Contents

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Introduction.........................................................................................................................................................................................3
1.1
Thesis Topic...............................................................................................................................................................................3
1.2
Short presentation of the thesis..................................................................................................................................................3
1.3
Acknowledgements...................................................................................................................................................................3
Current status of seepage monitoring and control...............................................................................................................................4
2.1
Brief history of the development of seepage control methods..................................................................................................4
2.2
Failure modes............................................................................................................................................................................4
2.3
Seepage detection and monitoring.............................................................................................................................................4
2.3.1
Interstitial pressure and piezometric levels measurements...............................................................................................4
2.3.2
Seepage flow measurements.............................................................................................................................................4
2.3.3
Geophysical methods........................................................................................................................................................4
2.3.4
Remotely operated vehicles (ROV)..................................................................................................................................4
2.3.5
Thermal detection.............................................................................................................................................................4
2.3.6
Rezistivity measurements.................................................................................................................................................4
2.3.7
Tracers for determining the seepage paths........................................................................................................................5
2.3.8
Visual observations...........................................................................................................................................................5
2.4
Seepage control..........................................................................................................................................................................5
2.4.1
Seepage control through embankment dams....................................................................................................................5
2.4.2
Seepage control through dams foundation......................................................................................................................5
2.4.3
Filters................................................................................................................................................................................5
2.4.4
Geosynthetic materials......................................................................................................................................................5
Theoretical basis of water flow through porous media.......................................................................................................................6
3.1
Darcys law. General form. Limits of its validity......................................................................................................................6
3.2
Flow net.....................................................................................................................................................................................6
3.3
Characteristics of porous media................................................................................................................................................6
3.4
Unsaturated regime....................................................................................................................................................................6
3.5
Transient regime........................................................................................................................................................................6
Seepage analysis using mathematical modeling.................................................................................................................................6
4.1
Characteristics of a mathematical model...................................................................................................................................6
4.1.1
How to realize a mathematical model...............................................................................................................................6
4.1.2
Porous media schematization...........................................................................................................................................6
4.1.3
Boundary conditions schematization................................................................................................................................7
4.1.4
Mathematical models calibration......................................................................................................................................7
4.2
Finite differences method..........................................................................................................................................................7
4.2.1
Boundary conditions.........................................................................................................................................................7
4.2.2
Calculation algorithm.......................................................................................................................................................7
4.2.3
Transient regime...............................................................................................................................................................7
4.3
Finite element method...............................................................................................................................................................7
4.3.1
Differential formulation....................................................................................................................................................7
4.3.2
Variational formulation.....................................................................................................................................................7
4.3.3
Transient analysis..............................................................................................................................................................7
4.3.4
How to realize the moddel................................................................................................................................................7
4.3.5
Steps in the Finite Element Method calculation...............................................................................................................7
4.4
Boundary integral equations method.........................................................................................................................................7
4.5
Specialized software for seepage analysis.................................................................................................................................7
Use of mathematical models for the analysis and the selection of constructive solutions - case study Ostrovul Corbului...............7
5.1
Object of the study.....................................................................................................................................................................7
5.2
Site description..........................................................................................................................................................................8
5.3
Site geology...............................................................................................................................................................................8
5.4
Cause of the piping phenomena.................................................................................................................................................8
5.4.1
Analyzed assumptions......................................................................................................................................................8
5.4.2
Mathematical model.........................................................................................................................................................8
5.4.3
Simulations for checking the assumptions.......................................................................................................................8
5.5
Solutions to stop the piping phenomena....................................................................................................................................8
5.5.1
Proposed solutions............................................................................................................................................................8
5.5.2
Changing the pumping regime effect................................................................................................................................8
5.5.3
The cutoff wall effect........................................................................................................................................................9
5.6
Conclusions...............................................................................................................................................................................9
Checking the efficiency of remedial solutions on dikes characterized by poor drainage Frunzaru study sase...............................9
6.2
Site description..........................................................................................................................................................................9

6.2.1
Foundation soil nature....................................................................................................................................................10
6.3
Sealing phenomena analysis....................................................................................................................................................10
6.3.1
Current state....................................................................................................................................................................10
6.3.2
Analyzed hypothesis.......................................................................................................................................................10
6.3.3
Mathematical model.......................................................................................................................................................10
6.3.4
Simulations for checking the assumptions.....................................................................................................................10
6.3.5
Remedial solutions proposed..........................................................................................................................................11
6.4
Conclusions..............................................................................................................................................................................11
7. Calibration of the mathemathical models by measurements and investigations using infrared thermography case study Ostrovul
Mic.........................................................................................................................................................................................................11
7.1
Object of study.........................................................................................................................................................................11
7.2
Site description........................................................................................................................................................................11
7.3
Behavior of the work during service.......................................................................................................................................11
7.4
Analyzed solutions for the reconstruction of the sealing.........................................................................................................11
7.5
Sealing solutions analysis........................................................................................................................................................12
7.5.1
Fundamentals..................................................................................................................................................................12
7.5.2
Mathematical model.......................................................................................................................................................12
7.5.3
Model calibration............................................................................................................................................................12
7.5.4
Sealing systems analysis.................................................................................................................................................12
7.5.5
Sealing solutions effect on dam stability analysis..........................................................................................................13
7.5.6
2D horizontal plane effect analysis of the cutoff wall realized from the dikes crest.....................................................13
7.5.7
Rehabilitation works.......................................................................................................................................................13
7.5.8
Sealing solutions multi-criteria analysis.........................................................................................................................14
7.6
Conclusions.............................................................................................................................................................................14
8. Conclusions, original contributions and perspectives.......................................................................................................................14
8.1
General conclusions on the study of infiltration......................................................................................................................14
8.2
Original contributions and future research directions.............................................................................................................15
Selective bibliography...............................................................................................................................................................................16

Keywords:

seepage associated phenomena; detection and monitoring; infrared thermography; embankment dams; porous
media; sealing; drainage; hydrodynamic picking up; mathematical modeling; finite element method; multicriteria analysis

1. Introduction
1.1 Thesis Topic
Making reservoirs is recorded since ancient times, and dams are one of the oldest man-made construction. Nowadays
hydraulic structures and hydraulic development have a vital role in the management of water resources. However, in
addition to their beneficial role, hydraulic structures can be the source of some accidents.
Seepage, both through the body or foundation of the structures, is one of the main causes of dams failure, all retention
structures being subject to these phenomena.
In order to prevent the associated phenomena of seepage, such as internal erosion, piping, excessive pressures, to
appear or evolve, an early detection of atypical behaviors is necessary and also a close monitoring and an extensive
analysis, followed by the determination of remedial solution of the situations.
1.2 Short presentation of the thesis
The paper is divided into 8 chapters, first of them having an introductory role. Chapter 2 presents a brief history
on the evolution of seepage control methods, the phenomena associated to seepage, current methods of detection and
monitoring and a synthesis of the existing constructive methods to control seepage. Chapter 3 presents the theoretical
background on water flow through the porous media. Chapter 4 presents the characteristics of mathematical models and
the description of three methods used to analyze: FDM, FEM and boundary integral equations. Chapter 5 contains the
analysis of dams characterized by the lack of cutoff walls, with consequences of high values of the hydraulic gradients
and downstream concentrations of the gradients. The structure characterized by this problem is the Ostrovul Corbului
protection dike where subsidence of land adjacent to the pumping station was reported repeatedly in its downstream area.
The study focuses on the use of mathematical models for analysis and selection of constructive solutions necessary to stop
the phenomena. Chapter 6 contains the analysis of dikes with drainage problems. This situation is characterized by the
occurrence of adverse events with specific effects springs, wet areas, etc. The location characterized by this situation is
represented by Frunzaru Dam which faced infiltration phenomena after the execution of the sealing works. In this study
case the effectiveness of remedial solutions was studied, which in this cases focuses on collecting and draining the
seepage water. Chapter 7 includes the analysis of the situation in which infiltration and hydrodynamic picking up appear
mainly in the dam foundation, when cutoff walls are imperfect. This situation was encountered at Ostrovul Mic Dam. In
this analysis the model was calibrated using thermal investigations carried out on site. The study case presents

the analysis of the possible remedial solutions using, as technical criteria, the value of hydraulic gradients, the
level of seepage emergence, the value of seepage flow and slope stability. The chapter ends with the presentation
of the multicriteria analyses used for a better selection of the remedial solution.
The thesis concludes with a chapter which presents general conclusions regarding seepage control, the author
contributions and future research directions.
1.3 Acknowledgements
I sincerely thank and send out my gratitude thoughts to Phd. Eng. Prof. Dan Stematiu for his dedication in
guiding my every step over the study years, for his trust during my doctoral studies and especially for the valuable
comments and exchange of ideas that contributed to the developing of the thesis.
My gratitude goes to the staff of the Department of Hydraulic Engineering, part of the Faculty of Hydrotechnics
for being a great example to follow in my future and for contribuing to my personal development as an engineer.
I express kind thanks to the Institute of Hydroelectric Studies and Design and the entire staff of the Department of
Dams for the understanding, the support and the opportunity to work with real professionals.
Last, but not least, I would like to thank my family for the confidence, the patience and the constant and
unconditional support they have shown me all this time.

2. Current status of seepage monitoring and control

2.1 Brief history of the development of seepage control methods
2.2 Failure modes
The downstream flow of the water from the reservoir can be realized through the dams body, under dam or beside it. The
following types of phenomena associated with infiltration are known: downstream excesive presures, internal erosion,
piping, chemical erosion, increased interstitial pressure and saturation of the filling materials.
2.3 Seepage detection and monitoring
There are a lot of factors which, following the monitoring phase, can lead to conclusions on seepage through the dam or
foundation. Among them we can mention: increasing of seepage flows, variations of the interstitial pressure, temperature
anomalies, physical and chemical properties of the water, the transport of fine particles by seepage water, wet zones,
wetland vegetation, slope instability, changes of known phenomena, etc.
The monitoring and the measuring of these factors can be achieved by different methods from the simplest, which
involves the direct measurement of the interstitial presure or of the seepage flow, to the most complex which involves the
use of geophysical methods. But, the most common, easiest and most reliable way of monitoring is based on visual
observations conducted periodically.
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3

Interstitial pressure and piezometric levels measurements

Seepage flow measurements
Geophysical methods

Geophysical methods, commonly applied in the engineering geology, can be used also for internal inspection of hydraulic
structures. In this way you can detect any anomalies or any particular elements such as: heterogeneity, gaps, holes, cracks,
preferential flow paths, etc. These methods are based on the propagation of mechanical or electromagnetic waves and
have the advantage of being nondestructive. They allow easy determination of some of the material internal
characteristics [57]. Among these the following can be mentioned: seismic reflection and refraction, ground penetrating
radar, ultrasonic tomography, infrared surveys, the sonar.
2.3.4

Remotely operated vehicles (ROV)

The use of remotely controlled vehicles, both the underwater (ROV) and the flying ones (FPV), is an investigation
method that is taking the lead. Using underwater ROVs, body or foundation defects of the structure can be detected
without endangering divers. Using quadrocopters equipped with FPV system wet zones, slides and others can be detected
and seen from another perspective.
2.3.5

Thermal detection

The temperature measurement method for detecting seepage withinin the body of the dams is being used since 1950, the
lakes water temperature acting as a natural tracer during the seepage flow and creating temperature anomalies within the
embankment. These anomalies can be detected and localized.
The interpretation of results is based on the fact that seasonal variations in water temperature cause, through seepage
water, seasonal variations within the embankment. A constant value of the embankements temperature corresponds to a
moderate seepage current but, a large seasonal variation is a sign of an important seepage flow [57].
In order to detect the temperature within an embankment, several methods detailed in the thesis can be used: temperature
measurements in wells made in the embankment, continous measurement of temperature using networks of optical fiber,
detection of differences in land surface temperature using infrared thermography.
2.3.6

Rezistivity measurements

The investigation of embankment dams by resistivity measurements is based on the fact that the soil resistivity depends
on soil properties and the pore water properties.[30]
The measurements are performed using electrodes mounted on the dams crest and their purpose is to detect a change of
resistivity. For this reason, the resistivity measurement technique is recommended to represent a form of periodic tracking
of dams behavior.
2.3.7

Tracers for determining the seepage paths

This method is used in order to determine the seepage pathways and speed. The method consists in injecting special
substances into the dams body and observing the downstream points where these substances and seepage water spring.
4

Knowing the starting and the ending point, possible flow paths caan be determined. After measuring the time required for
the tracer to reach the downstream point, the speed of the seepage current can be estimated and aslo the zones with high
permeability.
2.3.8

Visual observations

Visual observations performed periodically are essential in preventing the development of incidents into failures. Visual
observations serve to indicate the occurrence of unknow phenomena, of adverse phenomena in areas that are not equipped
with measuring devices or of phenomena that can not be detected by the measurement system.
2.4 Seepage control
Figure 2.16 presents schematically the constructive measures used for seepage control (sealing of the dam or of its
foundation and dam drainage). It is not necessary to apply all these measures to a dam - each dam must be analyzed
separately and only the measures that are necessary must be adopted.

Fig. 2.16 Elements to control seepage through and under embankment dams (adapted from [13])
A impervious core, B,D filters, C shoulders, E upstream blanket, F,G cutoff wall/ grout courtain, H drainage wells, I
downstream berm, J cutoff wall
2.4.1

Seepage control through embankment dams

According to US Army Corps of Engineers [84] there are 3 methods to control seepage through embankment dams:
embankment with flat slopes, embankment zoning and drainage (filters). A fourth method is to provide a sealing element
made of unearthly materials. The paper details all these methods.
2.4.2

Seepage control through dams foundation

Seepage control through dams foundation is necessary in order to prevent excesive pore water presures, hydrodinamic
picking up of the fine parts and excessive loss of water from the lake. The main methods to control seepage through the
foundation are: cutoff walls or ground courtains, drainage, upstream impervious blanket and downstream berms.
It should be noted that, although the paper presents the sealing systems separate from the drainage systems, they should
be designed in a unitary manner. In this way the effects of the sealing system are complemented and enhanced by the
presence of the drainage system.
2.4.3

Filters

A filter can be defined as the practical realization of the idea of reducing the hydraulic head losses in areas which are
subject to hydrodinamic picking up which leads to the diminution of the interstitial pressure values. In order to achieve
their objectives, filters must fulfill two functions / requirements ([47], [77]): the stability function and the permeability
function.
The thesis presents: mandatory characteristics of a perfect filter in order to reduce to minimum the risks of operational
failures or incidents / accidents, flow conditions of the filters and a number of calculation methods.
2.4.4

Geosynthetic materials

The geosynthetic materials gather several products realized mainly of plastic and whose production developed especially
after 1970. They are used in geotechnical and environmental engineering. They can be used also for

development of new dams or for old dams repairing. The paper describes only the geosynthetic materials used
for seepage control: geotextiles, geomembranes and geocomposites.

3. Theoretical basis of water flow through porous media

3.1 Darcys law. General form. Limits of its validity
The basis for all seepage analyses consists of the Darcy's law:
environment this can be written:

v =kI . For the general situation - anisotropic

v =|k| grad (H ) . The Darcys law has two limits of validity, detalied in the paper:

lower limit for clay and upper limit for gravel.

3.2 Flow net
The flow net can be defined as a graphical representation of two families of curves: equipotential (=ct or H=ct) and flow
lines (= ct or Q=ct). Its main properties are: equipotential lines and flow lines intersect in a 90o angle; equipotential
lines and flow lines do not intersect each other; the flow net does not depend on the absolute value of the coefficient of
permeability (k), but only on the ratio of these coefficients in different areas of the domain.
3.3 Characteristics of porous media
The permeability coefficient characterizes the physical properties of the soil in terms of seepage. It is determined by the
following factors: granulometry, shape and size of the particles, mineralogical composition, structure and texture of the
soil, soil physical condition, soil saturation degree and water viscosity (variable with temperature).
The paper presents a set of practical formulas for determining the permeability and a range of permeability values for
different types of soils.
3.4 Unsaturated regime
Water flow in unsaturated regime is governed by the same principles as in the case of the saturated one. Darcys law is
still aplicable. The most important difference is that the permeability coefficient is not a constant, but varies with the
humidity which varies itself with the pore water pressure. In this paper are presented the three elements that characterize
the characteristic curve of a material - Air Entry Value (AEV) , the slope of the function (mv) and residual water content.
3.5 Transient regime
For the analysis of the transient regime, the same general equations are used as in steady state regime, with the difference
that they are integrated using time-varying boundary conditions and special conditions on the free surface. If we analyze
the motion parameters at a certain moment of time, the problem can be studied as a steady state one, and because the
motion varies from one moment of time to another the transient flow can be studied as a sequence of steady state stages.
4. Seepage analysis using mathematical modeling
4.1 Characteristics of a mathematical model
According to Pietraru, numerical simulation involves three concepts: the nature, the scheme and the mathematical model.
Nature is known by its scheme and the mathematical model represents the mathematical description of the scheme.
Acording to Krahn [32] there are 4 main reasons for using mathematical modeling and these are detailed in the thesis: A.
making quantitative predictions; B. comparing alternatives simulation; C.identification of major parameters; D.
discovery and understanding of physical processes.
4.1.1

How to realize a mathematical model

To achieve a correct model, careful planning is required and within this subchapter a series of recommendations for
achieving a more accurate mathematical model are presented and illustrated. The conclusion of this chapter is that the
mathematical modelling is made by the user, not by the software the user decides which are the most important
elements for the problem and the software realizes only the mathematical calculations.
4.1.2

Porous media schematization

The natural soil where infiltration takes place is always inhomogeneous and anisotropic. Still, in the analysis, it is
considered: Homogeneous, Zoned, Isotropic or Orthotropic

This assumption, plus those regarding the geometric shape of the domain and those regarding the causes that induce water
motion (bonduary coditions), represents the schematization process.
The schematization process is very important in seepage analysis because if the scheme is inadequate, the results will be
inaccurate.
4.1.3

Boundary conditions schematization

In general, seepage problems involve 5 types of boundary conditions: a. impermeable boundary (k=0); b. inputs and
outputs (zones with given potential); c. spring zone; d. seepage line; e. imposed specific flow.
4.1.4

Mathematical models calibration

Softwares are tools that receive as input a set of data obtained from nature and that provide values of the paramatrs found
in nature as results. This way, the entire process, which is based on data from nature gives back the data from nature and
allows the confrontation of the data. A mathematical model is correct only if its results are consistent with data from
nature and for this reason the analysis on mathematical model should never be dissociated from reality, requiring a careful
calibration.
As data from nature that can be used to calibrate mathematical models we can specify: values for seepage flow, values for
interstitial pressure, levels of depression curve in body filler, etc.
4.2 Finite differences method
This chapter is detailed in the thesis and contains a description of the finite differences method and also presents the
calculation relations, how the bondary conditions are treated, stages of the calculation algorithm and how the transient
regime is modelled.
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3

Boundary conditions
Calculation algorithm
Transient regime

4.3 Finite element method

The finite element method, which is detailed in this thesis, is based on two mathematical formulations that are equivalent:
differential and variational [55]. The paper presents the mathematical relations for the two equivalent formulations,
computing steps, how the transient regime is modelled and a series of guidelines for meshing.
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.3.5

Differential formulation
Variational formulation
Transient analysis
How to realize the moddel
Steps in the Finite Element Method calculation

4.4 Boundary integral equations method

4.5 Specialized software for seepage analysis
There are currently a large number of software packages for the water flow through porous media analysis. In the thesis
were chosen two well-known models - one based on finite difference method (MODFLOW) and the other one based on
the finite element method (SEEP / W).
5. Use of mathematical models for the analysis and the selection of constructive
solutions - case study Ostrovul Corbului
5.1 Object of the study
Iron Gates II hydropower plant includes, for the protection of Ostrovul Corbului area, an embankment dam founded on
highly permeable and easily trained alluvial soils. The initial protection dike project did not supply a cutoff wall and the
solution adopted to maintain a certain water level within the enclosure area was to pump the excessive water over the dike
and out in the lake.

Groundwater movement between the retention arrangement and lower levels created by pumped water lead to damages
brought to the soil structure. Such a phenomenon is reported near the pumping station, which is emphasized by changes in
water levels after the drainage process.
This study aims to identify the potential causes of the piping phenomena which have appeared at Ostrovul Corbului dike
and the possible remedial solutions using the available data and mathematical modeling.
5.2 Site description
5.3 Site geology
5.4 Cause of the piping phenomena
5.4.1

Analyzed assumptions

It is estimated that the piping phenomena of the sand from the pumping station area have the following causes:

dam foundation soil which is composed of irregular sand and gravel, unstable in terms of hydrodynamic picking
up

Pumping stations caisson which represents an obstacle in the flow net of the groundwater flow from the dam to
the drainage channel

Water pumping from the drainage channel into the storage lake takes place as a transient flow with 2 high
capacity pumps.

5.4.2

Mathematical model

To confirm the assumptions on the causes of the phenomenon, a transient 2D horizontal model was realized using the
finite element method. The model was realized with Seep/w and the mesh had 2707 elements.
5.4.3

Simulations for checking the assumptions

To highlight the increase in hydraulic gradients induced by the pumping, the situation before the pumps were starting was
modeled first high water level in drainage channel. The initial head boundary conditions adopted were: H = 42.00 maSL
in the storage lake and H = 37.00 maSL in the drainage channel.
Simulation results are presented in the paper as the lines of constant head, the hydraulic gradients and the flow vectors. As
a conclusion of the analysis it has been discovered that the geometrical features of the drainage channel cause
concentrations of large gradients when seepage water exits within the channel. These values (0.18) are qual to the critical
ones.
To highlight the effect of the current pumping regime it was modelled as a transient one: lowering the water level in the
channel from 37 maSL to 35 maSL in 3 hours. The time step of the model was 5 minutes.
As a result of the analysis we observe the increase of the gradients over time as the water level decreses. At the end of the
pumping process the value of the gradients is 0.26. These values are greater then the values of the critical hydraulic
gradients and in this way we validated the causes of the hydrodinamic picking up.
5.5 Solutions to stop the piping phenomena
5.5.1

Proposed solutions

Two types of interventions have been proposed as corrective measures:

Changes to the pumps in order to create the possibility of adjusting the flow in order to limit the water level offset
into the channel and to lower the water speed.

Create a sheet pile cutoff wall on an alignment parallel to the channel bank and then rotated to the limit of the
drainage channel, behind the pumping station, in order to create a hydraulic barrier to reduce the flow gradients
below the critical values.

5.5.2

Changing the pumping regime effect

The effect of changing the pumping regime was highlighted by analyzing a transient model controlled pumping, which
leads to lowering water levels from the drainage channel from 37.00 maSL to 36.00 maSL in 3 hours.
After analyzing the maximum gradient it was noted that the measure does not bring significant changes in seepage
regime. Compared with the currently practiced pumping regime maximum gradient reductions are obtained from 0.26 to
0.22.
8

After analyzing the results, it was found that this intervention by itself does not change the seepage regime. The
difference between the actual pumping regime and the proposed one is insignificant the value of the hydraulic gradient
decreases from 0.26 to 0.22, but the risk of hydrodynamic picking up still remains.
5.5.3

The cutoff wall effect

The cutoff wall leads to radical changes within the infiltration flow net. We analyzed 2 assumptions - maintaining current
pumping regime and change it according to the previous chapter.
Figure 2.19 presents, for example, the effect of the cutoff wall for the first assumption examined.

SP

SP

Fig. 2.19 Equipotential and equal gradientlines Transient analysis : Slow pumping (37 36 - 3h)
Step 3 after 180 minutes. Effect of the cutoff wall

The 2 analyzed assumptions showed that presence of the cutoff wall has a beneficial effect diminution of output
gradients below the critical value. For the second assumption we obtain a safety factor of about 1.8 for the hydrodynamic
picking up.
5.6 Conclusions

The analysis on the mathematical model showed that hydrodynamic picking up of the sand from the dam
foundation has 4 main causes:

the presence of easily trained alluvial soils;

the configuration of the terminal area of the drainage channel;

the presence of the caisson which represents a barrier for the groundwater flow;

the pumping regime characterized by an important oscillation of the channel water level.

To control the seepage phenomena, which may jeopardize the integrity of the pumping station, the following are
proposed :

the development of a sheet pile cutoff wall behind the pumping station, in order to create a hydraulic barrier to
reduce the flow gradients below the critical values

changes to the pumps which create the possibility of adjusting the flow in order to limit the water level offset into
the channel and to lower the speed of the water.

A numerical simulation on a 2D horizontal model showed that the cutoff wall has the maximum effect in stopping
hydrodynamic picking up of the sand from the foundation. The combined solution installation of the cutoff wall
and change of pumping regime is recommended.

6. Checking the efficiency of remedial solutions on dikes characterized by poor

drainage Frunzaru study sase
6.1 Object of study
After completion of the works, following the raising of the water level of the lake Frunzaru from 69.00 to 69.50
at the NRL (71.00 ASL) an increase of seepage through the dikes was detected, which resulted in additional sealing
works that required emptying the lake. Once filling the lake at NRL after completion of the new sealing works, the
seepage phenomena returned. This situation has led to the present study which aims to analyze the causes of the
infiltration phenomena occurring after completion of the sealing works and to establish remedial measures that do not
involve emptying the lake.
9

6.2 Site description

Frunzaru hydropower plant, located on the Lower Olt River is the third hydropower plant on the Slatina Danube sector.
The dam is composed of the hydroelectric power plant, the spillway, the embankment dam and the navigation lock.
Longitudinal dikes delimiting the lake on both sides are homogeneous dikes made of heterogeneous filling
protected on the upstream slope with concrete mask.
The "E" section, analyzed in the study, is characterized by an upstream slope of 1:3 and the dam body is composed of a
1.00 m thick layer of normal drainage material on the upstream slope, and also an horizontal drain in foundation.
The filling of the rest of the dike consists of heterogeneous material (ballast mixed with clay in proportions of 30% to
60%).
The foundation for which section "E" was adopted is marked by the existence of a first layer composed of fine sand, silty
sand and clay silt characterized by low permeability and a thickness of less than 3 m. Following this layer there is a
permeable layer of variable thickness - sandy gravel and cobble. The last layer in the dikes foundation consists of the
bedrock, which is considered impermeable.
6.2.1

Foundation soil nature

6.3 Sealing phenomena analysis

6.3.1

Current state

Since the beginning of 2011, when the lake was filled and the its upstream level reached NRL (71,00 mdM), various in
situ visits where made that revealed a series of atypical phenomena wet zones on the surface of the berm, griffons in the
downstream channel and exfiltrations on the berm, on the slope, on the downstream channels slope and in the
downstream channel.
6.3.2

Analyzed hypothesis

Based on the existing data it was considered that the exfiltration present on the Frunzaru lake dikes following the
remedial works has the following causes: settlement of the berm and the diminution of its permeability caused by intense
traffic of small or heavy vehicles and the clogging of the weep holes in the concrete mask of the downstream channel.
They are obstacles in the seepage path with consequences such as the diminution of drainage in the downstream channel
and also the presence of springs on the berm and slope.
6.3.3

Mathematical model

To confirm the hypotheses on the causes of seepage phenomena, a steady state seepage analysis was performed on a 2D
vertical plane model using finite elementh metod.
6.3.4

Simulations for checking the assumptions

In order to analyze the effects of berm compaction and clogging of the weepholes situated on the downstream channel
concrete mask we studied 4 variants and in fig. 6.8 we presented the flow net for the first hypothesis examined:

Cote [mdM]

"complete execution" - ideal situation characterized by lack of clogging;

"operation 1" - a situation characterized by clogging of the weepholes situated on the downstream channel
concrete mask;
"operation 2" - a situation characterized by compaction of the berm
"operation 3" - a situation characterized by the combined effect of the first two operations.
75
NNR : 71.00 mdM

70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175

Distante orizontale [m]

Fig. 6.8 Flow net and flow vectors operation 3

As a result of the analysis we noticed that the weepholes clogging effect is reduced, the drawdown curve rising in berms
body, but not reaching the surface. Instead, the effect of the excessive compaction of the berm is more important, the
spring level beeing above the berm level.
10

6.3.5

Remedial solutions proposed

As a solution to remedy the current situation, the realization of horizontal drains was proposed, which should drive the
seepage water into the downstream channel. The drains can be realized without emptying the lake and they serve to
remove the "cap" created by excessive compaction of the berm.
After analyzing the mathematical model it was found and confirmed the fact that the draining straps have an important
effect - the drawdown curve descending in the dikes body. However, their implementation without removing the causes
that led to the excessive compaction of the berm, only leads to a delay of the current situation. That is why restricting /
prohibiting the auto traffic on the berm is recommended.
6.4 Conclusions

The mathematical model analysis showed that the main cause for the appearance of springs on the downstream
slope and wet zones on the berm is the excessive compaction of the berm and the clogging of the weepholes in
the downstream concrete mask, transforming them into obstacles to the flow. Excessive compaction of the berm
due to intense traffic with large and small vehicles has a more important effect than clogging of weepholes.
As a solution to remedy the situation the realization of horizontal drains was proposed. They serve to remove the
"cap" created by excessive compaction of the berm, to lower the drawdown curve and to drive the seepage water
into the channel. After modeling, we have concluded that this remedial solution is effective only if there will be
taken measures for restricting the traffic.
Even if the study is focused on Frunzaru dikes, this problem - berm compaction caused by the traffic - is also
found in other facilities. The recommended remedial solution is removing the causes that led to the settlement and
draining the seepage water to downstream channel.

7. Calibration of the mathemathical models by measurements and investigations

using infrared thermography case study Ostrovul Mic
7.1 Object of study
The hydro power station Ostrovul Mic faced infiltration problems since its commissioning, that is why the accumulation
worked with level restrictions most of the time.
This study was generated by the stringent need of constructive interventions to the dikes and has as main objective the
comparative efficiency analysis of the reconstruction solutions for the sealing system in terms of seepage and slip stability
so that the best recovery option is chosen.
7.2 Site description
Ostrovul Mic hydropower is composed of a weir dam, a hydroelectric power plant and perimeter dams. The artificial lake
dikes are made of ballast with trapezoidal cross-section and a sealing system consisting of a reinforced concrete mask and
a sealing cutoff wall made as a trapezoidal ditch filled with concrete gel. They often have the following shortcomings:
they are not embedded in the bedrock, there is no joint between the cutoff wall and the cutoff support beam, there are
windows in the cutoff wall in the lower area of large blocks.
7.3 Behavior of the work during service
In this study the important events produced at the lakes dikes are chronologically presented and as a conclusion we can
affirm that the water seepage through the dike is a continuous and increasing in intensity process, as the water is
infiltrating through preferential paths at the same time as the picking up of fine particles is taking place.
7.4 Analyzed solutions for the reconstruction of the sealing
As remedial alternatives analyzed there were considered the solutions proposed by SC ISPH SA and SC Hidroelectrica
SA and also the solution proposed during the analysis made on the mathematical model:
I.
II.

the execution from the dams crest of a sealing cutoff wall 1 m embedded in the bedrock,
the execution of a new cutoff wall, alongside the existing one, and the rehabilitation of the concrete mask,
11

III.

the reconstruction of the upper sealing and the cutoff wall -concrete mask joint by laying down a geomembrane
7.5 Sealing solutions analysis
7.5.1

Fundamentals

As a basis for data analysis, geological conditions of the site and also the UCC information provided both by the client SC Hidroelectrica SA - SH Haeg and by its designer - SC ISPH SA were used.
7.5.2

Mathematical model

To analyze the effect of the proposed sealing solutions, a steady state mathematical model was realized by using the finite
element method and the program SEEP / W 2004.
The analyzed field - left dike embankment cross section (km 1 320) - was represented as a mesh consisting of 12580
triangular and quadrilateral finite elements.
As boundary conditions there were considered: Upstream: the lake water level is equal to the restricted level for the
calibration phase and to the normal retention level for the analysis phase and Downstream: the downstream channel
water level is equal to 1 m above the level of the deck of the downstream channel and the potential spring area on the
downstream slope.
In the first phase - calibration - the model included the body of the dike with the existing sealing systems and foundation
ground, and in the second phase - analysis - the model was modified according to each analyzed alternative.
7.5.3

Model calibration

The emergence rate of the downstream parameter depression curve was chosen as element of calibration for the model. To
determine its value in situ, infrared photography was used and the investigations are summarized below in figure 7.5.

Emergence of depression curve

Fig. 7.5 The position of depression curve second version (october 2011)

Comparing digital photography with infrared photography, with the silhouette of the witness as the connecting element
for the two pictures, we can affirm that the blue/red demarcation (Figure 7.5) corresponds to the depression curves
emergence zone. As a result of the measurements the emergence rate of the depression curve was determined.
During the phase of the model calibration, the main cause of the large seepage flows and of the area below the
downstream parameter wetting is the degradation of the concrete mask in the inferior area of the dam and the lack of
junction between the cut off wall and the beam. The other imperfections, such as the lack of embedding in the bedrock for
the groin and the presence of spaces in the areas inferior to large blocks, are secondary causes.
7.5.4

Sealing systems analysis

During the second stage of analysis, the calibrated model was modified geometrically in order to simulate the effect of the
sealing works. The effect of the works was simulated both when the works were perfectly executed and when defects
appeared during execution(lack of embedding and spaces in the cut off wall).
The results for each analyzed situation are presented in the thesis grafically (as flow nets, as gradients) and as tables
(seepage flows, hight above the berm for the emergence of the depression curve, emergence level, wet zones on the
downstream parameter and the comparison between the output gradient and the critical gradient determined on the basis
of the granulometry). As examples there are presented in the figures 7.7, 7.12, 7.17 i 7.19 the flow nets for the perfect
execution hypothesis for the 3 analyzed alternatives:
12

Varianta : Ecran paralel cu pintenul, pereu reparat

Cota lac : 465.00 mdM

Varianta : Ecran de la coronament, pereu degradat

Cota lac 465.00 mdM

Cota coronament : 466.80 mdM

Cota lac: 465.00 mdM

Cote [m]

Cote [m]

450.82 mdM

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

Cota izvorare : 455.20 mdM

450.82 mdM

10

20

30

456

10

Cota lac: 465.00 mdM

458

Cota coronament : 466.80 mdM

467
465
463
461
459
457
455
453
451
449
447
445
443
441
439
437
435
433
431
429
427

462

467
465
463
461
459
457
455
453
451
449
447
445
443
441
439
437
435
433
431
429
427

40

50

Distante orizontale [m]

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

Distante orizontale [m]

Fig. 7.7 Flow net alternative I. Fig. 7.12 Flow net alternative II.
Varianta : Pinten incastrat, membrana pana la cota 463 mdM (NME - 1m)
Cota lac : 465.00 mdM

Varianta : Pinten neincastrat, membrana pana la cota 463 mdM (NME - 1m)
Cota lac : 465.00 mdM

Cota coronament : 466.80 mdM

Cota lac: 465.00 mdM

Cote [m]

Cote [m]

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

10

20

Distante Orizontale [m]

30

40

50

60

70

4 52

40

Cota izvorare : 452,10 mdM

454

30

Cota lac: 465.00 mdM

456

20

452

462

10

4 60

Cota coronament : 466.80 mdM

467
465
463
461
459
457
455
453
451
449
447
445
443
441
439
437
435
433
431
429
427

4 62

467
465
463
461
459
457
455
453
451
449
447
445
443
441
439
437
435
433
431
429
427

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

Distante Orizontale [m]

Fig. 7.17 Flow net alternative III. Embedded cutoff Fig 7.19 Flow net alternative III. Non emebedded cutoff

Following the simulation phase, it was determined that the first remedial alternative gives a total control over the
infiltration phenomenon a diminution of flows with more than 90% and the presence of springs in the downstream
channel even if defects appear during remedial works. The second alternative has benefic effects only if the works have
no defects of execution, but the existing phenomena are reduced with about 30%. The third alternative leads to a
diminution of the seepage flows with 50%-80% (based on the current cut off embedded or not embedded) and
represents a feasible alternative for the remaking of the sealing.
7.5.5

Sealing solutions effect on dam stability analysis

To evaluate the effect of the works on the slope stability, stability calculation were made using the limit equilibrium
method for all the analyzed remedial work alternatives. The position of the depression curves was taken from the seepage
calculation for each alternative.
The result of this analysis showed that the stability factors, both in static and pseudo static conditions, are superior to the
values recommended by the normatives only in the remedial alternatives using cutoff wall from the crest and respectively
with geomembrane. The result can be explained by the significant weight of the position of the depression curve over the
stability factor.
7.5.6

2D horizontal plane effect analysis of the cutoff wall realized from the dikes crest

In order to analyse the horizontal effect of the cutoff wall realized from the dikes crest a steady state horizontal 2D model
was developed using the finite element method. Transmissivities for the modeled areas were determined based on the
permeability values used in the vertical 2D model. Boundary conditions adopted are the same as for the vertical 2D
analysis.
As a result of the analysis it was observed that the side effect of the cutoff wall is felt upstream and downstream on about
50 m long. In this situation the zone characterized by sealing faults is protected from seepage. The effect of a supposed
defect is low, the flow spectrum not suffering major changes.
The situation of a small cutoff wall (150 m) realized only in the zone characterised by predominant seepage was analyzed.
For this situation the effect of the sealing works is greatly reduced the studied zone presenting flow vectors.
7.5.7

Rehabilitation works

The alternatives studied in the previous chapters in terms of seepage control and slope stability were also economically
analyzed. As a consequence, 4 types of interventions corresponding to the analyzed hypotheses on the mathematical
model resulted.

a cutoff wall realized from the dikes crest alternative I

a cutoff wall realized alongside the existing one and the rehabilitation of the concrete mask - alternative II
geomembrane on the upstream slope without the rehabilitation of the concrete mask - alternative III.1
13

a cutoff wall realized alongside the existing one and a geomembrane on the upstream slope - alternative
III.2

The length that was proposed for sealing restoration is equal to 500 m and is found on the left side dike between km 1 000
and 1 500.
7.5.8

Sealing solutions multi-criteria analysis

In order to choose the best alternative for the remedial sealing work, a multi-criteria analysis was realized. This analysis
has taken into account the results of the eficiency analysis of the seepage control and the slope stability and also the
following: the costs, the duration, the way electric power production is affected during works, the possibility of a perfect
execution of the works and the return of investment period based on the surplus energy.
The multi-criteria analysis showed that alternatives I and III (score difference less than 10%) are preferred.
7.6 Conclusions
As a result of the study we can conclude the following:

The mathematical model calibration was realized based on the emergence rate of the depression curve for the
downstream parameter. Its value was determined in situ using the infrared thermography technique.
As a result of the mathematical model analysis of the sealing solutions we can say that the solution Sealing with
a cutoff wall from the dikes crest gives a total control over the infiltration phenomenon. The alternative
Sealing with a cutoff wall parallel with the old cutoff wall and remaking of the concrete mask has a partial
benefic effect in the situation in which the cutoff wall is perfectly embedded in the impermeable horizon. The
altenative Geomembrane on the upstream slope is a feasible one. If the existing slurry trench is embedded in
the impermeable horizon then we have a total control of the exfiltrations. If the existing slurry trench is
supernatant, the emergence of the depression curve is a little above the berm level, and the gradients have value
comparable to the critical gradient.
Slope stability factors are above the minimal values recommended by the normative only in the alternative with
remedial cutoff wall from the crest and respectively with geomembrane.
As a result of the multi criteria analysis we can affirm that the remedial alternatives with cutoff wall from the
crest and respectively the one with geomembrane on the face are preferred, between the two of them there is not
enough score difference to choose only one of them.

8. Conclusions, original contributions and perspectives

8.1 General conclusions on the study of infiltration
The present thesis can be concluded based on the following ideas regarding control seepage through sealing works:

At this stage, monitor seepage can be done in various ways, most notably visually and investigations that can
provide data for calibration - piezometers, flow measurement, thermal detection.

Based on the law of water flow through porous media, seepage analysis can be done using mathematical
modeling, for example FDM and FEM.

Mathematical modeling is a powerful analysis tool: it can determine the dominant parameters, it can investigate
the causes, it can be used to compare and validate a wide range of remedial solutions and it can validate
assumptions made based on field measurements.

In similar situations as the one at Ostrovul Corbului, where depth sealing is not present, gradient concentration
occurs downstream with the possibility of the foundations fine party peaking up. In these cases, constructive
intervention mainly aims the reduction of gradients and less the reduction of infiltration flows.

Currently, sealing works structure must have a zoning characterized by increased permeability towards
downstream in order to safely direct the infiltration flows. Due to project infringement or local conditions, there
are situations when deficient drainage appears which leads to adverse phenomena with specific effects
concentrated springs, wetting, berm saturation, etc. In such situations the constructive remedial solutions should
aim the possibility of collecting and drainage of infiltrated flows.
14

There are situations when infiltration and driving phenomena mainly appear in the foundation soil of the
damming works when sealing work in depth is absent or poorly made. To identify the causes and propose
remedial solutions the calibrated model from phenomena/ data recorded in the field is needed. As an alternative
for the areas that do not have measurements, the required calibration data can be obtained by infrared
thermography. Such a technique was used to calibrate the model in Ostrovul Mic by determining the emergence
rate of the depression curve for the downstream parameter.
Sealing solutions for the foundation soil are analyzed using technical criteria as: gradients, the emerging position
of the downstream parameter, seepage flow and slope stability.

8.2 Original contributions and future research directions

The main original contribution in the thesis is to investigate the infiltration of atypical phenomena using mathematical
modeling and the calibration of mathematical models based on field measurements.
Following the order of the chapters, below are presented the most important original contributions:

the synthesis of the current state regarding the methods for monitoring, control and analysis of the phenomena of
infiltration;
the critical analysis of the software specialized in the analysis of flow through porous media;
examples for the schematic illustrating techniques and the calibration of mathematical models;
the establishment of criteria for the validation of constructive solutions based on gradient control compared to the
critical one
investigating the causes of excessive seepage through assumptions analysis using mathematical modeling;
the introduction of new investigation techniques based on infrared thermography and their use regarding the
calibration of mathematical models;
establishing rehabilitation solutions for the sealing system using multi criteria analysis.

Future research directions are fully focused on using investigative techniques and field measurements in order to calibrate
mathematical models. Another future direction is to predict the time evolution of the phenomena of infiltration from
database field measurements.

15

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***

Training
aids
for
dam
safety.
Evaluation
of
seepage
conditions.
http://www.deq.state.ms.us/mdeq.nsf/0/DAA3878DB96CD10A8625753800721D52/$file/Evaluation+of+Seepag
e+Conditions.pdf?OpenElement

16