 2014 at 7:39 am

April 4, 2014 at 7:34 am

I have a mixture of variables Nominal, Ordinal and scale.

James Selby says:

April 15, 2014 at 8:20 pm

noor hafizah hassan says:

Seems it does not clear with me here..

April 16, 2014 at 6:49 am

April 26, 2014 at 7:32 am

April 26, 2014 at 7:39 am

April 29, 2014 at 4:09 pm

statistics.com/reliability/ for more details.

May 27, 2014 at 7:07 am

June 15, 2014 at 5:15 pm

I have multiple choice question with one correct answer

June 14, 2014 at 7:16 pm

June 16, 2014 at 1:40 pm

June 29, 2014 at 11:55 am

June 30, 2014 at 5:02 pm

July 2, 2014 at 4:12 pm

July 6, 2014 at 7:33 pm

July 14, 2014 at 7:40 am

Hi, I am currently working on my research. I face problem when i generating Cronbach

July 20, 2014 at 9:38 pm

August 21, 2014 at 7:12 am

August 25, 2014 at 2:56 am

Rizalina G. Gomez says:

Is it possible to determine the reliability of a survey questionnaire even if there are no

August 23, 2014 at 6:57 am

August 31, 2014 at 7:44 am