Fuel Cell Technologies

Fuel cells use a combination of hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity

and heat through a process called electrolysis. The hydrogen fuel can be
created in a number of ways, and a variety of technologies are being
explored by todays fuel cell developers for different applications.
Technology overview

A fuel cell requires an ongoing supply of fuel to create a continuous flow of

electricity. The fuels, hydrogen and oxygen, are fed to the two terminals of the fuel
cell and a chemical reaction occurs which produces electricity along with heat and
water. Fuel cells have great potential for a variety of applications, including
stationary and portable power uses and transportation.
Parts of a fuel cell system

While fuel cell systems can vary in a number of ways, they generally have three
main components: the fuel cell stack, the fuel processor, and power electronics. The
fuel cell system may also have a heat recovery system for converting excess heat
into usable steam, hot water, or electricity.
The fuel processor is the part of a commercial fuel cell system that produces a
supply of hydrogen fuel. The other fuel, oxygen, is readily available in the air, and it
is relatively simple to separate from nitrogen and other trace gases in the air. While
hydrogen is in great abundance on earth, it is not easily isolated for use as a fuel.
Currently, the most economical and practical source for hydrogen gas is fossil fuels,
such as natural gas, gasoline, methane, and propane, though in the future it may
become cost competitive to get renewable hydrogen from water via electrolysis
powered by renewable electricity generating sources such as the sun and wind.
These fossil fuels are all composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms. The fuel
processor frees the hydrogen from the carbon to produce a pure hydrogen gas for
the fuel cell stack.
The fuel cell stack is the heart of a fuel cell system. This is where the separate fuel
streams of hydrogen and oxygen physically come together, react, and create
electricity. This part of the fuel cell system is called the stack because layers of
individual fuel cell modules are stacked next to or on top of each other in order to
increase the power capacity of the system.
The type of electrolyte used in a fuel cell stack determines the necessary conditions
for chemical reactions within the cell, required catalysts, and operating temperature
range. Different characteristics are desirable for different types of fuel cell
applications; for instance, a fuel cell system operating at very high temperatures or
one with large size/weight requirements is not suitable for use in a small portable
application.

Power electronics comprise the third main component of a fuel cell system. The
electrochemical reaction that takes place in the fuel cell stack yields only direct
current (DC) electricity. Because most residential and commercial applications use
alternating current (AC), the power electronics convert the DC electricity to directly
usable AC electricity.
A heat recovery system may be used to increase the fuel cell systems overall
efficiency. It is most often used in systems operating at high temperatures, such as
solid oxide and molten carbonate systems. These systems are often most useful for
activities that require both electricity and heat, such as industrial processes.
To learn more, you can visit the U.S. Department of Energys Office of Energy
Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), which devotes part of its website to fuel
cells atwww.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells. The site includes an animated
introduction to how fuel cells work, and detailed information on fuel cell types.
Fuel cell types and applications

The three main applications of fuel cells are stationary installations, portable uses,
and transportation,.
Stationary fuel cells are the largest, most powerful fuel cells. They are designed
for installation in permanent settings such as hospitals, banks, airports, military
bases, universities, and homes. The market advantage of stationary fuel cell
systems is that they could provide a clean source of on-site power to a variety of
end users. These fuel cell systems have the potential to provide end users with
these added values:

Assured power in applications requiring high availability of power to maintain

the operation of mission critical equipment even when the electric grid fails.

Combined heat and power (CHP) applications where the thermal output of
the fuel cell can be used to meet the heating or cooling requirements of the
building being served.

Industrial applications that can capture waste gases to serve as a source of

hydrogen for fuel cell systems. For example, wastewater treatment plants
create hydrogen-rich, anaerobic digester gas.

Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEM), phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC),
molten carbonate (MCFC), and solid oxide (SOFC) systems may all be used for
stationary power. Alkaline fuel cells (AFC) are appropriate for military applications.
Portable fuel cells are small, contained fuel cells designed for a variety of
purposes. These units could provide back-up electrical generation for military,
temporary, or other niche applications. As technology advances and even smaller
fuel cells are constructed, the potential applications for portable fuel cells are

limitless. Laptop computers, cellular phones, video recorders, and hearing aids
could eventually be powered by portable fuel cells.
PEM fuel cells are well-suited for portable applications. AFCs were the first type of
fuel cells used for providing electricity and water aboard U.S. spacecraft, but are
not yet cost-effective for mainstream commercial markets.
Many vehicle manufacturers, including DaimlerChrysler, Ford, General Motors,
Honda, and Toyota, are actively researching and developing transportation fuel
cells for future use in cars, trucks, and buses. Because the electrochemical reaction
in a fuel cell is much more efficient than the burning process in a conventional
internal-combustion engine, fuel-cell vehicles are much more efficient than
conventionally powered vehicles. They also have advantages over battery-electric
vehicles because they do not need to be slowly recharged, but can instead be
refueled quickly at a filling station much like conventional cars.
These fuel cells will need to be relatively small, light, and durable. The
manufacturers will also need to overcome the real but solvable challenges
associated with storing hydrogen gas onboard vehicles. Currently, PEMs are the
focus of transportation research, along with PAFC.
Emerging fuel cell technologies

Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC) are a relatively new type of fuel cell in which pure
methanol is mixed with steam to release hydrogen inside the fuel cell, rather than
having a separate reformer to release the hydrogen from methanol, ethanol, and
hydrocarbon fuels. Methanol is also easier to transport and store than pure
hydrogen. DMFC technology is several years behind most other fuel cell
technologies, but may be a promising option for future fuel cell applications like
transportation.
Regenerative fuel cells are another new type of fuel cell, and have the advantage of
using renewable energy to generate power. A solar-powered process called
electrolysis is used to separate water into hydrogen and oxygen, which are fed into
the fuel cell. The byproducts of the reaction are electricity, water, and heat. The
water is fed back into the electrolyser (where electrolysis takes place), and the
process repeats, forming a closed, continuous loop of electricity production. NASA
and other groups are currently researching this technology.
Fuel Cell benefits and limitations

It is important to remember that, while fuel cells present a number of potential

environmental and efficiency advantages, there are also economic barriers and
environmental drawbacks that must be overcome before large-scale fuel cell
technology adoption can occur. In the next section, we discuss Fuel Cell Benefits
and Barriers.
http://www.masstech.org/cleanenergy/fuelcell/technology.htm

Fuel Cells: Environmental Impacts

Fuel cells are potentially a very clean, environmentally-friendly source of
energy due to their super-efficient use of fuel for electricity and heat.
However, reliance on fossil fuels should be reduced and hydrogen leakage
concerns addressed for the technology to be as green as possible.
Environmental benefits

Fuel cells currently rely primarily on natural gas, a fossil fuel, to create the
hydrogen need to produce electricity and heat. However, because this technology
uses its fuel so efficiently, it is widely considered a clean energy technology. Current
research into the use of solar, wind, and water power to create hydrogen may
eventually make this technology completely renewable.
Even though fossil fuels are consumed in the electrochemical reaction inside of a
fuel cell, fuel cells do not do not produce the same unhealthy air pollution emissions
that are generated by burning gasoline in cars or burning coal and other fossil fuels
in power plants. With fuel cells, there is no combustion, so fewer gases are released
into the environment. For example, almost no sulfur oxides (SOx) or nitrogen
oxides (NOx) are emitted, and emissions do not include any particulate matter. The
greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) is an additional byproduct, but the high
electrical efficiency of fuel cells provides much more electricity per unit of carbon
released than conventional generators of similar size. Because these emissions are
so low, certifications and permits are rarely needed to install commercial fuel cell
systems.
Current research indicates that fuel cells could use hydrogen produced by
electrolysis that is powered by electricity from renewable wind, solar, and water
sources. If these solutions are implemented in the long run, the environmental
benefits would be even greater. In that case, the only outputs of fuel cells would be
electricity, heat, and water vapor (produced when the hydrogen and oxygen
combine in the fuel cell).
Environmental drawbacks

While fuel cells have the potential to be a very clean source of energy if the
hydrogen generation process uses renewable sources, current government-funded
research requires the use of fossil fuels to produce the vast majority of hydrogen
for fuel cells. Without a trend towards increased use of renewables for hydrogen
production, the technologys environmental benefits will continue to be somewhat
offset by its reliance on fossil fuels.

There are also concerns that, in a large-scale hydrogen economy where hydrogen is
used to power fuel cells and related technologies in a variety of applications,
manufacturing, storing, and transporting hydrogen would result in leaks that could
accumulate in the upper atmosphere, and potentially deplete polar ozone layers.
Infrastructure designs that carefully eliminate the potential for leaks can minimize
this risk.

http://www.masstech.org/cleanenergy/fuelcell/impactenv.htm

Fuel Cells: Costs and Markets

Because fuel cells today are still in the research and development phase, the
production of fuel cell systems is extremely expensive. As the government, major
market forces, and new entrants to the market continue to explore and refine the
technology, fuel cell prices may come down and markets could expand.
Technology expenses

The biggest hurdle for fuel cells is cost. Although some fuel cell systems are in use
today, very few are currently cost effective. For stationary fuel cells, typical capital
costs for installed systems exceed $5,000 per kilowatt (kW)well above the target
capital cost of $1,000-$1,500 per kW used by most energy generation developers.
Fuel cells are currently more expensive because of research and development costs,
as well as the costs of the materials themselves. Some types of fuel cells require
expensive catalysts like platinum, or are highly sensitive to chemical impurities in
hydrogen and/or oxygen, which are costly to purify.
The lack of a hydrogen delivery infrastructure also makes commercialization of fuel
cells prohibitively expensive.
Early technology risks

Fuel cells are still in a relatively early stage of development and even the few
commercially available models have limited fleet operating experience. This
emerging technology requires risk-taking early adopters as end users in order to
ultimately expose more consumers to the benefits of fuel cells. As the technology
matures, adoption risks will decrease.
Many technologies that are currently mass-produced began as expensive research
endeavors. Costs can decrease rapidly as more technological advancements are
made. This can also be true for fuel cells; government and private funding for fuel

cell research allows scientists to continue optimizing the technology to make it

better and more cost-effective.
Job creation

An increased governmental and corporate interest in making fuel cells commercially

viable will lead to the expansion of fuel cell research and development,
manufacturing, and installation services. New companies may enter the fuel cell
market or provide peripheral products and services, and jobs for engineers,
manufacturing workers, contractors, and other professionals may expand.
Educators who can instruct students in application of fuel cell technologies may also
be in higher demand.

http://www.masstech.org/cleanenergy/fuelcell/impactcosts_mkts.htm

Fuel Cells: Reliability and National

Security
One of the greatest benefits of fuel cell technology is its high reliability, making it
ideal for emergency or backup power in critical facilities like hospitals, banks, and
security facilities. Todays fuel cells may also help us move towards national
independence from fossil fuels. However, fuel cell development must be advanced
further in order to fully realize these benefits.
Reliability and durability

Fuel cells have a distinct advantage over other clean generators such as wind
turbines and photovoltaics in that they can produce continuous and consistent
power as long as they are supplied with a steady supply of hydrogen. The ability to
produce continuous power makes fuel cells well suited for supporting critical loads
or emergency applications. The power output of fuel cells is also high quality in that
it is clean computer-grade power free from voltage disturbances such as sags,
spikes, or transients that affect the performance of some other technologies.
Another advantage of fuel cells is that the fuel cell stack (the powerhouse of the
system) does not contain any moving parts, which typically increase the risk of
mechanical breakdowns in other generators. As the technology matures, fuel cells
may become more reliable than conventional engines. In addition to low noxious air
emissions, fuel cells can produce significant amounts of electrical and thermal
power with much less noise than standard generators. These factors are viewed
favorably when siting fuel cell systems in populated areas and even inside facilities.

Several design improvements will greatly help fuel cells become more widely
accepted as a clean electricity source and will prove the adaptability of fuel cells to
a variety of applications. Systems must be smaller, weigh less, and become less
sensitive to chemical impurities. Along the same lines, certain fuel cell system
componentslike the cell stack which can require a costly replacement every one
to ten years, depending on the modelmust be developed to have a longer lifespan
or be easily and cheaply replaced. A longer lifespan will help fuel cells compete with
traditional systems like todays automotive engines.
National security

Because fuel cells consume fossil fuels more efficiently than the combustion
processes used in typical oil, coal, and gas applications, they have the potential to
reduce U.S. dependence on foreign fossil fuel sources. This benefit could be
enhanced if future fuel cell power comes from renewable sources rather than fossil
fuels.

http://www.masstech.org/cleanenergy/fuelcell/impactnatsecurity.htm

HYDROGEN BASIC
Fuel cells run on hydrogen, the simplest element and most plentiful gas in the universe.
Hydrogen is colorless, odorless and tasteless. Each hydrogen molecule has two atoms of
hydrogen, which accounts for the H 2 we often see. Hydrogen is the lightest element, with
a density of 0.08988 grams per liter at standard pressure, yet it has the highest energy
content per unit weight of all the fuels 52,000 Btu/lb, or three times the energy of a
pound of gasoline.
Hydrogen is never found alone on earth it is always combined with other elements such
as oxygen and carbon. Hydrogen can be extracted from virtually any hydrogen compound
and is the ultimate clean energy carrier. It is safe to manufacture. And hydrogen's chemical
energy can be harnessed in pollution-free ways.
Hydrogen generated from diverse domestic resources can reduce demand for oil
by more than 11 million barrels per day by the year 2040.
A good source of information on hydrogen is the U.S. Department of Energy's H2IQ web
page, as well as the overview book, Hydrogen & Our Energy Future, which expands on
DOE's series of one-page fact sheets to provide an in-depth look at hydrogen and fuel cell
technologies. This overview book provides additional information on the science behind the
technology how it works, benefits over conventional technology, its status, and
challenges and explains how hydrogen and fuel cells fit into our energy portfolio.
Together with partners, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) developed a
National Hydrogen Energy Road Map to provide a framework to make the
hydrogen economy a reality. This Road Map outlines the challenges ahead to
developing a hydrogen economy - including the necessary elements of a
hydrogen infrastructure for not only on transportation uses but also distributed

generation, since development of a hydrogen infrastructure would benefit both

applications.
The National Hydrogen Energy Road Map and other pertinent documents are
available on the DOE's Hydrogen, Fuel Cells, & Infrastructure Technologies
Program website.

Safety
Hydrogen is the perfect companion to electrons in the clean energy systems of the future.
But hydrogen is not perfect no fuel is.
Because of its high energy content, hydrogen must be handled properly, just as
gasoline and natural gas today require careful handling. Hydrogen is no more dangerous
than other fuels, just different.
Hydrogen-based fuels like town gas were used in many communities in the U.S. and
are still used around the world.
Hydrogen is made, shipped and used safely today in many industries worldwide.
Hydrogen producers and users have generated an impeccable safety record over the last
half-century.
Liquid hydrogen trucks have carried on the nation's roadways an average 70 million
gallons of liquid hydrogen per year without major incident.
Hydrogen has been handled and sent through hundreds of miles of pipelines with relative
safety for the oil, chemical, and iron industries.
Hydrogen and the Law: Safety and Liability - a powerpoint presentation with lots of
statistics and information on hydrogen safety.
Hydrogen Safety for First Responders - DOE's Introduction to Hydrogen Safety for First
Responders is a Web-based course that provides an "awareness level" overview of hydrogen
for fire, law enforcement, and emergency medical personnel, but also contains a lot of
useful information for everyone. This multimedia tutorial introduces hydrogen, its basic
properties, and how it compares to other familiar fuels; hydrogen use in fuel cells for
transportation and stationary power; potential hazards; initial protective actions should a
responder witness an incident; and supplemental resources including videos, supporting
documents, and links relevant to hydrogen safety. To receive print or CD versions of the
course, contact DOE's Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Information Center or call
1-877-EERE-INFO/877-337-3463.
Fuel Flexibility means Energy Security. Hydrogen can be produced from a
variety of sources:
Traditional: natural gas, gasoline, diesel, propane
Renewable/alternative fuels: methanol, ethanol, landfill gas, bio-gas, methane
Water: using electrolysis, solar or wind power
Innovative: sodium borohydride, algae, peanut shells

Storage
Because hydrogen is such a light gas, it is difficult to store a large amount in a small space.
That is a challenge for auto engineers who want to match today's 300-mile vehicle range,
but some recent vehicles have done it. Researchers are examining an impressive array of
storage options, with U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) support. Today's prototype FCVs
use compressed hydrogen tanks or liquid hydrogen tanks. New technologies such as metal
hydrides and chemical hydrides may become viable in the future. Another option would be
to store hydrogen compounds methanol, gasoline, or other compounds on board, and
extract the hydrogen when the vehicle is operating.

Delivery
Since fuel cells convert hydrogen into electricity, the main question on everybody's mind is
Where and how am I going to get the hydrogen to fuel up my fuel cell car? If auto
engineers choose to store hydrogen compounds on board the vehicle, tomorrow's fuel
infrastructure would look a lot like today's. Many other options are being explored to deliver
hydrogen to fuel cell vehicles (FCVs).

Centralized production and delivery. Hydrogen production and delivery services

including a limited pipeline system already serve the needs of today's industrial
demand.

On-Site Production. The energy station of the future might produce hydrogen on
demand from natural gas, other compounds or even water.

Innovative Approaches. Fuel cell products that generate electrical power sometimes
come with hydrogen generators called Reformers. An energy station might purchase one
of these units, use the electricity for operations and tap into the reformer to produce
hydrogen for vehicles.

Power from the sun. The ultimate solution might be solar powered hydrogen filling
stations, where electricity generated by the sun (or by a windmill) is used to extract
hydrogen from water. This is not as far out as it sounds. Two such stations already are
operating in Southern California.

http://www.fuelcells.org/hydrogen/basics.html
HYDROGEN CELL- BASIC FUEL

A fuel cell converts the chemical energy in hydrogen and oxygen into direct
current electrical energy by electrochemical reactions. Fuel cells are devices that
convert hydrogen gas directly into low-voltage, direct current electricity. The cell
has no moving parts.

13kW PEM fuel cell

(Photo: Ballard Power Systems, Inc.)

The process is essentially the reverse of the electrolytic method of splitting water
into hydrogen and oxygen. In the fuel cell, the cathode terminal is positively
charged and the anode terminal is negatively charged. These electrodes are
separated by a membrane. Hydrogen gas is converted into electrons and protons
(positive hydrogen ions) at the anode. The protons pass through the membrane
to the cathode, leaving behind negatively charged electrons. This creates a flow
of direct current electricity between the terminals when connected with an
external circuit. This current can power an electric motor placed in this circuit.
The hydrogen ions, electrons, and oxygen combine at the cathode to form water,
the only byproduct of the process.
The key element in a fuel cell is the ion (proton) exchange membrane. Its
purpose is to separate the anode and cathode to prevent mixing of the fuel and
oxidant and to provide an ionically conductive pathway for protons. Thus, its
required properties are high ionic conductivity (and zero electronic conductivity)
under cell operating conditions, long term chemical and mechanical stability at
elevated temperatures in oxidizing and reducing environments, good mechanical
strength with resistance to swelling, low oxidant and fuel crossover, pinhole free
structure, interfacial compatibility with catalyst layers and low cost.
Fuel cells have the potential for excellent efficiency and can convert up to 75
percent of the energy in the fuel. When a fuel cell
is used in an automobile, the automotive power
train must be converted to electricity. Fuel cells
may also be used as a stationary power source
supplying electricity for a utility company or
electricity to individual consumers.
In automobiles, there are two major advantages of
a fuel cell versus an internal combustion engine.
Honda FCX fuel cell vehicle, December
The first is that the fuel cell is approximately twice
2002. (Photo: Ballard Power Systems, Inc.)
as fuel-efficient (on a fuel-to-wheel basis). The
second advantage is the next generation of automobiles may be electricpowered. Storing electricity for automotive use can only be done the by use of
fuel cells. Battery technology cannot meet the weight, volume and range
required for todays automobile.
On the negative side, a fuel cell will cost $3,000 to $5,000 per kW compared to
$50 per kW for an internal combustion engine. Thus, reducing a fuel cells cost is
the major R&D challenge.
A fuel cell can operate on industrial waste hydrogen, hydrogen from propane, or
methane generated at the waste-water treatment plants. Ultimately, hydrogen
obtained from renewable resources such as solar, wind, or biomass energy will

provide a sustainable and clean source of hydrogen for fuel cell power
generation.
There are five types of fuel cells available:
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) - A PEMFC fuel cell
employs a solid organic polymer polyperfluorsulfonic acid electrolyte membrane
and operates at temperatures of 60-100 C. PEMFC applications include electric
utilities, portable power, and transportation. Its main advantages are that the
solid electrolyte reduces corrosion, operates at low temperatures, and delivers
quick start-up. Its disadvantages are that the cell requires expensive catalysts
and the cell has high sensitivity to fuel impurities.
Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC) - An AFC employs an aqueous solution of potassium
hydroxide soaked in a matrix electrolyte, and operates at temperatures of 90100C. AFC applications include military and space, and it is the technology that
has been used by NASA for more than 25 years. Its main advantage is that
cathode reaction is faster in the alkaline electrolyte, resulting in high
performance. Its disadvantage is the requirement for pure hydrogen, requiring
expensive CO2 removal from fuel and air streams.
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) - A PAFC
employs a matrix soaked with liquid phosphoric
acid. It operates at temperatures of 175-200 C.
PAFC applications include electric utility and
transportation. Its main advantages are that it has
up to 85% efficiency when used in cogeneration of
electricity and heat, and it can use impure
European fuel cell bus project,
hydrogen as fuel. Its main disadvantages are that
June 2002 (Photo: Ballard Power Systems,
it requires a platinum catalyst, has low current
Inc.)
and power, and requires a large size and weight.
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) - An MCFC employs a liquid solution of
lithium, sodium, and/or potassium carbonates soaked in a matrix. It operates at
600-1000 C. The main MCFC applications are for electric utilities. Its
advantages are its high efficiency, fuel flexibility and its ability to use a variety of
catalysts. Its disadvantage is that the high temperature enhances corrosion and
breakdown of cell components.
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) - An SOFC employs a solid zirconium oxide to
which a small amount of yttria is added. It operates at 600-1000 C. Its main
advantages are its high efficiency, fuel flexibility, ability to use a variety of
catalysts and reduced corrosion. Its main disadvantage is that the high
temperature spurs breakdown of cell components. For transportation
applications, the three key fuel cell challenges are cost (less than $50/kW of
engine power), durability (at least 5,000 hours) and rapid start-up (less than 30
seconds).
http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/consumer/hydrogen/basics/fuelcells.htm

Basics

A fuel cell uses the chemical energy of hydrogen to cleanly and efficiently produce
electricity with water and heat as byproducts. (How much water?) Fuel cells are
unique in terms of the variety of their potential applications; they can provide
energy for systems as large as a utility power station and as small as a laptop
computer.
Fuel cells have several benefits over conventional combustion-based technologies
currently used in many power plants and passenger vehicles. They produce much
smaller quantities of greenhouse gases and none of the air pollutants that create
smog and cause health problems. If pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, fuel cells emit
only heat and water as byproducts.

How Does a Fuel Cell Work?

A fuel cell is a device that uses hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and oxygen to
create electricity by an electrochemical process. A single fuel cell consists of
an electrolyte and two catalyst-coatedelectrodes (a porous anode and cathode).
While there are different fuel cell types, all fuel cells work similarly:

Hydrogen, or a hydrogen-rich fuel, is fed to the anode where

a catalyst separates hydrogen's negatively charged electrons from positively
charged ions (protons).

At the cathode, oxygen combines with electrons and, in some cases, with
species such as protons or water, resulting in water or hydroxide ions,
respectively.

For polymer electrolyte membrane and phosphoric acid fuel cells, protons
move through the electrolyte to the cathode to combine with oxygen and
electrons, producing water and heat.

For alkaline, molten carbonate, and solid oxide fuel cells, negative ions travel
through the electrolyte to the anode where they combine with hydrogen to
generate water and electrons.

The electrons from the anode cannot pass through the electrolyte to the
positively charged cathode; they must travel around it via an electrical circuit

to reach the other side of the cell. This movement of electrons is an electrical
current.
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/basics.html
ARTICLE

The general concept of a fuel battery, or fuel cell, dates back to the early days
of electrochemistry. British physicist William Grove used hydrogen and oxygen
asfuels catalyzed on platinum electrodes in 1839. During the late 1880s two British
chemistsCarl Langer and German-born Ludwig Monddeveloped a fuel cell with a
longer service life by employing a porous nonconductor to hold the electrolyte. It was
subsequently found that a carbon base permitted the use of much less platinum, and
the German chemist Wilhelm Ostwald proposed, as a substitute for heat-engine
generators,electrochemical cells in which carbon would be oxidized to carbon
dioxide by oxygen. During the early years of the 20th century, Fritz
Haber and Walther H. Nernst in Germany and Edmond Bauer in France experimented
with cells using a solid electrolyte. Limited success and high costs, however,
suppressed interest in continuing developmental efforts.
From 1932 until well after World War II, British engineer Francis Thomas Baconand
his coworkers at the University of Cambridge worked on creating practicalhydrogenoxygen fuel cells with an alkaline electrolyte. Research resulted in the invention
of gas-diffusion electrodes in which the fuel gas on one side is effectively kept in
controlled contact with an aqueous electrolyte on the other side. By mid-century O.K.
Davtyan of the Soviet Union had published the results of experimental work on solid
electrolytes for high-temperature fuel cells and for both high- and low-temperature
alkaline electrolyte hydrogen-oxygen cells.
The need for highly efficient and stable power supplies for space satellites and
manned spacecraft created exciting new opportunities for fuel cell development
during the 1950s and '60s. Molten carbonate cells with magnesium oxide pressed
against the electrodes were demonstrated by J.A.A. Ketelaar and G.H.J. Broers ofThe
Netherlands, while the very thin Teflon-bonded, carbon-metal hybrid electrode was
devised by other researchers. Many other technological advances, including the
development of new materials, played a crucial role in the emergence of today's
practical fuel cells. Further improvements in electrode materials and construction,
combined with the rising costs of fossil fuels, are expected to make fuel cells an
increasingly attractive alternative power source, especially in Japan and other
countries that have meagre nonrenewable energy resources. At the beginning of the
21st century, many electrical-equipment manufacturers were developing powergeneration equipment based on fuel cell technology.
The American military is funding development of small fuel cells for soldiers to carry
in their backpacks in order to power various electronic devices, for powering small

pilotless reconnaissance aircraft, and for powering robots to clear minefields.

Brooke Schumm, Jr.

http://search.eb.com.ezproxy.taylors.edu.my/eb/article-45868

any of a class of devices that convert the chemical energy of a fuel

directly into electricity byelectrochemical reactions. A fuel cell
resembles a battery in many respects, but it can supply electrical
energy over a much longer period of time. This is because a fuel cell
is continuously supplied with fuel and air (or oxygen) from an
external source, whereas a battery contains only a limited amount of
Proton exchange
fuel material and oxidant that are depleted with use. For this
membrane (PEM) fuel
reason fuel cells have been used for decades in space probes,
cell
Encyclopdia Britannica,
satellites, and manned spacecraft. Around the world thousands of
Inc.
stationary fuel cell systems have been installed in utility power
plants, hospitals, schools, hotels, and office buildings for both
primary and backup power; many waste-treatment plants use fuel cell technology to
generate power from the methane gas produced by decomposing garbage. Numerous
municipalities in Japan, Europe, and the United States lease fuel cell vehicles
for public transportation and for use by service personnel. Personal fuel cell vehicles
were first sold in Germany in 2004.
The United States government and several state governments, most notably
California, have launched programs to encourage the development and use
ofhydrogen fuel cells in transportation and other applications. While the technology
has proven to be workable, efforts to make it commercially competitive have been
less successful because of concern with the explosive power of hydrogen, the
relatively low energy density of hydrogen, and the high cost of platinum catalysts
used to create an electric current by separating electrons from hydrogen atoms.
http://search.eb.com.ezproxy.taylors.edu.my/eb/article-9106045
BOOK
hydrogen and alternative Technologies for reduction of U.s. oil Use and co
emissions
Estimating future transportation fuel use is difficult because of the complexities and
uncertainties inherent in the analysis. Petroleum may continue to be the dominant
fuel, or production may become constrained and prices rise much further. Hydrogen
may replace petroleum as the main fuel, or it may not become significant at all. As
discussed in Chapter 3, fuel cell vehicles and hydrogen have the potential to

become competitive with conventional vehicles and fuels, but it is far from certain
when that might be. Competitiveness depends in part on the cost of petroleum,
which itself is highly uncertain, as witnessed by recent dramatic escalations in world
oil prices. Nevertheless, as discussed in Chapter 2, there appear to be compelling
reasons why the nation may have to reduce its use of petroleum, and hydrogen is
among the leading candidates proposed to achieve dramatic reductions. Moving to
a hydrogen-based transportation sector would be a revolutionary change that is
unlikely to happen by itself. Mapping a route is essential to understanding how such
a change might happen. Toward that end, this chapter formulates and analyzes
several scenarios to map plausible futures for the use and impacts of hydrogen fuel
cell vehicles (HFCVs) and other alternative vehicles and fuels. The scenarios and
analyses necessarily depend on a host of assumptions. None of the scenarios should
be viewed as projections of what the committee thinks is likely to happen. Rather,
they are intended to describe different paths along which events may unfold and
the consequences, especially for oil consumption and carbon dioxide emissions.
sceNarios aNd aNalYsis scenarios The main object of the scenario analysis is to
estimate the maximum practicable penetration rate of fuel cell vehicles, and then to
estimate the resulting reductions of petroleum use and emissions of carbon dioxide
(CO 2 ) in 2020 and beyond; the investments that would be needed during a
transition period to bring hydrogen fuel cell vehicle technologies to cost
competitiveness with gasoline vehicle technology; and the costs for a future
hydrogen infrastructure. The committee developed three scenarios in order to
investigate the range of possible outcomes. The hydrogen scenario analyses are
based on the results presented in Chapter 3. In addition, as discussed in Chapter 4,
hydrogen is not the only way to reduce petroleum use. Two scenarios focused on
alternatives are analyzed, and a final scenario looks at combining all the
approaches.
Case 1 (Hydrogen Success) assumes that development
programs are successful, as shown in Table 6.1, and that policies are implemented
to ensure commercial deployment. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are introduced
starting with a few thousand vehicles in 2012, growing to a fleet of almost 2 million
by 2020, 60 million in 2035, and 220 million in 2050 (Figure 6.1). This rapid-growth
case corresponds to a scenario recently developed by the U.S. Department of
Energy (DOE) to 2025 (Gronich, 2007) and extended by the committee to 2050. By
2050, 80 percent of new vehicles sold are assumed to be HFCVs (Figure 6.2). This is
consistent with other recent modeling studies (Greene et al., 2007). Case 1a
(Hydrogen Accelerated) assumes that hydrogen and fuel cell vehicles are introduced
at twice the rate of Case 1, although technical and cost goals are met at the same
rate as Case 1. By 2020, 4 million hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are in the fleet. By
2050, 95 percent of new vehicles sold are assumed to be HFCVs This case is
intended to investigate whether hydrogen could replace even more oil than in Case
1 if the nation faces a crisis situation, perhaps from declining worldwide petroleum
production or rapidly worsening global climate change. Case 1b (Hydrogen Partial
Success) assumes that developing programs fall short of the costs and performance
of Case 1 (Hydrogen Success). Thus, the market introduction rate is slower than for

Case 1, similar to DOEs Scenario 1 (Gronich, 2007). By 2020, fewer than 1 million
HFCVs

Committee on Assessment of Resource Needs for Fuel Cell and Hydrogen

Technologies. Transitions to Alternative Transportation Technologies : A Focus on
Hydrogen .
Washington, DC, USA: National Academies Press, 2008. p 66.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/taylorscollege/Doc?id=10267581&ppg=88
Copyright 2008. National Academies Press. All rights reserved.
Transitions to Alternative Transportation Technologies : A Focus on Hydrogen
Committee on Assessment of Resource Needs for Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Technologies (Author)
Pages: 141
Publisher: National Academies Press
Released: 2008
Language: en
LC Call Number: TL221.13 -- .N38 2008eb
ISBN: 9780309121002
Dewey Decimal Number:
Subjects: Fuel cell vehicles -- Research -- Government policy -- United States. Hydrogen as fuel -- Research
-- Government policy -- United States.

http://site.ebrary.com.ezproxy.taylors.edu.my/lib/taylorscollege/docDetail.action?
docID=10267581&p00=fuel+cell
hydrogen Technology
This chapter reviews the hydrogen production and fuel cell vehicle technologies
that will be needed to establish a budget roadmap to achieve the maximum
practicable goal spelled out in Chapters 6 (U.S. Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) and Oil
Reductions from Hydrogen and Alternatives) and 7 (A Budget Roadmap, which
covers the R&D, vehicle, and infrastructure costs entailed in moving to a selfsustaining hydrogen-based system). It details how the hydrogen production and
delivery infrastructure might grow to meet the demand for hydrogen fuel and lays
out a picture of how the future hydrogen infrastructure could evolve to support the
growing number of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs), referred to as the maximum
practicable rate (MPR) of penetration, developed and discussed in Chapter 6. In the
MPR case, HFCVs are introduced starting with a few thousand in 2012, growing to a
fleet of 2 million in 2020, 60 million in 2035, and 220 million in 2050. In assessing
these developments, the committee analyzed hydrogen production, delivery, and
dispensing technologies and evaluated fuel cell and hydrogen storage. In doing so,

its members met representatives of major hydrogen fuel and auto companies that
have announced hydrogen programs, participated in studies of the National
Research Council (NRC) Committee on the Review of the FreedomCAR and Fuel
Partnership. (To allow for greater interaction, the two committees shared two
members.) It also met with U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) officials to review its
technical programs, conducted a detailed review of the literature with the help of a
consultant, and reviewed publicly available sources that have a history of
technology evaluations and/or product introductions. Resource calculations in
Chapters 6 and 7 include costs of both the HFCVs and the hydrogen infrastructure
(for production, delivery, and dispensing), and this chapter includes estimated cost
data for key technologies. The cost of the hydrogen fuel cell and onboard hydrogen
storage system on the HFCV will be critical to its competitiveness with alternative
vehicle technologies described in Chapter 4. The cost and technical status of
hydrogen producing and delivering technologies from various primary feedstocks
determined which technologies were included in the roadmap. This chapter focuses
on the least expensive, most fully developed technologies with potential for low
well-to-wheels (WTW) carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) release that are the most practical for
different stages of the move to hydrogen. Using the criteria of cost and stage of
technological advancement in this screening process effectively ruled out some
technologies that are in early development phases or have high current costs but
may have good potential for improvement. This fact does not imply that these
technologies are unimportant or will not play roles in the future. The committees
task included estimating the costs of building the infrastructure to meet growing
hydrogen demand during the transition to a self-sustaining hydrogen transportation
system (i.e., one without subsidies). The technologies chosen represent just one
scenario of what could happen. This chapter addresses the readiness of the
hydrogen production and delivery and HFCV technologies to begin to meet the MPR
case. Much of the current development of HFCVs is aimed at the year 2015 for the
most crucial earlystage technologies to be at the point at which decisions to move
to mass commercialization could be made. This focus is consistent with the MPR
case. hYdroGeN ProdUcTioN aNd deliVerY Hydrogen can be produced from various
resources, either in small facilities at the point of sale or in larger facilities farther
away and requiring delivery. Getting to a self-sustaining market will require an
evolution of the supply infrastructure to ensure the lowest possible costs and fuel
availability at all times. The long-term vision of the hydrogen production and supply
infrastructure is to produce large amounts of hydrogen from domestic resources
with low WTW CO 2 emissions and deliver this to customers at a cost that is
competitive with gasoline on a cost-per-mile traveled basis. The report

Committee on Assessment of Resource Needs for Fuel Cell and Hydrogen

Technologies. Transitions to Alternative Transportation Technologies : A Focus on
Hydrogen .

Washington, DC, USA: National Academies Press, 2008. p 18.

http://site.ebrary.com/lib/taylorscollege/Doc?id=10267581&ppg=46
Copyright 2008. National Academies Press. All rights reserved.

Transitions to Alternative Transportation Technologies : A Focus on Hydrogen

Committee on Assessment of Resource Needs for Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Technologies (Author)
Pages: 141
Publisher: National Academies Press
Released: 2008
Language: en
LC Call Number: TL221.13 -- .N38 2008eb
ISBN: 9780309121002
Dewey Decimal Number:
Subjects: Fuel cell vehicles -- Research -- Government policy -- United States. Hydrogen as fuel -- Research
-- Government policy -- United States.

http://site.ebrary.com.ezproxy.taylors.edu.my/lib/taylorscollege/docDetail.action?
docID=10267581&p00=fuel+cell
Hydrogen Storage Eased
By Eric Smalley, Technology Research News May 21/28, 2003 One of the biggest
challenges to using hydrogen as a fuel is finding a way to store it. The lighter-thanair gas makes the perfect fuel it contains three times the energy of liquid
hydrocarbons and when it reacts with oxygen to produce energy the only byproduct
is water but it isnt easy to contain. Todays hydrogen storage materials hold 2 to
4 percent of their weight in hydrogen, short of the 6.5 percent Department of
Energy goal for using hydrogen as automobile fuel. Researchers from the University
of Michigan, the University of California at Santa Barbara, the University of South
Florida and Arizona State University have discovered a new class of materials,
dubbed metal-organic frameworks, that are relatively inexpensive to make and have
the potential to reach the 6.5 percent mark. We are in sight of the DOE goal, said
Omar Yaghi, a chemistry professor at the University of Michigan. The discovery
promises to remove the principal stumbling block to hydrogen-powered cars, and
the method could be ready for production use within five years. Hydrogen storage
materials act like sponges, capable of filling up with certain gases and later
releasing them. The challenge is developing materials that hold useful amounts of
hydrogen, and that store and release the hydrogen easily. Current hydrogen storage
systems chemically bind powdered metal hydrides to hydrogen at high
temperatures. In November, researchers in Singapore developed a metal material

that holds more than 11 percent of its weight in hydrogen, but requires high
temperatures and pressures. Researchers are also exploring carbon-based
approaches, including carbon nanotubes, but these require very low temperatures.
It is easy to store and retrieve hydrogen using metal-organic frameworks materials,
said Yaghi. Hydrogen can be inserted into the material and then removed
reversibly with no change to the storage medium, he said. When the materials are
exposed to hydrogen at room temperature and under modest pressure, they take it
up immediately, he said. This is possible because hydrogen is adsorbed by rather
than chemically bound to the storage material, said Yaghi. Adsorption is the process
of gas or vapor atoms sticking to a surface. The hydrogen is physically attracted to
the walls of the [materials] pores, he said. This attraction makes it possible to
stuff more hydrogen molecules into a small area without requiring either low
temperatures or high pressures. Metal-organic frameworks are exceptionally
porous at the molecular scale, with surface areas of more than 3,000 square meters
per gram, according to Yaghi. They are basically scaffolds of linked rods, he said.
The materials have several other advantages, said Yaghi. Theyre made from lowcost starting materials including zinc oxide, which is used in sunscreen lotion, and
terephthalate, which is a component of plastic soda bottles. They are simple to
make, and manufacturing yields are high, he said. The researchers previously
showed that metal-organic frameworks can absorb voluminous quantities of
nitrogen and organic vapors, said Yaghi. Given the importance of hydrogen as a
fuel, we sought to examine the hydrogen storage capabilities, he said. The
researchers showed that it is possible to design metalorganic frameworks materials
that absorb incrementally more hydrogen. Their best prototypes store two percent
of their weight in hydrogen, but the materials have the potential to store much
more, said Yaghi. We have shown that we can systematically increase the hydrogen
storage capacity of these materials, thus identifying a clear path toward achieving
the DOE hydrogen storage goal, he said. The researchers are currently working on
increasing the hydrogen capacity of the materials and also on better understanding
the reasons the materials are able to absorb so much hydrogen, said Yaghi. The
researchers are also collaborating with BASF Corporation to use the materials in
practical applications. It will take from two to five years of development before the
material can be used in practical applications, Yaghi said. Yaghis research
colleagues were Nathaniel Rosi, David T. Vodak and Jaheon Kim from the University
of Michigan, Jurgen Eckart from the University of California at Santa Barbara and the
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Muhamed Eddaoudi from the University of South
Florida, and Michael OKeefe from Arizona State University. The work appeared in
the May 16, 2003 issue of Science. The research was funded by the National
Science Foundation (NSF), the Department of Energy (DOE) and BASF Corporation.
Timeline: 2-5 years Funding: Corporate, Government TRN Categories: Energy;
Materials Science and Engineering Story Type: News Related Elements: Technical
paper, Hydrogen Storage in Microporous Metal-Organic Frameworks, Science, May
16, 2003.

Patch, Kimberly (Editor); Smalley, Eric (Editor). Power Sources: Fuel Cells, Solar Cells
and Batteries.
"Boston, MA, USA": Technology Research News, 2003. p 13.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/taylorscollege/Doc?id=10041657&ppg=13
Copyright 2003. Technology Research News. All rights reserved.

Power Sources: Fuel Cells, Solar Cells and Batteries

Patch, Kimberly (Editor) Smalley, Eric (Editor)
Pages: 32
Publisher: Technology Research News
Released: 2003
Language: en
LC Call Number: TK2901 -- .P69 2003eb
ISBN:
Dewey Decimal Number:
Subjects: Electric power production from chemical action. Fuel cell industry. Solar cells. Electric
batteries.

http://site.ebrary.com.ezproxy.taylors.edu.my/lib/taylorscollege/docDetail.action?
docID=10041657&p00=fuel+cell