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UNIVERSITIES IN TIM
THE CASES OF RW
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Bru

Introduction

he pressure to participate in

T manifestations the requirement

university system. Historically,
monasteries than with marketplaces.
drawing people apart from the world
improvement. At its worst, the focuss
the irrelevance of the ivory tower. I
university, and particularly of the libe
real needs or wants of the people. M
should be changed from monastery to
comes with its own set of problems an
marketplace is no longer a university. N
between integrity and relevance are th
In a country undergoing the stress
integrity and relevance is all the mor
Burundi, where there is serious ethnic
life or death situation. And so, the m
suspect, as the stakes are higher. T
marketplace metaphor. If only the uni
economic wealth ofthe country, ifonly
ofliving, the national pressures would
is used in North America, it implies
expertise to raise the general standar
burdened with a serious crisis, the m
 GLOBALIZING AF'RJCA

the pressing problems that created the crisis and of preventing the crisis from
happening again.
In both Rwanda and Burundi, issues such as these are of central importance.
Both countries have borne great suffering in recent years. The human tragedy of
1994, with body counts as high as 850,000 is Rwanda's recent legacy.' In the case
of Burundi, there has been long-standing guerilla warfare, particularly since the
democratically elected government of President Sylvestre Ntibantunganya was
overthrown in a coup d'etat on 25 July 1996, and replaced by the military government
of Major Pierre Buyoya. Both countries endure regular ambushes and police
actions, and in both countries there are areas that are extremely volatile.
Such times raise serious questions for the university. Is this an institution that
can only exist, and can only have relevance, in a society that is stable and relatively
safe? Given that the institution already exists in both Rwanda and Burundi, how
might a real university exist in these conditions and not simply a group ofbuildings
in which some pale simulacrum of a university holds classes and hands out
degrees?
Answers to these questions will not be found in most writing on the nature of
the university. Books and papers on the liberal arts and university affairs are in
general overwhelmingly based on North American (and some European) experience,
which has a very defmite character. Unrest, for example, is put in terms ofindividual
deviance from generally accepted laws. Cultural conflict is often reduced to identity
politics. Peace is assumed to be the default condition. Democracy of some sort is
assumed to be the political system in which the university operates. The dominance
of science as a mode of knowing is accepted virtually without question. Relative
moral, political, and scientific superiority to the rest ofthe world is a given. And,
even when there is some attempt to think about the state ofthe university in other
cultures, it is almost always put in terms of "intercultural dialogue," which assumes
that the significance of those universities begins and ends with their relationship
to universities in North America or in Europe.
These conditions result in certain kinds of Western defenses ofthe university,
and of liberal education in particular, which may not be particularly relevant to
universities outside of North America, especially those in situations of national
crisis. Two of these defenses I will call traditionalist and progressivist. The
traditionalist sees the university as guaranteeing the continuity of the most
cherished values ofsociety, while giving the foundation for something like English
philosopher John Stuart Mill's marketplace of ideas. We hold on to what is best
from the past, and through the rational process of debate we build the future. The
crisis ofthe university, then, is put in terms of a loss of either the cherished ideas
or the diluted possibility of rational conversation. It should be noted that there is
a progressivist element in the traditionalist defense - recovering and maintaining
tradition allows for the possibility of developing and building on that tradition.
The progressivist defense, on the other hand, argues that the university is the
best tool for changing society for the better. This might be accomplished by
linking research to private enterprise, giving us the ability to tailor the university
to the most pressing of public (or even consumer) needs. Or, critiquing the

466
 society. In the first case, stability not
gives the space for rational discour
second case, society must be sufficien
only makes sense when there is a s
-sufficient level ofsecurity to be able t
the progressivist defense require a de
:the answer, which is held against the b
to try to link research to private enter
be found in most theneeds of the people are not consu
~ liberal arts and u
structures of power when those struc
\merican (and some, _ are in a tenuous position for some ot
it, for example, is putL. ,_._ ,.;'!",;,:' J!?l There are, of course, Herculean
~ultural conflict is ofte~~\fjfrfta¢n'iry places. The United Nations Educat
mit condition. Demo~:t~~t~~ls
(UNESCO), for example, has an exte
ich the university opeiat~.QWiI).anCe designed to assist in "capacity-build
epted virtually withbli~~irr{ve expertise in specific countries. Other n
tty to the rest of the'W'ltr:~~l~a, on higher education, North-South c
tk about the state or forth:These efforts could be thought
Df "intercultural dial is theiiolution to human problems, an
es begins and ends inadequate because oflimited unders
urope. __ oflocal universities must step in as th
ce~a,in place. However, that local res
inds ofWestern d' ­
which may not b tool, not unlike the colonial policies o
especially those over control of education, but always
~all traditionalis _
foreign economic requirements. Wh
~aranteeing the¥
happens when local needs come in co
~ the foundation f6 aside, it might also be noted that ca
place of ideas. W imply steady progress in conditions of
process of debat with the goals ofsolving intractable s
~rms of a loss o( growth. It requires national stability
nversation. It s trust of the society.
alist defense ­ So, capacity-building at worst m
eveloping and­ be a tool for ameliorating conditions
>ther hand, arg use ofthe tool- stability, cooperation
e better. Thi -­ university still have a place? Most
giving us the, university exists in certain social co
ven consum true? What if the university is in a soc

466
 GLOBALIZING AFRICA

before us comes in three parts: (1) How have the universities in Rwanda and
Burundi responded to the societal unrest? (2) What, ifany, is the role ofa university
in places as volatile as these? (3) What does this say about the nature of the
university in general?

The Cases of Rwanda and Burundi

Universite Nationale du Rwanda
The Universite Nationale du Rwanda (UNR) was founded by Catholic missionaries
and has been supported since the 60s by, among others, Quebec universities.
Before the genocide of 1994, it had campuses in Butare, Kigali, and Ruhengeri.
Most of the faculties were in the southern town of Butare. The arts and social
sciences were in Ruhengeri, and the law faculty was in the capital, Kigali. This was
a political decision as much as anything, for Ruhengeri was the home of the
President and a center of Hutu affairs. Butare, in the south, was seen as more
liberal and more Tutsi.
The vice-rector academic ofUNR, Dr. Jean Bosco Butera, suggested that the
university had at least an indirect part to play in the genocide. 2 The university had
emphasized technical training to the exclusion ofall else. It had taught everyone to
be efficient, and so when it came to killing, they all killed efficiently. Now, he said,
what was needed was "humanistic" education, which would enable the people to
find new ways to think through the state of the country. And, even if the university
had not directly fanned the flames of racism (although some members of the
university community were certainly accused genocide perpetrators), this does
not mean it bears no responsibility for failing to address racism. One can imagine,
in a society like pregenocide Rwanda, where the government at best turned a blind
eye to racism, and at worst contributed to it by issuing identity cards that carried
ethnic affiliation and by stipulating that any attack on racism by the university
could be regarded as an attack on the government. So, the university had many
reasons to train technically proficient but socially, ethically, and politically ignorant
people, and it had few reasons to resist this tendency.
The university, then, had been a witting or unwitting tool ofa racist regime.
Butera's comments seemed to indicate that the university's place in the new
postgenocide society was to contribute to the foundation of civil conversation
within society. The revamped priorities of the university reflect this. A top priority
was to train teachers and lawyers; the teachers, to be able to affect the new
generation before they reach university, and the lawyers, to be able to put the
justice system back on its feet. Another important change involved language ­
with the influx of Uganda-born Rwandans (mainly Tutsi), whose second language
is often English instead ofFrench, the university decided to require that all incoming
students spend the first year studying the European language they had not grown
up with. Before the genocide, everyone spoke both Kinyarwanda and French; the
introduction of English on a large scale and its identity with Ugandan-raised Tutsi
would suggest that there is yet another reason for tension. It was hoped that, after
language training, students would be able to take classes in either French or

468

lOs by, among others, Quebec universities.
campuses in Butare, Kigali, and Ruhengeri.
mthern town of Butare. The arts and social
tlW faculty was in the capital, Kigali. This was
(thing, for Ruheng~ri;was th~ home,of the
lirS. Butare, in th~ sou!h,,~as seen_. ,as more
-,'l­ -
':'" .. - ,". '''1-,::,c~,
, ::_;?:,J::"}£~f~r~!:~~~;;2o:,:i.~:;rid' ~~: . ",~_ ..-­
IR Dr. Jean Bosc() Btltera,~uggest~~that the
rt t~ play in the gen{)<s~q~~)bcy,,~~iX~,~~ityhad
exclusion ofall else. 1thadJaughtey~ry()pe to
", \':j~:J:;";:-:~- ";:o,);,'lt_r':'i:."'<_"-<:'_'~;'<f'%~{~'- ~}i
illing, they all kill~;~~~~X~g~;",he,sllid,
education, which ,~()~l~~,~+~lr~~Jj!'lPr-()ple.to
:tate ofthe country,e.J1d,~Y~n)fJ~~"l!I]Iverslty
I of racism (altho~~,i=~~Pf!~j8f the
lly accused genoc,i~~W~~~~tsW;;,\~~~ d.oes
or failing to addres,' . 'agme,
la, where the gove ··"iI'#,~~"~".".;"""",.,,,;g~)lind
.lted to it by issui~~,k?~~IT.s~w,~~~llJ,[Carri~d
g that any attack;'~~1~~;,c~~~~~\tt~i#,~~,:erslty
the government.§~~~~W¥~t~~~1Y.ji;}\111d.!TIany
It but socially, ethi ""... . . 1 jgn()rllnt
e-:.",
:esist this tendency
.a witting or unwi~~~~~;~~~J~\~,I;sl.regime.
dicate that the unk~1~~~~t8;~~~~~R~t!h~ n~w
ribute to the foun~i~~~,~~1.Y~9t~J:}xxrsat1?n
ities ofthe univer~~t~S}~4~J~};:;~~~mprionty
s; the teachers, to"t?~~k~~,~~gef~the new
rersity, and the la):~X~J.1j;t~0$f9¢,,;~pl~L,!() put the
Dother important c~img~jnYQIx"e<i,Illnguage
'" - "':,c' _,,~,_ ~"-rt'.v<~",,;
';4>'('''-'",­ ,. -
randans (mainly T~,t~J)'/1~r",9s,er.l!~s.?nd ~angu~ge
~e university decid,~gJ.,<atS'!\lirethat~~l mcommg
ing the European l~~gHag~th~y had not grown
:yone spoke both l(il}y~iWiuld~andFrench; the
scale and its identi~y' }Vi!9l1gandan:raised Tutsi
)ther reason for ten~iQI1YH"\Vas hoped that, after
ld be able to tak~,~l,l.\§i~,~in ~ither French or
468
. The university reopened after th
m Butare. The Ruhengeri campus had
fac~1ties, but th.at campus was almos
whIle the .physlcal plant of the But
Ruhengen campus had always been
to mention a. plum given to the Pre
:/:<, ,-.,.,.,~-' '''t. ',', ~F,> 'k"'­ ".,­ . '-',
always seen m the south as somethin
to the standards of the rest of the u
recentralization ofthe university: Th
nort~was !he,str(),nghold of radicalis
university' a"s a whole, rather tha
unders~andingof itself in this nation
centralI~.ed away~rom the area of m
wa~ also br~ught mto Butare, mostly
.Immedl~tely aft~r the. gen?cide
kmd ()fho!dmg p~ttern, sImply tryi
assum~tio? of a new rector, it under
self~cntiqlle'.todetermi~ewhatwas n
to discuss this was held m July 1997,
meetin~refl~~t the earlier priorities:
promotmg bIlmgual education; (2) th
le~rning
their areas, also take classe
: ,;" pnmary education in the country; a
American model, i..e., a three-year ba
doctoral programs m most areas, plu
It should be noted that Rwanda
genocide. The bureaucracy was hi
~hrough the 1980~ showed slow but s
It was ~ co~pa.rat1vely well-run coun
-
the umverslty mfrastructure as an at
and, o~ course: t~a~, past ca~e with p
Even. hu~amst1c education may b
who IS usmg the tool? Who defined
What are the unintended consequen
mig~t read these initiatives as an effo
and mstead focus on the skills and
peace.
 GLOBALIZING AFRICA

Universite du Burundi
The Universite du Burundi is trying as much as possible to continue as a nonnally
functioning institution in a society that has factional violence. This is the university
that provided most of the lecturers to Rwanda in 1995, after so many had been
killed or imprisoned during the Rwandan genocide. This university maintained
many links to universities all over Africa and the rest of the world, until the time of
the embargo.
Whether the strife in Burundi is defined in ethnic or political tenns, it does
mean that the university sees itself as having a responsibility for contributing to
the solution by working on peace and justice issues both inside and outside of the
university community. In a brief designed to generate support among universities
for lifting the embargo on Burundi, presented at the AIPU conference in February
1997 in Egypt,7 the authors emphasized the measures that have been taken to
ensure stability and reasonable discussion concerning societal problems. The
report suggests a number of ways in which a culture of peace could be fostered
with the aid of the university:

1. The promotion ofa culture ofpeace and human rights: This is accomplished
with the aid of UNESCO and UNICEF, and involves holding seminars for the
faculty and students on various issues relevant to peace and human rights.
2. The promotion of "civisme" (good social behavior) and morals: This is a
tool for training citizens to consider national identity more important than
ethnic identity.
3. Creation ofa centerfor research into educationfor peace, and the prevention
and management ofpeaceful resolution ofconflicts: This center is a kind of
laboratory for the observation of "mutations" and conflicts, as well as a
conduit for the international community to become involved in Burundi.
4. "Friends ofthe university:" This offers an avenue for intellectual interaction
on all grounds of interest to the university, both within Burundi and
internationally.

These measures are founded on three main principles: first, there is recognition of
the fundamental values of Burundi culture in promoting peace and human rights.
Second, there is recognition of the need for openness of mind, exchange of
experience, and intercultural dialogue. Finally, the measures recognized the value
oftechnical skills and intelligence capacities of academics in the peaceful resolution
oflarge problems on the African continent through cooperation and research that
would focus on the causes of the crises and solutions. Many of the problems in
the Great Lakes are based on genocidal ideology, and the universities must playa
key control in eradicating that ideology.
The history of strife in Burundi is long and bloody, but it has never reached
the intensity of Rwanda in 1994. Currently, the government is under world
community sanction for the coup perpetrated by long-time politician and anny
officer Pierre Buyoya. The university is attempting to operate in a somewhat

470
 the govern~ent .at all. From an o
is defined in ethnic or political terms, it does
how the UnIVerSIty really can be s
as having a responsibility for contributing to
cla.ime~, it does not seem to be
ldjustice issues both inside and outside ofthe
unIVe.rsI~y s~ould nece~s~ril~ cr
ligned to generate support among universities
questionIng Its own pOSItion m s
presented at the AIPU conference in February
The problem of critical dista
asized the measures that have been taken to
situations of national crisis. The
scussion concerning societal problems. The
does not seem possible when m
in which a culture of,....peace could be fostered
,;.. ,.,":"<-.. ,.-,' . .:,< ':,,,',' ~
national integrity, are present
circumscribed in its possibilities o
~eace and human rights:ihf~I~"~~~~mplished of.inquiry that it needs. One mig
eXIst, b~t my point is not an empi
JNICEF, and involves h()ldi~gse~inarsfor the
BurundI (or Rwanda, for that mat
IS issues relevant topel!9~andhl.lmanrights.
for expounding unpopular beliefs
(good social behavio~l:~rJ~·,rrzk!;~!~:.This is a
may not even surface, because the
>nsider national identity more important than
J:;j;ri:>';·i:~~,~:;.,.:.,~' may.preclude any real dissent or a
outSIde of the parameters alrea
ch into education fo~e!f:fJg;!:il'nq"!~~lJre;ve,ntion
government. Everyone knows th
resolution of conjlic{~~:n~!~,,2~lt~~Lct~~,findo f
n of "mutations" . andcoriflicts, as well as a
de.cis.i~e action. That may mean
-l:'I.+;#:':;--'~t:;:,;~_j¢,;-"?,-';;:·'~!'~:;"" ~\-::~,v_-;..
mlsglvmgs, and working toward a
[)mmunity to becomejpYQlye9inBu[Un~i.
,'''-,:-:/ff,;'< .,,,,,,,,, . ",,-,
'~Ol:!$_, ",,'I:;-'t"'~-.::-,J,,~:, -,.'~"

'his offers an avenue ~_"'-~4-;A'-'-_~~~"",':i;

for intellectual
--',;;_~-7[;Jti~.:-:1;~; -,,~y _ "
to the university, . '.. ..... '};. ~Jl~} and
ree main principles:'fU'~~*~~~~,~J;~~!()gl}jHon of
Ii culture in promotin&pe!ice~~d"hti~an rights.
the need for opennes;:~tii\frftc
;:~"9fJ~,,%-_,j{~'j''1"'h'>y, j"'::-~':'':: --":,-'
gue. Finally, the mea~5.~;&~S()!:g~j~~.d,.~pe va~ue
:apacities of academi~sinth~pe!lce~~~esolutlOn
:ontinent through coo'pe;atiol1~nd'research that
crises and solutions:,.M,anyc,fthe'problems in
tcidal ideology, and iKtfuIliyersities must playa
~Iogy.-~",::J'""
~di is long and bloody,but °1t has never reached
4. Currently, the g~v~rnment is under world
) perpetrated by long-time politician and army
ersity is attempting to operate in a somewhat
interaction
Problematizing the University in
Following what I have argued thu
is no place ~or universities in soc
but I do belIeve that these unive
t~e context in which they opera
e'x'~ha~ge of eIther because of the requirement
ok-
Jhe crisis) or because it risks beco
that will come out shortly.
There is more than one readi
chart a course for the university,
The cha~itable reading. goes like t
o.
to contnbute from theIr strengths
ex~ertis~ ofthe faculty is seen as a
as Iden~Ified by the government. I
to provI~e ~he l~gal personnel to e
As well, It IS trymg to contribute to

470
 GLOBALIZING AFRICA

and by trying to make both French and English accessible to the university­
educated Rwandan. 8 In Burundi's case, the university contributes to the peace
process by emphasizing ways of overcoming divisions within society, and by
finding reasonable ways to deal with disputes. It provides an avenue for
conversation with universities and with other NGOs. In both cases, there is an
attempt to inculcate the virtues of human rights and tolerance in order to overcome
ethnic divisions.
One might, on the other hand, take a more suspicious view ofeach university's
place within society. In the case of Rwanda, the attempt to educate students in
English in a previously Francophone country could be seen as an attempt to shore
up the political legitimacy of an invading minority over the majority in the country.
Furthermore, it could be seen as an attempt to mask another distinction, that is,
between Rwandans raised in Rwanda (by now, mostly Hutu) and Rwandans raised
in Uganda (mostly Tutsi). Not dealing with the French/English division may foster
misunderstanding, but dealing with it poorly may simply give credence to yet
another division within Rwandan society. As well, the attempts to mirror North
American-style universities may be difficult given the lack of qualified personnel
after the genocide. And finally, one might be suspicious that these modifications
in the university structure did not emerge from internal consultation (despite the
meetings ofJuly 1997) as much as from government directive or external pressures.
In the case of Burundi, one might argue that the university is emphasizing the
kind of peace that supports the government (a government that is currently under
sanction because of charges that the democratic process had been subverted).
One might also argue that promoting peace and human rights can add the veneer
of rationality to one side of a debate and effectively label the "rebel" side as
irrational because it is not around the bargaining table. And, teaching "civisme"
may be little more than inculcating compliance. Behaving civilly is not so different
from behaving obediently. It is easy to use the rhetoric of rationality and dialogue
when you are in power.
It is not my intention to decide whether the charitable or the suspicious
reading is correct, or even to suggest that there is a little of both. The point is this:
In both readings, the university is regarded as a tool of the government. The
university is not there to decide what the problems of the society might be, or to
engage in discussion about the fundamental nature of society; rather it is there to
provide the expertise to find solutions to problems already identified by those in
power. While there is opportunity for conversation in both situations, the
opportunity is limited by the political realities in each case. Neither university
could really offer a thoroughgoing critique ofthe society it finds itself in; to do so
would be suicide. In both cases, the society is precarious enough that such a
critique would be regarded as disloyal, and most likely the leaders would be
sanctioned or replaced.
This is the real issue whenever a university finds itself involved in a national
crisis. National crises demand action, but university (even more so, liberal) education
requires dialogue. Action is the application of legitimate power; dialogue defers
that power in favor of creating possible worlds. Action is technological; dialogue

472
lwanda, the attempt to educate students in
;ountry could be seen as an attempt to shore
ng minority over the majority in the country.
Ittempt to mask another distinction, that is,
(by now, mostly Hutu ~ ~nd Rwandans raised
with the French/English. division may foster
it poorly may simplygi~7,pedellcetocyet
:iety. As well, thell~t~rnB~8t() Illiry:()r North
ifficult given the lack~~f911.alifi~dp~.rsollnel
[light be suspicious,,~~}l~.~~~,~2d.,ific~tions
lerge from internal~~~~,\tLi~l~gP.Jg.~~p~t,~ the
n government direcJ!y~~~£~!~rn~lpr~~~g[es.
t argue that the uni~t:~~\~~~lnl'~31,~;i~i?g}he
nment (a governm~N~b~q.~~~~tly;~~~er
e democratic proc~s~!~g~~,Il~~lJ,~~~Jl~,d).
: peace and humall!i' ,"
te and effectivelYJ'~iJ!~,as
e bargaining table'.:c,~,.,~.~,:\"t'lj-1!'.,t~~L;~<t-,~§'~tPi'~
A.n,. ea.
Impliance. Behavin~~~J§'~~?~f!~~t:nt
to use the rhetoric 0" .. ,. .' .' . . nddial6 ue
a university fi~~s.Jt,~"*j~~o,,y~A.lt:! n~~6~al
II
but university (eveflmo(t:,~2~j~bt:ral) educatIon
~ ;•• ~~;",.,;~~.~",'._'hv-"";'#i
llication of legitimate I?gwe~; qialogue defers
ible worlds. AciionT:''i!t~~h~ologi~al;dialogue
472
But, instead of defining the univers
way of living with that tension? Is
techne (making): Making tools tha
dialogue and understanding? In a so
the university cannot afford to avoi
simply cannot afford to capitulate
wh~ther government, political facti
busmesses represent those interest
ag.ency. Whil~ indirectly its job, at
pnmary task IS to education. But it
for good or ill, to what constitu
responsibility ofthe university wer
on the sidelines until the dust clear
But what good does university edu
dialogue are needed. But neither
dialogue without action is lame. Ho
~.~.n~er
both action and dialogue have their
. There are some traditional answ
g",<;IYisrne"
.; . ~,i·\",)<',,-
educate people for tolerance, for m
solutions to problems, and so forth.
society. These are North American
these things when almost a million
you tell someone to just tolerate the
really to communicate the central v
the belief that what works for us
assumption in both cases. Educatio
to the plan of action. But everyone
and opportunity are words that can ju
by a clever spin-doctor. Rights ta
agenda, unless it is couched in a n
mean. Educating for rights does no
about the nature of rights. But f
conversation does not tum into an
These liberal democratic virtu
educated for his or her own character
" "
have a sufficient measure of charac
'. ...~ ...:.,.., - ,c· •
character of its people. Unfortunatel
 GLOBALIZING AFRICA

Rwanda. Rwandans do not suffer from lack of individual character, at least no more
than anyone else in the world. The problems of their society do not stem from
personal immorality, and a plan to change the attitudes of individuals without
setting up the context of public conversation about the nature of society will not
succeed.
Education for tolerance, specifically, may not produce what is needed. It an
individualistic virtue, which assumes that each person's opinion has value simply
by virtue of it being an opinion held honestly by someone. Tolerance of this sort
thrives in a culture of commodities, in a place where free competition between
brands of chocolate chip cookies give the illusion but not the reality of difference.
This tolerance does not have to be inculcated. It is what North Americans already
have in a capitalist society, but it does not address the problems that drive people
to kill each other. Countries are not built on tolerance; at best, tolerance merely
defers their decline. If a country is already in national crisis, there is nothing to be
preserved by teaching people to give each other the space to live. It is not so much
tolerance that is needed, but the ability to encounter the other as other, without
subsuming it or requiring that it speak your language. Tolerance tends to ignore
deep difference, deferring any real encounter with that difference to a later time.
If not just education for tolerance, then, what about education for
understanding? If only individuals could understand each other and if only
policymakers and leaders could understand what is happening in the society, all
would be well. But one might point out that understanding does not necessarily
imply that there is the will to act on the understanding. Furthermore, as the university
is a Western institution, set up with a disciplinary structure that emerged during
the European Enlightenment and after, we might be asking Africans to understand
their problems using lenses not appropriate to the task. Africans, after all, have
always been the subject of political, anthropological, religious, and economic
studies, in which they were the objects of investigation but never the interlocutors
in the discovery and creation of meaning. One interpretation of the university in
Africa might be that it is just a reproduction of those Western styles of
understanding that have contributed to alienation, a sense of false objectivity of
knowledge, and the compartmentalization of knowledge. So, to suppose that the
university can offer understanding begs the question: What understanding?
Specifically, what kind of understanding, and on whose terms, and who stands to
benefit? Is understanding another word for (causal) explanation?
Understanding has another danger; that it can simply amount to theorizing,
which suggests using social science in its traditional forms. But can something as
extreme as genocide be theorized? Or longstanding ethnic conflict? Is it just
intellectualization? Is understanding merely a way ofdistancing the brutal concrete
reality through the abstraction of theory? How can genocide be understood? And
can this understanding contribute to praxis?
These questions are by no means intended to suggest that virtue, human
rights, tolerance, or understanding are not laudable goals. The point is that these
goals, to become part of civic culture as opposed to external imposition, must
assume a prior set ofconditions that do not in fact exist. And it is not clear that the

474
 furthermore, any list of virtues will
in a place where free competition between
specific, and dependent on a cert
:the illusion but not the reality of difference.
sense at all. The virtues, then, are
:ulcated. It is what North Americans already
occur, not a cause of that society.
s not address the problems that drive people
Perhaps, then, the university
built on tolerance; at best, tolerance merely
virtues that will ameliorate condi
~ady in national crisis, there is nothing to be
must act collectively as a conscie
each other the space to live. It is not so much
tide of evil in desperate times. On
lity to encounter the other as other, without
rig,ht to .make moral statements? I
ak your language. Tolera9ce tends to ignore
umverslty can speak from the mo
Ilcounter with thatdiffere,nce to a later time.
erance then what"ab'out education for university in dark times is to
; could' under~tand~~~h other and if only unreasonableness of killing. Certa
lecturer as well as a premier ofa p
lerstand what is hap~~~i~~in the soCiety, all
role. The genocide began in Butar
:out that underst~piiI~49~~not necessarily
~ understanding. Fuithe~9r~, as the ulliversity like to think that at least one reaso
stand in the middle of madness (a
a disciplinary strtist~i~:,t~~!.~Te..ged during
Tutsi Prefet in the country during
er, we might be as~i~~:,~f..j~,~~s to understand
to do with it as well).
lropriate to the ta~~,.tHr\i:s,~Il~I'a~t.erall, ha~e
As many Rwandan professors
il, anthropologicaJ'LsHpiq~~,~,n~economiC
cts ofinvestigationbufnevertheinterlocutors the genocide though. If the role
:aning. One intei{~Si~g~~pf)ht:~niversity in
stand, it failed miserably in con
rationality of nonviolent and co
, reproduction ofthos~ /\\Tester Il .sty les of
surprise. Does reason lead to vir
d to alienation, a~eris~~lfais~ objectivity of
_;.~~,"":~""i<;~~t'-"':~;:~>-_A'i' ,'- ';,' ,.
have thought. The "reason" of th
iization ofknowle.:~~~,.&~e,;h)suppose that the
that it is unclear that any real st
19 begs the quest!.£·I1~;~"hatynderstanding?
character of technical expertise, t
oding, and on w~,~,~~~,~~,IJ11s,an9 who stands to
any case. And, in a society that b
'ford for (causal),~~RI~g~~J()n? .....•.. ',. group that contributed to making
nger; that it can~imIJ}:>;aI;nount to theonzmg,
"rational" position has much hop
e in its traditionaLforiTIs, 13ut can something as
supposing that the university's rol
11 Or longstandini' ethnic conflict? Is it just
seems to diminish its status as a un
~ merely a way of.distancing the brutal concrete
times, it seems it must give up its
!oory? How canJ~~Il()c,idebe understood? And
This tension, between action
to praxis? ,,',:~,- _ ,;:,/~,':,' ~
> • "

need to consider its role careful

leans intended to suggest that virtue, human
beyond the means-ends thinking o
:are not laudable goals. The point is that these
more than killing your enemies an
lture as opposed. to external imposition, must
instrumental rationality. It must be
it do not in fact exist. And it is not clear that the

474
 GLOBALIZING AFRICA

the time when critical reflection is least welcome. The problem is that the university
all too often falls into exactly the same pattern as the political system from which it
is supposed to differ.
For Africans, in particular, part of the problem is that solutions have ai~ays
been imposed using outside, usually Western, structures. They have always been
the object of study, the "field" in fieldwork. The emergence of universities in
Africa in this century has typically been at the behest ofcolonizers or settlers, and
as often as not has been an attempt to either assimilate Africans into Eur()pean
values or give them enough skill to act as low-level bureaucrats in the management
of their countries. At independence, most African countries saw universit~es as
the avenue to creating wealth. .v, ' "

All of this suggests that the liberal values associated with the university do
not take us far enough. If one wanted to be sceptical, one could see the university
as part ofthe attempt to remake Africa, formatting its nations, its churches, mid' its
economic instruments in the image of the West. If this is true, it makes itilllthe
more difficult to imagine the university as having any place in the amelioration of
the problems in Rwanda or Burundi. ,"',
The attempt to answer the question of whether universities have a place ina
society under extreme stress requires that we determine what the place of the
university has been, including some reflection on the similarities and differences
of the relationship between the university and society, between Africa and North
America. Most scholarship has attempted to respond to North American tensions,
but this will have limited application to Africa. For example, there are some uniquely
African issues that require a new attempt to understand the university. First, the
university is not an African institution. It is an institution with a history in mediaeval
Europe and the Enlightenment. Its structure answers certain questions about the
nature and structure of knowledge, which has resulted in disciplinary structures
that assume that knowledge is objective, dispassionate, and reducible to
component parts and specific questions. Now, the university is being asked to
function in a new context. These questions cannot be answered by simply appealing
to existing disciplinary structures because disciplines themselves are answers to
questions with a specific cultural history. So, simply supposing that the university
can investigate African problems in the same way it would investigate any other
question may not address the issue - that the answer is an answer to someone
else's question.
The second issue arises from the first: The university draws from a culture
and, at best, interprets that culture for itself. It is not the only interpreter, but is one
that has a specific character, not the same as the interpretation that a church,
political party, or trade union might offer. But the present university has always
drawn from another culture when it has attempted to interpret. Its methods are
those honed as disputations in mediaeval Europe, experiments in the Enlightenment,
and the increasing specialization that emerges when the culture demands that its
interpretations have technological outcomes. Rwandan and Burundian society,
on the other hand, do not have this history. Rwanda and Burundi's histories, until
recently, are not the same as those of Western technological societies. But the

476
as low-level bureaucrats in the management acknowledging other cultures or w
most African countrit:s saw lIniversities as terms of crosscultural dialogue. So,
looks like in Africa must wade th
al values associated,\Viih'theuniversity do university in North America and wha
to be sceptical, onec'O~ld~ee. thelmiversity So, if an African university tries to m
1 formatting its nations:i~~--~hurc~es, and its
university produced in North Ame
fthe West. If this is t~ut:,'itwakesitall the university will find that the issues are
y as having any plac.t;I!1t~eJmeliox~iioJ1
, ·,!(~'ret;~:ri3.;~],''t'¥/::f?;'W·'I>':':~~,~~i' {';,
of in Africa do in the midst of unrest?
";ir:;;::H"':~;~0;(~~'_';'; t~;\i :::~'t::-,
on of whether universiti~s have;a 'place in a The Nature of the University in a N
>,' ~t¥"'~':i$~;;
','."" ;;.
'r-h~"~,r.,'" '~:'~('~-"

s that we determine \ what

tlit: 'place,of
--,' ,'" ".
<+,',:e;';?i\:*:4-~""
the -'y:
We may be able to see in the Great L
eflection on the similarities ,anodifferences between dialogue and action under
• . : : ::-:"~~;;,,, . t""¥~;'1~:~?';h:,V
rslty and socIety, betWl;:ei1~fr~ca3H'ldNorth the level of success of that negotia
. .- ''1~-''''''''':$~",,",>~!'~~,~,~~,'{''''d<4'' . ,
)ted to respond to NorthAm~rkaQtensions, power that action becomes most urge
, ""'~~"'';'"'' 'd.;,,,n~ that dialogue becomes most importa
Africa. For example, th;:~,,~l~%lJlcrs!fIllquely
:mpt to understand the'urii\iersity.,First, the society do not offer different issues
<sf
e_~);i'i:'>'.:;;A~:1;";~;;~~;:~~

It is an institution withc.~.,h,i~!~l}J~diaeval give a more stark picture of the issu

ructure answers certam'gueshons,about the
". W./\¥,~.~ti~i'
'~ic~ has r~sulte~ iri.gl~~~Q'~$~ctures
~echve, dlspasslOnate,an~hrt;~lIClble to
ons. Now, the univ~r~l~~~iifg~:asked
., 'jl!,,,~~.?,~,,,,,
ions ca~o.t b~ answt;~~~Y:"¢~J>pealing
;ause dlsclphnes tht;Jl1S.$Jvesa[~.flJJ.,swers to
)ry. So, simply SUPP\?~rr~h~~piversity
be same way it w~.u~:mi~k{~l~~?y other
. that the answer IS.
~ first: The unive,i'. . . . ... •. ' ••.. . ...ll culture
itself. lt is not the ~nf~I=~6'r, but is one
.:H~(i>r:;i~-·;fi{:'ID;i-;~"c_,Y$:lt"~"
~ same as the mterpre~atlOn that a church,
';7,>""'~_~-'-'x~"Iri:}t?f~1i:;"'it;;;-~:y,<
The universities in Rwanda and
in their respective societies, i.e., to c
roles so far have been largely as tool
...""., to cases the governments have as thei
have as their secondary interest cont
in a difficult place in both cases the
must contribute to society, but that c
Attempting to define the problems f
0 someone willingly, for in a precarious situ
counterproductive and possibly
conditions, then, runs the risk of eith
~>!t
providing the "experts" who can mak
with a move that also serves to valida
,.,.>-'

:lfIer. But the presentllIllverslty has always then, seems to be drawn out of its ro
has attempted toii:';em¥~tYt;~ethods "t:. -tC'C, ':" "';':"
~," ~";'"\\:W'~'''_.<
are is either marginalized (made safe) o
at Europe, experim~ms in tb~"Enlightenment, One answer to the general qu
'1.$:/· '~-~\~",.1t~t-'.>1 ,'9'·
:emerges when the c,ljlturedemands that its society is to appeal to the Greek n
Iltcomes. Rwand~n'1~~{a~urundian society, contemporary human beings to be in
ltory. Rwanda a~d'~~;ii:~di 's histories, until to 'apply' themselves to it, to its prom
)f Western technolo'; lcal. societies. But the has the implications oftraining child

476
 GLOBALIZING AFRICA

needs. This is a good description of the kind of education that will work in the
context ofthe extreme crisis, ifanything will. But the question still stands: Is there
any education that will enable someone to be in an adequate relationship to a war
or to the recovery from genocide? Is the national crisis an aporia, a disruption,
that does not lend itself to the processes of education? Indeed, do we actually
educate for the time after the crisis rather than for the crisis itself?
And does this undermine the usefulness of the university? Universities are
founded on liberal education, which is education that assumes continuity, peace,
and stability. Assuming that the university has a place here ignores the question
ofwhat space a university can operate in and in fact change the focus from that of
reflexive understanding of society to that of engineering a solution to the crisis.
But can there be these sorts of solutions, or preventions, to crises? Crises, by
definition, are unique events. While we can draw analogies from other, similar
crises, it is rare that a crisis is actually solved or prevented. What actually happens
is that a society constructs an understanding of itself that allows a move past the
impasse. Solutions, on the other hand, come in the form of setting the conditions
that will defuse the impasse before it occurs. So, education is often cited as a
preventive measure for national crises of this sort. But if the education is of the
sort that tries to inculcate "values" or "human rights," the solutions are left
ambiguous, partial and prone to being coopted by various agendas, as has already
been argued. Some will say that this is the best we can do, but it may not be.
Educating for crisis management leaves us with an education that does not come
to terms with what the crisis actually is. It imagines that the actors (educators)
have no position themselves. That throws the university into the dilemma of
action vs. dialogue, which is difficult to overcome.
This notion ofpaideia, however, may have some merit. While education may
not be possible in the context ofnational crisis, perhaps it is possible if we take the
sting out ofthe word "crisis." This is, after all, an evaluative label. No one would
suggest that the genocide in Rwanda or the umest in Burundi are not crises, but
that does not make the term any less evaluative. We cannot avoid using terms of
valuation for any circumstance people find themselves in, but calling something a
crisis presupposes a certain attitude toward the times, which in turn calls for
certain kinds ofaction. The universities in Rwanda and Burundi are both bound to
follow the definition of the times as given by the government and by outside
figures.
But paideia is the process of defining the times, not simply reacting to a
definition. The child under paideia learns not only to react to the givenness ofthe
times, but to contribute toward their creation. Those times need to be imagined; in
other words, paideia does not happen simply to get away from some condition, but
to bring into being something that is "not-yet."
What is an "adequate relation to the times" in Rwanda and Burundi? It is not
for me to say; that is the task for Rwandans and Burundians. At best outsiders like
me might be able to be part of a dialogue. Indeed, the time may come when the
university has to avoid looking to technical expertise from the outside but to
imaginative and creative possibilities from the inside. The university can have a

478
(ersity has a place here ignores the question about what happened. This is bo
te in and in fact changethe focus from that of the split mentioned earlier. Pa
) that of engineering asol~11on t~ thec~isis. constructed down very narrow
[)lutions, or preventiq~s, !O~ri~~sIc:§se~,by possibility ofa crisis. The richn
~ we can draw anaI8gi~"sJipW·9.~~er,· s}Il}ilar two and only two positions.
management also flattens the w
y solved or preven,t~~;;{Y]i~;t,~~tu~!IY happens
making the world rich again.
standing of itself t~~~;¢~IJ,~~§';~0.W+9¥~,p.a~J)?e
d, come in the fO nn oft:if~~~~l,~,~~~s
My suggestion is to encourage
: it occurs. So, ed . .;ni:~j!i~i~~;~~a
indicate the ways of speakin
ses of this sort. BU~~\.~~~.},lc~~}}.~~~~""i~tthe
propositions. The technical ski
i" or "human righ1~;~.2~ti,8.IJ,S.i;i~f~,,!eft
in language, defined as languag
19 coopted by vari.~};i~~~~~'i<~~,:,M~~~E~~~y modem science, that precision
lis is the best we ca.,Ik,92.,'.'_'.~.
bU.~t.>•.. !",mliX,<!1Q~;be.
o

:t~ ,~~,,,~~'fh'}'-i4~1.fi,-"'i:-;'':$'''k,- ,~~",F":'

I.
__
"""questionis always open as to
aves us with an ed~f\~~~~igp,~2Il}e
,,,:;"possibilities - not precision, bu
lly is. It imagines ~;~~~~~£~~~~~~fJN?r~)f

~~:~;'i~ certainly a place for precisio

l throws the univ . , ',' a 0 ..

;;1;j';E~Ai.~s.ervic:to suppose that th

~t to overcome.

r, may have some,.w~~~~~~a§

0;'E:~i;""?'Y~::;;:'<'Ci; ". "';, .."','., ....

2~ i)i Encourage' the generalist. Th

lonal crisis, perhapsJk~p~~~l~~th;

rare person who is able to bri

is, after all, an e~al~il~~~~~~.\~

different ways ofknowing into

B.uru.n.,;.a
da or the unrest I..n;'0'1i~W .. 1..·. a Fe n..ot.:>i.crIS.,es.,.,b..u.t
~""""~""j;t,.
ss evaluative. We'" .. ' . Qf J; ~ho was just such a person

pie find themselv~a In?dvertently served to solidif

for ii, was also able to fuse together
de toward the ti
lities in Rwanda 'clto needed.
as given by th side
"0 The difficulty will be that the g
. defining the H immediately solve the pressin
reductionist terms, it takes a sp
Ileams not only
be the one who enables a co
ir creation. Tho'
themselves rather than simply c
en simply to get
certainly needs those who can r
:is "not-yet."
and provide the goods of soc
to the times"i
poverty, famine, unrest, and rep
wandans and~·.. '. .~~~~~;t1~islike qua specialist may overtake th
Iialogue. Inde~j~~~~D,1!'!.~.~,2l~7.~I1e,n the
defining problems in reduction
:0 technical e~l?l~~~~~~~~~~i'?:\ll~!9e, but to
ties from the " umverslt a

478
 GLOBALIZING AFRICA

3. Take the leadfrom German reflection after WW II. Gennan academics have
agonized over how something like national socialism could happen in Germany.
Karl Jaspers, Hans Gadamer, Hannah Arendt, and many others tried to give an
account of how things wound up as they did. The point is not that they were
able to come up with a cause-and-effect account ofthings, but that they were
able to coalesce different understandings of German actions. It is important to
stress that Gennan answers to the questions of national crisis will not be
African ones. And, indeed, one might question the various reflections on
German guilt for a whole variety ofreasons. But the point is that the collective
reflection on the nature ofthe society was a healing process. It was not simply
done by educating Gennans that Jews are not the problem after all or by
stressing human rights. The healing process has been more complex than
this.

This is perhaps the place of the university in countries such as Rwanda and
Burundi, where the government in the midst of national crisis continues. It is
not simply to prepare teachers and lawyers, important as these things might
be. In doing only this, the university risks being part ofthe problem, which is
to create a society in which all problems are addressed as technological ones.
It is not simply to promote human rights and civisme - that too may be regarded
as an attempt to solve the problem of unrest by adjusting the attitudes of the
citizenry. But the cynical version ofthis is that it is simply a way of ensuring
compliance within society. And ensuring compliance undermines the discourse
that can happen by delimiting it.

4. Find WlryS ofmovingpast disciplinarity. Disciplines are artefacts ofthe modem

West and are not coextensive with the university. The mediaeval university
did not have disciplines in the sense that we have today: The trivium and
quadrivium are not really groups of disciplines, but a two-step system that
first establishes the tools for acquiring any knowledge and then applies them
to the most abstract examples. Disciplines, on the other hand, are directed at
a particular subject matter, have their own internally justified methods, and
tend to prefer specialization over wide-ranging general principles as the surest
path to knowledge. Disciplines are modem answers to modem Western
problems. I am not suggesting that disciplines should be jettisoned; the past
cannot be undone. But one way ofresisting the impulse to regard all problems
as technological ones is to foster conversation designed to unsettle the
comfortable disciplinary ways of doing things. While no one wishes for a
national crisis, once one exists it could provide the opportunity to do things
differently.

The universities in Rwanda and Burundi have an unenviable and complex

task. But every crisis brings the possibility of change. And there are success
stories in Africa - Uganda, Botswana, Eritrea. The key from the university's

480
freasons. But the point is that the collective
ety was a healing process. It was not simply
t Jews are not the problem after all or by
ling process has b~~g~()re.~()~p~~x than
miversity in countri~~~~s~'~~'R\\,and~'(lnd
n the midst of nationa(~t:i~iscmitiJillJes.It is
Id lawyers, importanii~~~;~S~~~~~gsm~ght
lity risks being partottQ,e.~PJ~1>I~I!}.w~i~.his
oblems are address~~;llSl~'i~~()I()gic~1.2?es.
rights and civisme ~·ih~tJ22J~,~~gS·r~~~!.4ed
m of unrest by adjt1;~!i~~J~~~lt~~~.~~~(s,t~he
I ofthis is that it is s· ' . a o{ YI1~w~ng
llSuring compliance .'·~ls~6tirse
ld Burundi have~~~'9;ri~i~bj~a~d complex
e possibility of ch~~J~~;~hd there ar~ suc~e~s
tswana, Eritrea. TQ~l<:(:y from the umvefSlty s
'Jl<~~~~t;-;'·",·_, . :p:::--;;,,~-'
480
4. Ibid.
5. Prunier, Rwanda Crisis, pp. 78-79
6. Interview with Pr Tharcisse Nsabi
1997.
7. n.a., "L'universite du Burundi face a
conseil africain et du moyen orient
fevrier 1997 par la delegation bur
Intemationale de Pedagogie Unive
8. Butera, May 1997.
9. It should be noted that none of thi
avoiding the pitfalls of the "rights
10. It should be said that the universit
society. The church, in particular, d
collective body, but there are storie
11: Editors' introduction to Gadamer,
History: Applied Hermeneutics, ed
SUNY, 1992), p. viii.
-,.