Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Desde el inicio de la revolucin industrial, el fenmeno de migracin campociudad, y el consecuente desarrollo de la vida urbana, las oportunidades para contactarse
directamente con la naturaleza se han reducido ostensiblemente. 1 Segn los datos
entregados por la Organizacin de las Naciones Unidad, ms de un 50% de personas en
todo el mundo viven actualmente en zonas urbanas, lo cual podra aumentar a 60% a
partir del 2030.2 En el caso de Estados Unidos, por ejemplo, cerca del 80% de la
poblacin vive en los suburbios de las ciudades o en otro tipo de centros urbanos 3. Otro
caso paradigmtico es Reino Unido, en donde alrededor del 90% de los ciudadanos
habitan zonas urbanas.4 Tal como afirma el PhD James Miller, cada vez ms de nosotros
viviremos en espacios altamente modificados por el hombre, ambientes en los cuales la
naturaleza es comnmente conceptualizada como algo utilizable, pero slo en un
sentido muy bsico (recursos naturales como el agua).
Actualmente el ser humano vive mayoritariamente en espacios altamente
artificiales-urbanizados, en donde la naturaleza ha sido relegada a cumplir un rol
marginal. Debido a dicha escasez, se genera una gran alienacin en el ser humano
respecto de la ecologa global, donde las experiencias con el medio ambiente no son
reconocidas, ni valoradas activa y positivamente durante el proceso de socializacin.
Considerado como organismo de evolucin animal, el ser humano enfrenta un proceso
de alienacin creciente cuanto vive y se desarrolla en un entorno artificial o construido,
cuya socializacin le aleja progresivamente de lo que se ha denominado razonamiento
biocntrico, ms propio de los nios que de la poblacin adolescente y/o adulta i. Sobre
lo anterior, se asume que los individuos viven en una situacin de desajuste respecto
del ambiente desde el cual evolucionaron.
En concordancia con lo anterior, en la ltima dcada se han reportado informes
epidemiolgicos que indican que el proceso dual de urbanizacin-urbanicidad fomenta
un estilo de vida poco saludable (cita). En comparacin con contextos en donde hay
presencia directa de naturaleza, los centros urbanos presentan mayores tasas de
enfermedades cardacas, diabetes, obsesidad y trastornos mentales (depresin, ansiedad,
abuso de sustancias y esquizofrenia, principalmente). En los espacios urbanos es comn
que la mayora de las actividades de los humanos (adultos y nios) se estructuren en
espacios cerrados, ya sea en lugares ligados al trabajo o al propio hogar. Por el
contrario, las actividades de ocio se focalizan principalmente en ver television, revisar
internet, u otras acciones en donde medie algn sistema digital-audiovisual.7 Dicho
fenmeno alentara varios procesos que tienen un impacto negativo en la calidad de vida
de las personas, como es el excesivo sedentarismo, la dependencia del mundo virtual, la
poca solidez de las redes sociales, etc. Adems, los sectores urbanos se caracterizan por
contar con estresores psicosociales mltiples, vinculados a un estilo de vida acelerado y
muy demandante. Todo lo anterior repercute en un nivel de calidad de vida bajo.
En resumen, un medio artificial desprovisto parcial o completamente de
elementos naturales, como plantas, parques o una visin de paisajes naturales, puede
resultar discordante y generar efectos negativos en la salud humana. A este respecto,
consciente de las dificultades asociadas a la permanencia exclusiva en recintos cerrados,
diversos autores han centrado su atencin en los beneficios asociados a la exposicin a
entornos naturales (Green Infrastructure), a la incorporacin de elementos naturales en
recintos hospitalarios (Nature in Healthcare Settings) y en el manejo positivo del estrs ii,
a partir de programas de actividad fsica al aire libre iii y bajo la forma de terapias
relacionadas con la horticulturaiv (HT) y la asistencia de animalesv (AAT). Ello en una
diversidad de campos clnicos que va desde el tratamiento del Alzheimer y demencia
References
1. Brymer et al. (2010). The Role of Nature-Based Experiences in the Development and
Maintenance of Wellness.
2. Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United
Nations Secretariat, World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision and World
Urbanization Prospects: The 2007 Revision
3. U.S. Census Bureau (2003) Statistical Abstract of the United States, U.S.
Government Printing Office
4. United Nations Population Division (2003) World Population Prospects: The 2002
Revision, United Nations.
5. Miller, J.R., 2005a. Biodiversity conservation and the extinction of
experience. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20, 430434.
6. Orr, D.W. (2002) Political economy and the ecology of childhood. In Children and
Nature: Psychological, Sociocultural, and Evolutionary Investigations (Kahn, P.H. and
Kellert, S.R., eds), pp. 279303, MIT Press.
Buzzell, L., Chalquist C.: Ecotherapy: Healing with nature in mind, San Francisco,
Sierra Club Books, 2009; Davis-Berman, Jennifer: Wilderness Therapies: Foundations,
Theories& Research. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co, 1994; Burns, G.
W.: Nature-Guided TherapyBrief Integrative Strategies for Health and Well-Being.
Brunner/ Mazel, Philadelphia, 1998.
Clinebell, H.: Ecotherapy: Healing ourselves, healing the earth. New York, Haworth
Press, 1996.
Kahn, P.: Children and nature: Psychological, sociocultural and evolutionary
investigations. Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 2000
Kaplan, R.: The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1989; Flager, J.: People-Plant Relationships: Setting
Research Priorities, Food Products Press, NY, USA, 1994; van den Berg, A.E.: Health
Impacts of Healing Environments: A Review of Evidence of Benefits of Nature,
Daylight, Fresh Air and Quiet in Healthcare Settings. University Hospital Groningen,
Groningen, The Netherlands, 2005; Huppert, F.: The science of well being, New York,
Oxford University Press, 2006; Lewis, C. A.: Green Nature/Human Nature: The
Meaning of Plants in our Lives. University of Illinois Press, Chicago, 1996; Wong, J. L.:
The Cultural and social values of plants and landscapes. In Stoneham, J. and Kendle, D.
(eds) Plants and Human Well-Being. The Federation for Disabled People, Gillingham,
1997.
Halliwell, E.: Up and running? Exercise therapy and the treatment of mild to moderate
depression in primary care, London: Mental Health Foundation, 2009; Mind
Publications, 2007; Richardson, C. et al: Integrating physical activity into mental health
services for persons with serious mental illness, Psychiatric Services, 56 (3), 324-331,
2005; Talbot, T.: Multi-purpose forests. Green Places, 30, 28-30, 2006; Parsons, R.,
Tassinary, L. G., Ulrich, R. S., Hebl, M. R. and
Grossman-Alexander, M.: The view from the road: implications for stress recovery and
immunisation. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 18, 113140, 1998; Rohde, C. L.
E. and Kendle, A. D.: Report to English NatureHuman Well-being, Natural
Landscapes and Wildlife in Urban Areas. A Review. University of ReadingDepartment
of Horticulture and Landscape and the Research Institute for the Care of the Elderly,
Bath, 1994.
Sempik, J.: Social and Therapeutic Horticulture: Evidence and Messages from
Research. Loughborough University, Reading, UK, 2003.
Shepard, P.: The others: How animals made us human. Washington, DC. Island Press,
1996; Kellert, S.: The biophilia hypothesis, Washington DC, Island Press, 1993;
Clayton, S.: Identity and the natural enviroment: The psychological significance of
nature, London, MIT Press, 2003; R. K. Anderson: The pet connection. Minneapolis,
MN, CENSHARE, University of Minnesota, 1984; A. Fine: The handbook on animal
assisted therapy: Theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice. New York,
Academic Press, 2000; T. Roszak: Ecopsychology: Restoring the earth, healing the
mind. San Francisco, Sierra Club Books, 1995; Maller, C., Townsend, M., Brown, P.
and St. Leger, L.: Healthy Parks, Healthy People: The Health Benefits of Contact with
Nature in a Park Context. Deakin University, Melbourne, 2002; Anderson, W. P., Reid,
C. M. and Jennings, G. L.: Pet ownership and risk factors for cardiovascular disease.
The Medical Journal of Australia, 157, 298301, 1992.
Fisher, A.: Radical ecopsychology: Psychology in the service of life. New York, SUNY,
2002
Chalquist, C.: A look at the Ecotherapy Research Evidence, Ecopsychology, Vol. 1,
N2, June 2009, p.4
Chalquist, C.: Terrapsychology: Re-engaging the soul of place. New Orleans, LA,
Spring Journal Books, 2007
Cooper, M.C.: Healing Gardens. Therapeutic Benefits and Design Recommendations,
John Wiley & Sons, New Yor, USA, 1999; Ulrich, R.S.: View through a window may
influence recovery from surgery. Science, 224, 420-421, 1984; Moore, E. O.: A prison
environments effect on health care service demands. Journal of EnvironmentalSystems,
11, 1734, 1981; Bringslimark, T.: The Psychological Benefits of Indoor Plants: A
Critical Review of the Experimental Literature. J. Environ. Psychol., 2009.
Crawford, C.: Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology: Ideas, Issues and Aplications;
LEA, New York, USA, 1997
Wilson, E.: Biophilia; Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, USA, 1984; Kellert,
S.: Building for life: Designing and Understanding the Human-Nature Connection;
Island Press, Washington DC, USA, 2005; Wilson, E. O.: The ecological footprint.
Vital Speeches, 67, 274281, 2001; Suzuki, D.: The Sacred Balance: Rediscovering Our
Place in Nature. Allen and Unwin, St Leonards, 1997.
Grinde, B. & Grindal G.: Biophilia: Does Visual Contact with Nature Impacto n Health
and Well-Being?; International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health,
6, 2332-2343, 2009; Grinde, B.: Can the concept of discords help us find the causes of
mental diseases? Med. Hypothesis, 73, 106-109, 2009; Louv, R.: Last Child in the
Woods. Algonquin Books, NY, USA, 2008.
Hartig, T.M.: Tracking restoration in natural and urban field settings. J. Environ.
Psychol., 23, 109-123, 2003; van den Berg, A.E.: Preference for nature in urbanized
societies: stress, restoration and the persuit of sustainability. J. Soc. Issues, 63, 79-96,
2007; Pretty, J.: Green exercise: The benefits of activities in green places. Biologist, 53,
143-148, 2006; Mitchell, R.: Effect of exposure to natural environment on health
inequalities: and observational population study. Lancet, 372, 1655-1660, 2008.
Kickbusch, I. (1989) Approaches to an ecological base for public health. Health
Promotion, 4, 265268.
Lawrence St. Leger (ed.): Health and nature- new challenges for health promotion,
Health Promotion, Vol. 18, N3, Oxford University Press, 2003
Kahn, P.: Children and nature: Psychological, sociocultural and evolutionary investigations.
Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 2000
ii
Kaplan, R.: The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK, 1989; Flager, J.: People-Plant Relationships: Setting Research Priorities, Food
Products Press, NY, USA, 1994; van den Berg, A.E.: Health Impacts of Healing Environments: A
Review of Evidence of Benefits of Nature, Daylight, Fresh Air and Quiet in Healthcare Settings.
University Hospital Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, 2005; Huppert, F.: The science of well
being, New York, Oxford University Press, 2006; Lewis, C. A.: Green Nature/Human Nature: The
Meaning of Plants in our Lives. University of Illinois Press, Chicago, 1996; Wong, J. L.: The
Cultural and social values of plants and landscapes. In Stoneham, J. and Kendle, D. (eds) Plants
and Human Well-Being. The Federation for Disabled People, Gillingham, 1997.
iii
Halliwell, E.: Up and running? Exercise therapy and the treatment of mild to moderate
depression in primary care, London: Mental Health Foundation, 2009; Mind Publications, 2007;
Richardson, C. et al: Integrating physical activity into mental health services for persons with
serious mental illness, Psychiatric Services, 56 (3), 324-331, 2005; Talbot, T.: Multi-purpose
forests. Green Places, 30, 28-30, 2006; Parsons, R., Tassinary, L. G., Ulrich, R. S., Hebl, M. R. and
Grossman-Alexander, M.: The view from the road: implications for stress recovery and
immunisation. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 18, 113140, 1998; Rohde, C. L. E. and
Kendle, A. D.: Report to English NatureHuman Well-being, Natural Landscapes and Wildlife in
Urban Areas. A Review. University of ReadingDepartment of Horticulture and Landscape and the
Research Institute for the Care of the Elderly, Bath, 1994.
iv
Sempik, J.: Social and Therapeutic Horticulture: Evidence and Messages from Research.
Loughborough University, Reading, UK, 2003.
v
Shepard, P.: The others: How animals made us human. Washington, DC. Island Press, 1996;
Kellert, S.: The biophilia hypothesis, Washington DC, Island Press, 1993; Clayton, S.: Identity and
the natural enviroment: The psychological significance of nature, London, MIT Press, 2003; R. K.
Anderson: The pet connection. Minneapolis, MN, CENSHARE, University of Minnesota, 1984; A.
Fine: The handbook on animal assisted therapy: Theoretical foundations and guidelines for
practice. New York, Academic Press, 2000; T. Roszak: Ecopsychology: Restoring the earth, healing
the mind. San Francisco, Sierra Club Books, 1995; Maller, C., Townsend, M., Brown, P. and St.
Leger, L.: Healthy Parks, Healthy People: The Health Benefits of Contact with Nature in a Park
Context. Deakin University, Melbourne, 2002; Anderson, W. P., Reid, C. M. and Jennings, G. L.:
Pet ownership and risk factors for cardiovascular disease. The Medical Journal of Australia, 157,
298301, 1992.
vi
Crawford, C.: Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology: Ideas, Issues and Aplications; LEA, New
York, USA, 1997
vii
Wilson, E.: Biophilia; Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, USA, 1984; Kellert, S.:
Building for life: Designing and Understanding the Human-Nature Connection; Island Press,
Washington DC, USA, 2005; Wilson, E. O.: The ecological footprint. Vital Speeches, 67, 274281,
2001; Suzuki, D.: The Sacred Balance: Rediscovering Our Place in Nature. Allen and Unwin, St
Leonards, 1997.
viii
Grinde, B. & Grindal G.: Biophilia: Does Visual Contact with Nature Impacto n Health and WellBeing?; International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 6, 2332-2343, 2009;
Grinde, B.: Can the concept of discords help us find the causes of mental diseases? Med.
Hypothesis, 73, 106-109, 2009; Louv, R.: Last Child in the Woods. Algonquin Books, NY, USA,
2008.
ix
Hartig, T.M.: Tracking restoration in natural and urban field settings. J. Environ. Psychol., 23,
109-123, 2003; van den Berg, A.E.: Preference for nature in urbanized societies: stress, restoration
and the persuit of sustainability. J. Soc. Issues, 63, 79-96, 2007; Pretty, J.: Green exercise: The
benefits of activities in green places. Biologist, 53, 143-148, 2006; Mitchell, R.: Effect of exposure
to natural environment on health inequalities: and observational population study. Lancet, 372,
1655-1660, 2008.
i
Buzzell, L., Chalquist C.: Ecotherapy: Healing with nature in mind, San Francisco, Sierra Club
Books, 2009; Davis-Berman, Jennifer: Wilderness Therapies: Foundations, Theories& Research.
Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co, 1994; Burns, G. W.: Nature-Guided TherapyBrief
Integrative Strategies for Health and Well-Being. Brunner/ Mazel, Philadelphia, 1998.
xi
Clinebell, H.: Ecotherapy: Healing ourselves, healing the earth. New York, Haworth Press, 1996.
xii
Fisher, A.: Radical ecopsychology: Psychology in the service of life. New York, SUNY, 2002
xiii
Chalquist, C.: A look at the Ecotherapy Research Evidence, Ecopsychology, Vol. 1, N2, June
2009, p.4
xiv
Chalquist, C.: Terrapsychology: Re-engaging the soul of place. New Orleans, LA, Spring Journal
Books, 2007
xv
Cooper, M.C.: Healing Gardens. Therapeutic Benefits and Design Recommendations, John Wiley
& Sons, New Yor, USA, 1999; Ulrich, R.S.: View through a window may influence recovery from
surgery. Science, 224, 420-421, 1984; Moore, E. O.: A prison environments effect on health care
service demands. Journal of EnvironmentalSystems, 11, 1734, 1981; Bringslimark, T.: The
Psychological Benefits of Indoor Plants: A Critical Review of the Experimental Literature. J.
Environ. Psychol., 2009.
xvi
Kickbusch, I. (1989) Approaches to an ecological base for public health. Health Promotion, 4,
265268.
xvii
Lawrence St. Leger (ed.): Health and nature- new challenges for health promotion, Health
Promotion, Vol. 18, N3, Oxford University Press, 2003