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Introduction to Electromagnetics
e jq = cos q + j sin q
Complex Numbers
i) Rectangular/Cartesian Representation
c = a + jb
ii) Polar Representation
c = c e , where c =
jf
a +b
2
Real
f = tan 1 b a
d i
c = a + j b = c e jf = c cos f + j c sin f
real part
imaginary part
magnitude phase
iii) Addition/Subtraction
Cartesian representation most convenient
c = a + jb
d = e + jh
Then: c + d = a + e + j b + h
a f a f
c d = aa ef + j ab hf
iv) Multiplication/Division
Note that
a jf
= 1
cc * = a 2 + b 2 = c ,
2
fa
f a
f a
cd = a + jb e + jh = ae bh + j ah + be
ae + bh + j be ah
c a + jb a + jb e jh
=
=
=
d
e + jh
e + jh e jh
e2 + h2
f a
jf 1
d= d e
jf 2
cd = c d e
j f 1 +f 2
c c j df 1f 2 i
= e
d d
af
v t = A cos w o t + f
amplitude
g
phase
angular/radian
frequency
magnitude
and = 2 f
radian
frequency
$ $*
a$ = aa
amplitude Re a$ 1
frequency
F
H
FNote:
H
p
radians = 45
4
p
4
I
K
I
K
is a scalar field that depends on time only, but not on position (location). This is not
a wave.
voltage
For example, this is the voltage in any electric household plug. Note that the
phase f simply alters the starting point.
F
H
t in units of
p
w
I
K
F
H
I
K
f
z
v
= Vo cos w t - kz or Vo cos w t - b z
z
= Vo cos2p f t Repeats z z +
l
w 2p f
2p
k or b
=
=
propagation constant
v
v
l
v=f
v = Vo cosw t -
F
H
I
K
a f
= wavelength
v = phase velocity
2 1
period
2
=
FG
H
z in units of
with t = 0
p
b
IJ
K
r
y
E
= e$x Eo cos w t - k y
(i) = e$x Eo cosw t v
(x-oriented field, + y propagation)
F I
H K
IJ
K
FG
H
r
1
3
e$x +
e$y Eo cos w t - k z
(ii) E =
2
2
e$E
y
1
3
e$E = e$ x +
e$ y
3
2
2
1
1
2
r
(iii)E = e$ x E o cos w t - k z + 45
(x-oriented, + z propagation)
r
p
p
(iv) H = - e$x Ho sin
x cos w t - b z + e$z H 1 cos
x sin w t - b z
a
a
F I a
H K
F I a
H K
(waveguide example)
Example: (x-directed planewave, - y propagation)
r
E y , t = e$ x 100 cos w t + b y + 45
a f
L y O
= e$ 100 cos Mw F t + I + 45 P
N H vK Q
t=0
t=
p
4w
FG
H
y in units of
Propagates in the
direction
p
b
IJ
K
At t = 0 : cos b y + 45
At t =
p
: cos b y + 90 = - sin b y
4w
z
uniform
in x-y
plane
y
x
The magnitude E, that is, the density of these lines (or the length of the arrows), varies sinusoidally, both in time and in the variable y direction of propagation.
Ex
3
100
3
At y =
t
8
2
3
At y = :
8
At y = 0 :
r
2p 3
p
E = e$x 100 cos w t l+
l 8
4
p
= e$x 100 cos w t = e$x 100 sin w t
2
F
H
F
H
r
p
E = e$x 100 cos w t +
4
F
H
100
I
K
I
K
I
K
3
Re e jx = cos x , Im e jx = sin x
Suppose we have a field that varies sinusoidally in time and/or space. For a scalar
field, voltage, for example, we have:
v = Vo cos t
v = Vo cos w t - kz
(a sinusoidal voltage)
(a voltage wave on a transmission line)
v = R e Vo e jw t
(a) Drop Re . The remaining v = Vo e j t is called the complex voltage (including time dependence) or voltage phasor (including time dependence).
(b) v = R e Vo e jw t
Drop Re and e j t
The resultant v = Vo is called the (complex) phasor. Note that, for this example,
the complex phasor happens to be real. (PHASORS are written in bold typeface.)
If v = Vo cos w t + f
= Re Vo e j a w t + f f = R e Vo e jw t e jf
= Re Vo e jf e jw t
Im
Vo
e jf = cos 2 f + sin 2 f = 1
Re
LM
N
r
E = e$ x E o c o s w t + 3 0 R e e$ x E o e
jw t
p
6
OP
Q
e$ x E o 30 e
Complex form:
r
E = e$x Eo 30 e jw t
p
6
If we picture the entire time dependent complex field in the complex plane, we see
that it rotates at angular velocity .
t=
t=
Im
Eo
30
t=0
Re
Note that the direction of the complex field on this complex plane has no relationship to its direction in real physical space, which here is constant e$x .
The entire complex field, including e j t time dependence, is often called Rotating
Phasor. The real field is the projection on the Re axis.
Amplitude, Time Average, Mean Square and Root Mean Square
(a) Amplitude is the maximum value of the time oscillation (real number).
r
(i) E = e$x 100 cos w t - b z + f
real
r
E = e$x 100 e j f
phasor
Amplitude is 100
Amplitude magnitude of phasor
rr
E = EE*
LMUse sin x = e
N
=-
jx
- e - jx
2j
OP
Q
200 j + jb z - jb z
e -e
= - 200 j sin b z This is the phasor
2j
(simplified).
v = - 200 j sin b z =
function of z!
a f
a f
v z , t = R e - 200 j sin b z e
jw t
af
v t = Vo cos w t + f
af
v t
1
T
v = Vo e jf
T=
Vo cos w t + f 0
phasor
1
f
af
v2 t
z
z
1 T 2
Vo cos 2 w t + f dt
0
T
1 T 2 1 1
Vo
=
+ cos 2 w t + 2 f
T 0
2 2
Vo2
=
2
LM
N
f
a
fOPQ d t
Using phasors for v 2 cannot give correct answers since phasors are not valid for a
nonlinear situation. Try it and see:
Does not give cos 2 when real part is taken for the time average. But the following
trick works:
For the time average: (Note: It gives only the time average.)
v 2 (t ) = Re
1
1
V2
vv * = Re Vo e jf Vo e - jf = o
2
2
2
d i
AA
a f
phasor
The Mean Square is related to Average Power (averaged over whole cycles).
The same trick works for any other second order quantity.
afaf
v t i t
= Re
1
vi*
2
af
v2 t
or
af
Et
1
amplitude.
2
Example:
r
If: E = e$r 100 cos w t - b z
cylindrical coordinates
r
H = e$f 0. 3 cos w t - b z - 60
r r
Calculate E H , using both real fields and phasors.
ar , f , z f
Solution:
(a) Using real fields
r r
E H = e$z 30 cos w t - b z cos w t - b z - 60
f a
1
cos A - B + cos A + B
Use product of cos A cos B =
2
r r
E H = e$z 15 cos 60 + cos 2w t - 2 b z - 60
r r
E H = e$z 7. 5 + 0
m a
+ j
1
E H * = e$ z 15 e
2
f
a
r
E = e$r 100
p
r
- j
$
H = ef 0 . 3 e 3
fr
Phasors corresponding
to
r
r
the real E t , z , H t, z
a f a f
p
3
1
Re E H * = e$z 15 cos 60 = e$z 7. 5
2
RS F
T H
a f
Propagation is in
I UV
K W
+ z$ direction
v=
r
Complex field: E z, t = e$x Eo e j aw t - b z +f f
a f
j w t -b zf
= e$x Eo e jf e a
a f
Another example:
a f
r
j w t -b zf
E t , z = Re 100 e$ x - j e$ y e a
a f
r r
= Re 2 E E * = 1 2 100
1
a f ce$ - j e$ hce$ + j e$ h
2
a f a1+1f = a100f
= 12 100
(ii) Drop only e j t dependence
r
E z, t = e$x Eo cos w t - b z + f
r
E z , t = e$ x Re E o e j a w t - b z + f f
r
E = e$x Eo e - j b z + jf
a f
a f
We can see that z and f both are phases. The phase changes with propagation. The phase rotates in the complex plane.
For waves travelling in one direction only, we dont usually use this. Instead,
we drop off of e j aw t - b z f -- usually (but not always).
Example:
(1b) Transmission line wave
Waves travelling in two opposite directions
a f
v t, z = Vo cos w t - b z + G Vo cos w t + b z + f
v (t, z) = Re Vo e - jb z e jw t + G Vo e jf e + jb z e jw t
We only have one option: Drop e j t dependence, since z dependence is not the
same on the two parts.
Phasor: v = Vo e - jb z + G e jf e + jb z
~
= Vo e j z 1 + e 2 j z
~
= G e jf = complex reflection
coefficient
~
1 + e 2 jb z
~
= G e jf
Im part
1
called Crank
Diagram
Re part
F p xI e a
Ha K
f:
p
E = e$ E sin F xI
Ha K
f
E x, y, z, t = e$y Eo sin
j w t-b z
x< a
j w t-b z
Drop e a
x< a
Another example:
H = - e$x Ho sin
F p xI - j e$ H cos F p xI
Ha K
Ha K
z
x< a
Phasor:
Significance of j : x$ and z$ components are 90 out of phase
Real field is:
r
p
p
H = - e$x Ho sin
x cos w t - b z + e$z H1 cos
x sin w t - b z
a
a
F I a
H K
F I a
H K
Similar fields exist in any guided wave, such as waves in optical fibers!
(3) Modulated (time dependent amplitude) waves
All the examples brought in (1) and (2) were waves of a single sinusoidal frequency and amplitude constant in time.
In communications, we impress information onto a single frequency wave by
modulating its amplitude in time. The original sinusoid is the carrier and the modulation of the amplitude contains the information.
r
z
E = e$x Eo cosw t v
F I
H K
z=0
a single pulse impressed onto a carrier
r
2
z
- t- z / 2 s 2
E = e$x Eo e b vg o cos wo t v
F
H
r
-t
At z = 0: E = e$x Eo e
/ 2 s o2
I
K
cos w o t
r
2
2
E = e$ x Eo e - t / 2 s o e jw o t
Phasor form:
carrier
amplitude envelope
E = EE * = E e
2
2
o
t 2 / o2
E (w )
wo
E t, z = 0 =
1
2p
E (w )
a f
E w e jw t d w
wo
af
Ew =
af
E t e - jw t dt
a f
af
Ew
2 p s o Eo e
= 2p s o2 Eo2 e
s o2
w -w o
2
- s o2 w - w o
Electronic
Modulator
Diode
Laser
Encoder
Information
Amplifier
Processor