UNIVERSITY VISON

The Premier University in historic

Cavite recognized for excellence
in the development of globally
competitive and morally upright
individuals.

Republic of the Philippines

CAVITE STATE UNIVERSITY

(CvSU)
Don SeverinoDelas Alas Campus
Indang, Cavite

College of Nursing

Homework

CANCER

Submitted By:
Ayr Hershel D. Masenas
Bsn 4-1
Submitted to:
Mrs. Evelyn M. Del Mundo, RN, MAN

July 11, 2014

UNIVERSITY MISSION
Cavite State University shall provide
excellent, equitable and relevant
educational opportunities in the arts,
science and technology through quality
instruction and relevant research and
development activities. It shall produce
professional, skilled and morally upright
individuals for global competitiveness.

Radical Prostatectomy
A radical prostatectomy is an operation to remove the prostate gland and some of the
tissue around it. It is done to remove prostate cancer. This operation may be done by open
surgery. Or it may be done by laparoscopic surgery through small incisions.

Open surgery
In open surgery, the surgeon makes an incision to reach the prostate gland. Depending
on the case, the incision is made either in the lower belly or in the perineum between
the anus and the scrotum.
When the incision is made in the lower belly, it is called the retropubic approach. The
surgeon may also remove lymph nodes in the area so that they can be tested for cancer.
When the incision is made in the perineum, it is called the perineal approach. The
recovery time after this surgery may be shorter than with the retropubic approach. If the
surgeon wants to remove lymph nodes for testing, he or she must make a separate incision. If
the lymph nodes are believed to be free of cancer based on the grade of the cancer and results
of the PSA test, the surgeon may not remove lymph nodes.

Laparoscopic surgery
For laparoscopic surgery, the surgeon makes several small incisions in the belly. A
lighted viewing instrument called a laparoscope is inserted into one of the incisions. The
surgeon uses special instruments to reach and remove the prostate through the other
incisions.
Laparoscopic surgery may be done by hand. But some doctors now do it by guiding
robotic arms that hold the surgery tools. This is called robot-assisted prostatectomy.

Robotic-assisted laparoscopic radical prostatectomy - is surgery done through small

incisions in the belly with robotic arms that translate the surgeon's hand motions into
finer and more precise action. This surgery requires specially trained doctors.

What to Expect After Surgery

Prostatectomy usually requires general anesthesia and a hospital stay of 2 to 4 days. A
thin, flexible tube called a catheter usually is left in your bladder to drain your urine for 1 to 3
weeks. Your doctor will give you instructions about how to care for your catheter at home.
Bladder control can be poor for a few months after the catheter is removed.
Although prostatectomy often removes all cancer cells, be sure to get follow-up care. This
may lead to early detection and treatment if your cancer comes back. Your regular follow-up
program may include:

Physical exams.

Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) tests, to watch PSA levels and to measure the speed
of any changes in those levels.

Digital rectal exams.

Biopsies as needed, to look at suspicious tissue.

Why It Is Done
Radical prostatectomy is most often used if testing shows that the cancer has not spread
outside the prostate.
Radical prostatectomy is sometimes used to relieve urinary obstruction in men with more
advanced (stage III) cancer. But a different operation, called a transurethral resection of the
prostate (TURP), is most often used for that purpose. Surgery usually is not considered a cure
for advanced cancer. But it can help relieve symptoms.
How Well It Works
Radical prostatectomy is generally effective in treating prostate cancer that has not
spread. This is called early-stage cancer. Following surgery, the stage of the cancer can be
determined based on how far it has spread. PSA levels will drop almost to zero if the surgery
successfully removes the cancer and the cancer has not spread. If cancer has spread,
advanced cancer may develop even after the prostate has been removed.
For men younger than 65 who have early-stage cancer (stages I and II, also called
localized prostate cancer), those who had surgery lived longer than those who used active
surveillance. But for men older than 65 with early-stage cancer, those who chose surgery
lived just as long as men who chose other treatments, including active surveillance.
Studies show that how well you come through the surgery and the extent of your side effects
depend more on the skill of your surgeon than on the kind of surgery you have.
Risks
Erection problems

Erection problems are one of the serious side effects of radical prostatectomy. The nerves
that control a man's ability to have an erection lie next to the prostate gland. They often
are damaged or removed during surgery. Sometimes these nerves can be spared during
surgery to preserve erections.

About half of men are able to regain some of their ability to have erections. But this takes
time. It can take as little as 3 months. But for most men, it will be 6 months to a year.
Recovery depends on:

Whether the man was able to have an erection before surgery.

How the surgery affected the nerves that control erections.

How old the man was at the time of surgery.

Medicines such as :

Sildenafil (Viagra)

Tadalafil (Cialis)

Vardenafil (Levitra)

Mechanical aids may help men who are impotent because of treatment.

*Using medicines soon after surgery may help men regain sexual function. Talk with your doctor
about your concerns.

Urinary incontinence
Up to half of all men who have a radical prostatectomy develop urinary incontinence,
ranging from a need to wear urinary incontinence pads to occasional dribbling.
The urethrathe tube that carries urine from your bladderruns through the middle of
the doughnut-shaped prostate gland. To remove the prostate, the surgeon must cut the urethra
and later reconnect it to the bladder. Evidence shows that the greater the surgeon's experience
and skill in making this reconnection, the lower the rate of incontinence.

Complications
Radical prostatectomy is major surgery. So it carries the same general risks as other major
operations, including:

Heart problems

Blood clots

Allergic reaction to anesthesia

Blood loss

Infection of the wound.

Also, these complications can be caused by radical prostatectomy:

Erection problems

Urinary incontinence

Damage to the urethra

Damage to the rectum

Colectomy
Colectomy is a surgical procedure to remove all or part of your colon. Your colon, also
called your large intestine, is a long tube-like organ at the end of your digestive system.
Colectomy may be necessary to treat or prevent diseases and conditions that affect your
colon.
There are various types of colectomy operations:

Total colectomy involves removing the entire colon.

Partial colectomy involves removing part of the colon and may also be called subtotal
colectomy.

Hemicolectomy involves removing the right or left portion of the colon.

Proctocolectomy involves removing both the colon and rectum.

Colectomy surgery usually requires other procedures to reattach the remaining portions of
your digestive system and permit waste to leave your body.

Colostomy
A colostomy is a surgical procedure that brings a portion of the large intestine through the
abdominal wall to carry feces out of the body.
Purpose
Colostomy is created as a means to treat various disorders of the large intestine, including
cancer, obstruction, inflammation bowel disease, ruptured diverticulum, and ischemia
(compromised blood supply), or traumatic injury. Temporary colostomies are created to divert
stool from injured or diseased portions of the large intestine, allowing rest and healing.

Types of colostomies
1. Transverse colostomies
The transverse colostomy is in the upper abdomen, either in the middle or toward the
right side of the body. This type of colostomy allows the stool to leave the body before it reaches
the descending colon. Some of the colon problems that can lead to a transverse colostomy
include:

Diverticulitis. This is inflammation of diverticula (little sacs along the colon). It can cause
abscesses, scarring with stricture (abnormal narrowing), or rupture of the colon and
infection in severe cases.
Inflammatory bowel disease
Cancer
Obstruction (blockage)
Injury
Birth defects

There are 2 types of transverse colostomies: the loop transverse colostomy and the double-barrel
transverse colostomy.
a) Loop transverse colostomy: The loop colostomy may look like one very large
stoma, but it has 2 openings. One opening puts out stool; the other only puts out
mucus. The colon normally makes small amounts of mucus to protect itself from the
bowel contents. This mucus passes with the bowel movements and is usually not
noticed. Despite the colostomy, the resting part of the colon keeps making mucus that
will come out either through the stoma or through the rectum and anus. This is normal
and expected.
b) Double-barrel transverse colostomy: When creating a double-barrel colostomy, the
surgeon divides the bowel completely. Each opening is brought to the surface as a
separate stoma. The 2 stomas may or may not be separated by skin. Here, too, one
opening puts out stool and the other puts out only mucus (this smaller stoma is called
a mucus fistula). Sometimes the end of the inactive part of the bowel is sewn closed
and left inside the belly. Then there is only one stoma. The mucus from the resting
portion of the bowel comes out through the rectum.
2. Ascending colostomy
The ascending colostomy is placed on the right side of the belly. Only a short portion of
colon remains active. This means that the output is liquid and it contains many digestive
enzymes. A drainable pouch must be worn at all times, and the skin must be protected from the
output. This type of colostomy is rare because an ileostomy is better if the discharge is liquid.

3. Descending and sigmoid colostomies

Located at in the descending colon, the descending colostomy is placed on the lower left
side of the belly. Most often, the output is firm and can be controlled.
A sigmoid colostomy is made in the sigmoid colon, and located just a few inches lower
than a descending colostomy. Because there is more working colon, it may put out solid stool on
a more regular schedule. The sigmoid colostomy is the most common type of colostomy.

The stool of a descending or sigmoid colostomy is firmer than the stool of the transverse
colostomy. It does not have as much of the irritating digestive enzymes in it.
The bowel movement will take place after a certain amount of stool has collected in the
bowel above the colostomy. Two or 3 days may go between movements. Spilling may
happen between movements because there is no muscle to hold the stool back. Many
people use a lightweight, disposable pouch to prevent accidents.

*Others may need mild stimulation, such as juice, coffee, a meal, a mild laxative, or irrigation.

BRAIN CANCER
Brain tumors are the result of uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the brain. They can affect
children and adults, but are considered to be rare among both populations. Brain tumors can be
classified as malignant (cancerous) or benign (non-cancerous). Malignant tumors tend to be more
aggressive than benign types, but both are very serious and can be fatal. For educational
purposes, this article references subject matter related to malignant brain tumors affecting adults
only.

There are over 140 different types of brain tumors that can form in the brain. Brain tumors can be
classified as primary or metastatic, depending on where they arise in the body. Primary brain
tumors originate in the brain and rarely spread outside of it. Metastatic tumors begin in another
part of the body and spread to the brain through blood or lymphatic tissue. Some cancer types are
more prone to spreading to the brain. These types includebreast cancer, kidney
cancer, melanoma, and lung cancer.

Brain Tumor Causes

Risk factors for brain tumors include:

exposure to radiation
family history of certain genetic disorders like neurofibromatosis, tuberous sclerosis, Von
Hippel-Lindau disease, and Li-Fraumeni syndrome
having a compromised immune system (more so associated with CNS lymphomas and
people infected with AIDS)

There are many unproven causes and risk factors that are being studies. Cell phone use and the
consumption of aspartame are two very controversial topics that some believe may cause brain
cancer. These are simply theories and still remain unproven despite the many studies that have
been conducted on the subjects.

Symptoms of Brain Tumors

Brain tumor symptoms vary based on the location of the tumor within the brain and the size of
the tumor. Severity of symptoms does not indicate how large a tumor is - small tumors can cause
severe symptoms.

Headaches are a common symptom of brain tumors, but are usually accompanied by another
symptom. Brain tumor associated headaches often have characteristics that set them apart from
headaches that re related to less serious conditions. Contrary to popular belief, headaches are not
usually the initial symptom a person experiences - it is actually a seizure or muscle weakness that
is most often the first symptom a brain tumor presents.

Other brain tumor symptoms include:

nausea and/or vomiting

visual and hearing disturbances
problems with memory
slower thought process
weakness on one side of the body or abnormal gait
fatigue or increased sleep
personality changes

Diagnosing Brain Cancer

One of the first steps in getting an accurate diagnosis is through magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI). This imaging test gives physicians an extraordinary view of the brain and this is often the
only test needed to identify the possible presence of a brain tumor. In some limited cases, a CT
scan may be used. PET scans, which help doctors see the activity of the brain, may help diagnose
primary brain cancer but their use is less certain with a metastatic disease.

Ultimately, it is a brain biopsy that confirms the malignancy and type of brain tumor present. If
tumors are present as shown on an MRI and a person suffers from a type of cancer that is known
to metastasize, then a biopsy may not be necessary. However, with types of cancer that don't
often spread to the brain, a biopsy is a vital diagnostic tool. Primary brain tumors most always
require a biopsy.

Brain biopsies can be done during times of surgical exploration or open surgery. The sample
tissue can be examined in the operating room, allowing the surgeon to make a decision about
whether to proceed with surgical treatment or not. More extensive evaluation of the tumor
specimen will also be done by a pathologist. It may take several days to receive results.
In some cases, a closed biopsy, also called a stereotactic biopsy, is performed when the tumor is
located in a region of the brain that is difficult to reach. It is the least invasive type of biopsy, but
does carry risks.

Treatment of Brain Tumors

Brain tumors are treated by an experienced group of medical professionals that may be called
your "treatment team." The team is composed of a neurosurgeon, medical oncologist or neurooncologist, radiation oncologist, and a pathologist. Many other supporting team members also
provide care, such as oncology nurses.
The tumor type, location, and grade will determine the treatment plan. Curative treatment is
possible with some tumors, while slowing the growth or simply relieving severe symptoms may
be the goal of treatment for others. Unfortunately, there may be no recommended course of
treatment for some brain tumors.

Surgical approaches in brain tumor treatment include tumor resection (complete removal) or
debulking (removing as much as possible). In some cases, surgery may be the only treatment
method that is required, but others may need other treatment methods, like radiation therapy.
Surgery followed by radiation therapy is common with many tumors, however. There are several
types of radiation therapy used to treat brain tumors. Again, tumor type, grade, and location are
key factors in deciding which type of therapy is best.

Radiation therapy does not come without risks, however. It can damage parts of the brain,
leading to cognitive decline, like memory loss and trouble concentrating. Swelling can be a side
effect, but can be controlled with corticosteroids. Radiation necrosis can also be a side effect of
radiation. In simple terms, it is the formation of irradiated brain tissue that has died and
developed into a mass. Surgery may be needed to to remove the dead tissue.
Chemotherapy may be utilized in some tumors that are known to respond well to chemotherapy
agents, such as CNS lymphoma, gliomas, or medullablastomas. Some higher grade tumors
respond well, but not all. Thus, chemotherapy is available to select patients whose tumors are
favorable to chemotherapy.

Targeted therapy drugs like Avastin are more precise than some chemotherapy drugs and often
come with less side effects. Drugs like Avastin work by cutting off the blood supply to the tumor,
preventing it's growth and shrinking the mass. Not everyone responds to Avastin, however, and
the cost of treatment can be expensive.

UTERINE CANCER
The uterus, or womb, is part of a woman's reproductive system. It's about the size and shape of a
hollow, upside-down pear. The uterus sits low in the abdomen between the bladder and rectum
and is held there by muscle. It's joined to the vagina (birth canal) by the cervix, which is the neck
of the uterus. The uterus is where a fetus grows.

The uterus is made up of two layers:

1. Myometrium: the outer layer of muscle tissue. This makes up most of the uterus.
2. Endometrium: the inner layer or the lining of the uterus.

In a woman of childbearing age, the endometrium changes in thickness each month to prepare
for pregnancy. If the egg isn't fertilized, the lining is shed and flows out of the body through the
vagina. This flow is known as a woman's period (menstruation).

When a woman releases an egg from her ovary (ovulates), the egg travels down her Fallopian
tube into the uterus. If the egg is fertilized by a sperm, it will implant itself into the lining of the
uterus and grow into a baby. Menopause occurs when a woman no longer releases the hormones
that cause ovulation and menstruation. A menopausal woman's periods stop, and she's not able to
become pregnant. The uterus becomes smaller and the endometrium becomes thinner and
inactive.

What is cancer of the uterus?

-cancer that begins from abnormal cells in the lining of the uterus (the endometrium) or the
muscle tissue (myometrium).

What types are there?

Uterine cancer can be either endometrial cancer or the less common uterine sarcoma.

Endometrial cancers
Most (about 3/4) of cancers of the uterus begin in the lining of the uterus. Types of endometrial
cancer include:

adenocarcinoma

This type starts in the lining of the uterus (endometrium).

adenosquamous
carcinoma
serous carcinoma
clear cell carcinoma

These types grow more rapidly and are typically more

aggressive than adenocarcinoma.

Uterine sarcomas

These develop in the muscle of the uterus (myometrium) or the connective tissue supporting the
endometrium, which is called the stroma. There are three types:
1. endometrial stromal sarcoma
2. Mllerian
sarcoma
carcinosarcoma
3. Leiomyosarcoma

or These types are rare, and they're more likely to

spread rapidly to other parts of the body.

What are the causes?

The exact cause of cancer of the uterus is unknown, but some factors seem to increase a womans
risk:

age: it's more common in women over 60

being postmenopausal: cancer of the uterus is most common in women who've been
through menopause
endometrial hyperplasia, a benign condition that occurs when the endometrium grows
too thick
never having children or being infertile
starting periods early (before age 12)
high blood pressure (hypertension) and diabetes
being overweight
a family history of ovarian, endometrial, breast or bowel cancer
previous pelvic radiation for cancer
ovarian tumors or polycystic ovary syndrome
taking estrogen hormone replacement without progesterone
using the drug tamoxifen for the treatment of breast cancer.

What are the symptoms?

The most common symptom of cancer of the uterus are unusual vaginal bleeding, particularly if
it occurs after menopause. Some women experience a watery discharge, which may have an
offensive smell.

Abnormal bleeding or discharge can happen for other reasons but it's best to check with your
general practitioner (GP). Other symptoms can include discomfort or pain in the abdomen,
difficult or painful urination and pain during sex