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Volume 160(16)

11 September 2000

pp 2429-2436

New Guidelines for Potassium Replacement in Clinical Practice: A

Contemporary Review by the National Council on Potassium in
Clinical Practice
[Review Article]
Cohn, Jay N. MD; Kowey, Peter R. MD; Whelton, Paul K. MD; Prisant, L. Michael MD
From the Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis (Dr Cohn);
Department of Cardiology, Lankenau Hospital and Medical Research Center, Wynnewood, Pa, and Department
of Medicine, Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, Pa (Dr Kowey); Department of Epidemiology, Tulane
University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, La (Dr Whelton); and Department of
Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta (Dr Prisant).
Reprints: Jay N. Cohn, MD, Cardiovascular Division, MMC 508, University of Minnesota, 420 Delaware St
SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455.

Outline

Abstract
CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS OF POTASSIUM DEPLETION
PROTECTIVE EFFECT OF POTASSIUM
HYPOKALEMIA

POTASSIUM SUPPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES: PREVENTION VS

REPLETION
COMPLIANCE ISSUES AND POTASSIUM REPLACEMENT THERAPY
POTASSIUM REPLETION AND THE ROLE OF MAGNESIUM
CONSENSUS GUIDELINES FOR THE USE OF POTASSIUM
REPLACEMENT IN CLINICAL PRACTICE

Graphics

Clinical Implications in Hypertension

Clinical Implications in CHF
Clinical Implications in Patients With Arrhythmias

General Guidelines
Patients With Hypertension
Patients With CHF
Patients With Cardiac Arrhythmias
Patients Prone to Stroke
Patients With Diabetes Mellitus
Patients With Renal Impairment

References

Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4

Abstract
This article is the result of a meeting of the National Council on Potassium in Clinical
Practice. The Council, a multidisciplinary group comprising specialists in cardiology,
hypertension, epidemiology, pharmacy, and compliance, was formed to examine the
critical role of potassium in clinical practice. The goal of the Council was to assess the
role of potassium in terms of current medical practice and future clinical applications.
The primary outcome of the meeting was the development of guidelines for potassium
replacement therapy. These guidelines represent a consensus of the Council members
and are intended to provide a general approach to the prevention and treatment of
hypokalemia.
Arch Intern Med.2000;160:2429-2436

In recent years, studies of the potential pathogenetic role of potassium deficiency in

various medical conditions have underscored the importance of preventing or correcting
this deficiency. Although it has long been established that the maintenance of normal
serum potassium is essential in reducing the risk of life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias,
accumulating evidence suggests that the increased intake of potassium can also lower
blood pressure and reduce the risk of stroke.
Few clinicians attempt to monitor and augment potassium stores on a routine basis. One
reason may be the inconvenience of accurately measuring total body potassium, which
entails a 24-hour urinary collection rather than a rapid laboratory serum measurement.
Another reason is the practical difficulty of achieving and maintaining optimal
potassium levels. Therefore, many clinicians may not attempt to remedy subnormal
potassium levels except in high-risk patients.
The current lack of consensus on how to prevent and treat hypokalemia has led to the
neglect of a wide range of situations in which increasing potassium intake might help
prevent sequelae of cardiovascular disease. The multifactorial and interactive
mechanisms that are stimulated by hypertension and even more so by heart failure,
which mandate the introduction of drugs that disrupt electrolyte homeostasis, emphasize
the serious role of potassium. This article reviews contemporary thinking on potassium
in clinical practice.
Of the total body potassium content (about 3500 mmol [mEq]), 90% is sequestered
within cells. 1 This compartmentalization depends on active transport through the cell
membrane by a sodium-potassium pump, which maintains an intracellular cation ratio
of 1:10. Normal serum potassium levels are considered to lie roughly between 3.6 and

5.0 mmol/L. The loss of just 1% (35 mmol) of total body potassium content would
seriously disturb the delicate balance between intracellular and extracellular potassium
and would result in profound physiologic changes. On the other hand, the presence of
hypokalemia (ie, serum levels <3.6 mmol/L) is not necessarily synonymous with wholebody potassium deficiency, because such a small percentage of the total body stores is
present in extracellular fluid. Whereas it is generally accepted that diuretic therapy can
decrease serum potassium to hypokalemic levels, the subtler effects of inadequate
dietary potassium are less well known.
For instance, although young adults may consume up to 3400 mg (85 mmol) of
potassium per day, many elderly individuals, particularly those living alone or those
who are disabled may not have a sufficient amount of potassium in their diet. People
who eat large amounts of fruits and vegetables tend to have a high potassium intake of
approximately 8000 to 11,000 mg/d (200-250 mEq). Urban whites typically consume
approximately 2500 mg (62.5 mEq) of potassium daily. In contrast, many African
Americans have low intakes of about 1000 mg (25 mEq) per day. 1 The daily minimum
requirement of potassium is considered to be approximately 1600 to 2000 mg (40-50
mmol or mEq). Factors that affect potassium intake include the type of diet consumed
(Table 1), age, race, and socioeconomic status.

Table 1. Foods High in Potassium*

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS OF POTASSIUM DEPLETION

Potassium depletion is one of the most common electrolyte abnormalities encountered

in clinical practice. More than 20% of hospitalized patients have hypokalemia, widely
defined as a serum potassium level of less than 3.5 mmol/L. Low serum (or plasma)
concentrations of potassium may occur in up to 40% of outpatients treated with thiazide
diuretics. 2
Because the kidneys are the major regulators of external potassium homeostasis,
accounting for approximately 80% of potassium transit from the body, renal dysfunction
can result in gross abnormalities in serum potassium levels. 1 Transcellular potassium
homeostasis depends to a large extent on acid-base balance. 1, 3 Acidosis stimulates
cellular efflux of potassium from cells, resulting in hyperkalemia, whereas alkalosis
stimulates influx of potassium, resulting in hypokalemia, without a simultaneous
alteration in total body potassium. Increases in insulin or catecholamines can also
stimulate cells to import potassium and export sodium. In patients with type 2 diabetes,
increases in glucose or insulin can affect potassium homeostasis. Stimulation of [beta]2adrenergic receptors by sympathomimetic drugs (eg, decongestants and
bronchodilators) can temporarily reduce serum potassium. A standard dose of nebulized
albuterol reduces serum potassium by 0.2 to 0.4 mmol/L. A second dose administered
within 1 hour reduces it by approximately 1 mmol/L. 2 [beta]2-Blockade, on the other
hand, increases serum potassium.
Overt hypokalemia may be diagnosed when the serum potassium level is less than 3.6
mmol/L. Potential causes include diuretic therapy, inadequate dietary potassium intake,
high dietary sodium intake, and hypomagnesemia (Table 2). In most cases, hypokalemia
is secondary to drug treatment, particularly diuretic therapy (Table 3). 2 Diuretics inhibit
chloride-associated sodium reabsorption in the kidney, creating a favorable
electrochemical gradient for potassium secretion. 2, 4 The degree of hypokalemia is
directly related to the dose and half-life of the diuretic administered. 5 Hypokalemia
occurs infrequently in patients with uncomplicated hypertension who take a diuretic but
is more common in patients with congestive heart failure (CHF), nephrotic syndrome,
or cirrhosis of the liver, who take an equivalent dose of a diuretic and consume
approximately the same amount of potassium from food. 1

Table 2. Potential Causes of Hypokalemia

Table 3. Drugs That Induce Hypokalemia*

Management of hypokalemia should begin with a thorough review of the patient's

medical record. If potassium-wasting drugs are not implicated, hypokalemia is most
commonly caused either by abnormal loss through the kidney induced by metabolic
alkalosis or by loss in the stool secondary to diarrhea. 2
Because potassium is a major intracellular cation, the tissues most severely affected by
potassium imbalance are muscle and renal tubular cells. Manifestations of hypokalemia
include generalized muscle weakness, paralytic ileus, and cardiac arrhythmias (atrial
tachycardia with or without block, atrioventricular dissociation, ventricular tachycardia,
and ventricular fibrillation). Typical electrocardiographic changes include flat or
inverted T waves, ST-segment depression, and prominent U waves. In severe untreated
hypokalemia, myopathy may progress to rhabdomyolysis, myoglobinuria, and acute

renal failure. Such complications are most often seen in hypokalemia secondary to
alcoholism.

PROTECTIVE EFFECT OF POTASSIUM

Data from animal experiments and epidemiologic studies suggest that high potassium
may reduce the risk of stroke. Although part of the protective effect of potassium may
be due to lowering of blood pressure, analysis of animal models suggests that potassium
may have other protective mechanisms, including inhibitory effects on free radical
formation, vascular smooth muscle proliferation, and arterial thrombosis. 6-9 It has also
been shown experimentally that potassium may reduce macrophage adherence to the
vascular wall (an important factor in the development of arterial lesions, oxidative stress
of the endothelium, or vascular eicosanoid production). 10-12
In 1987, the results of a 12-year prospective population study (N = 859) showed that the
relative risk of stroke-associated mortality was significantly lower with higher
potassium intake. 13 In fact, multivariate analysis demonstrated that a 10-mmol higher
level of daily potassium intake was associated with a 40% reduction in the relative risk
of stroke mortality. This apparent protective effect of potassium was independent of
other nutritional variables, including energy (caloric) intake; dietary levels of fat,
protein, and fiber; and intake of calcium, magnesium, and alcohol. The authors also
noted that the effect of potassium was greater than that which would have been
predicted from its ability to lower blood pressure. 13
More recently, Ascherio et al 6 reported the results of an 8-year investigation of the
association between dietary potassium intake and subsequent risk of stroke in 43,738
US men, aged 40 to 75 years, without previously diagnosed cardiovascular disease or
diabetes. During the study follow-up, 328 strokes were documented. The relative risk of
stroke for men in the top fifth of the range of potassium intake (median intake, 4.3 g/d)
vs those in the bottom fifth (median, 2.4 g/d) was 0.62 (P for trend =.007). The inverse
association between potassium intake and subsequent stroke was more marked in
hypertensive men and was not significantly altered by adjustment for baseline level of
blood pressure. 6
Ascherio et al 6 also found that the use of potassium supplements was inversely related
to the risk of stroke, particularly among hypertensive men. They speculated that this
relationship might be due, at least in part, to a reduction in the risk for hypokalemia. 6,
14-15 The authors recommended increasing the intake of potassium by substituting fruits,
vegetables, and their natural juices for low-potassium processed foods and sodas and by
considering potassium supplements for persons with hypertension. 6

HYPOKALEMIA
Clinical Implications in Hypertension
Evidence from epidemiologic and clinical studies has implicated potassium depletion in
the pathogenesis and maintenance of essential hypertension. 16 Increasing the intake of
potassium appears to have an antihypertensive effect that is mediated by such
mechanisms as increased natriuresis, improved baroreflex sensitivity, direct
vasodilation, and lower cardiovascular reactivity to norepinephrine or angiotensin II. 17
Indirect support for this hypothesis comes from observations of the effects of primary

aldosteronism (eg, aldosterone-producing hyperplasia or adenoma) or secondary

aldosteronism (eg, excessive ingestion of licorice). These syndromes are characterized
by abnormally low serum potassium levels and elevated blood pressure. Reversal of the
underlying cause results in increased serum potassium levels and decreased blood
pressure. Similarly, correction of diuretic or laxative abuse can also raise potassium
level and lower blood pressure.
The large-scale Nurses' Health Study (N = 41,541) found that dietary potassium intake
was inversely associated with blood pressure. Specifically, intake of potassium-rich
fruits and vegetables was inversely related to systolic and diastolic pressure. 18
Similarly, 24-hour urinary potassium excretion, 24-hour urinary sodium excretion, and
the ratio of urinary sodium to potassium were found to be independently related to
blood pressure in the INTERSALT study, 19 a 52-center international study of
electrolytes and blood pressure. Additional information was provided by the Rotterdam
Study, 20 which evaluated the relationship between dietary electrolyte intake and blood
pressure in 3239 older people (age, >=55 years). A 1 g/d higher level of dietary
potassium intake was associated with a 0.9 mm Hg lower level of systolic blood
pressure (P =.11) and a 0.8 mm Hg lower level of diastolic blood pressure (P =.01).
Whelton et al 21 recently conducted a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
evaluating the effects of oral potassium supplementation on blood pressure. This
analysis included 33 clinical trials involving 2609 participants. In these trials, the use of
potassium supplementation was the only difference between the intervention and control
arms. Dosages of potassium (mostly in the form of potassium chloride) ranged from 60
mmol/d to greater than 100 mmol/d. The results demonstrated that potassium
supplementation was associated with a significant reduction in mean systolic and
diastolic blood pressure (4.4 mm Hg and 2.4 mm Hg, respectively; P<.001). The
greatest effects were observed in participants who had a high concurrent sodium intake.
This analysis suggests that low potassium intake may play an important role in the
genesis of high blood pressure. Thus, the authors recommended increased potassium
intake for the prevention and treatment of hypertension. 21 Based on the strength of the
available data, the Joint National Committee for Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and
Treatment of High Blood Pressure (JNC VI) included increased potassium intake as a
core recommendation for the prevention and treatment of hypertension. 22
Among hypertensive patients, certain subgroups would derive special benefit from
increased potassium intake. Best recognized are African Americans. 23 In the metaanalysis by Whelton et al, 21 the reduction of systolic blood pressure after potassium
supplementation was approximately 3 times greater in blacks compared with whites. In
addition, several studies have revealed lower urinary potassium excretion in blacks than
in whites. 23 Watson et al 24 reported that 24-hour urinary excretion of potassium was 28
mmol in black females and 36 mmol in white females. The urinary sodium-to-potassium
ratio was 4.1 in blacks and 2.9 in whites, a difference that was statistically significant. 24
The Veterans Administration Cooperative Study Group on Antihypertensive Agents (N
= 623) found potassium excretion to be 62% higher in whites than in blacks (73 41 vs
45 40 mmol); in addition, serum potassium levels were negatively associated with
systolic blood pressure. The study concluded that the difference in urinary potassium
excretion and in serum potassium levels between blacks and whites reflected a
difference between the 2 groups in the intake of dietary potassium. Such a difference
may be an important factor in the greater prevalence of hypertension in blacks. 25

Clinical Implications in CHF

Not surprisingly, potassium depletion is commonly seen in patients with CHF, a
condition that is characterized by several physiologic abnormalities that predispose to
the development of electrolyte disturbances. Among the pathogenetic factors associated
with CHF are renal dysfunction and neurohormonal activation, which embrace
stimulation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone axis, enhanced sympathetic nervous
tone, and hypersecretion of catecholamines. 26
A common misperception regarding angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor
therapy is that these drugs enhance potassium retention, thereby eliminating the need to
add potassium or potassium-sparing diuretics to ACE inhibitor therapy. In many cases,
the prescribed dosages of ACE inhibitors in patients with CHF are insufficient to protect
against potassium loss. Serum potassium levels, therefore, must be closely monitored in
all patients with CHFeven those taking ACE inhibitorsto minimize the lifethreatening risk of hypokalemia in these patients.
The arrhythmogenic potential of digoxin is enhanced by hypokalemia in patients with
heart failure. When using digoxin in combination with a loop diuretic and an ACE
inhibitor, the decision of whether to administer potassium supplements can be complex.
Leier et al 26 recommend maintaining serum potassium levels in the range between 4.5
and 5.0 mmol/L. They suggest that "effective potassium management with properly
targeted serum potassium concentrations... probably represents the most effective and
safe antiarrhythmic intervention" in heart failure. Magnesium may also be administered
to facilitate the reversal of refractory hypokalemia.
The importance of preventing hypokalemia is underscored by the finding that the risks
of dysrhythmias, syncope, cardiac arrest, or death are greater in patients with heart
failure. 26 This result may be due in part to the cells of hypertrophied and failing hearts
often having prolonged action potential duration, which in most cases is due to a
decrease in outward potassium currents.
Nolan et al 27 found that low serum potassium levels were related to sudden cardiac
death in the United Kingdom Heart Failure Evaluation and Assessment of Risk Trial (N
= 433). Grobbee and Hoes 28 reported similar results in an examination of published
randomized trials and recent case-control studies; patients with hypertension who were
prescribed nonpotassium-sparing diuretics had approximately twice the risk of sudden
cardiac death compared with users of potassium-sparing therapy. The authors
recommended using thiazide diuretics at a low dose only, and adding a potassiumsparing diuretic drug when higher diuretic doses are needed. 28 They estimated that the
protective effect of antihypertensive treatment on mortality might be halved by the
induction of sudden death following potassium loss.
Leier et al 26 suggested that virtually all patients with CHF should receive potassium
supplementation, a potassium-sparing diuretic, or an ACE inhibitor. This is a prudent
management strategy in light of the potentially dire consequences of hypokalemia in
these patients.

Clinical Implications in Patients With Arrhythmias

In the absence of underlying heart disease, major abnormalities in cardiac conduction

secondary to hypokalemia are relatively unusual. However, mild-to-moderate
hypokalemia can increase the likelihood of cardiac arrhythmias in patients who have
cardiac ischemia, heart failure, or left ventricular hypertrophy. 2, 29 As mentioned
earlier, this occurrence is not surprising in light of the important role that potassium
plays in the electrophysiologic properties of the heart. The relation between extra and
intracellular potassium levels is the primary determinant of the resting membrane
potential (RMP). Changes in potassium level modify the electrophysiologic properties
of the membrane and can have profound effects on impulse generation and conduction
throughout the heart. 30
Potassium deficiency, as well as potassium channel blockade or down-regulation, can
cause prolonged repolarization, the pathogenic factor in the genesis of torsades de
pointes. The effects of hypokalemia on repolarization are magnified in many disease
states, including left ventricular hypertrophy, CHF, myocardial ischemia, and
myocardial infarction. Such effects, in turn, are compounded by agents with class III
antiarrhythmic effects, such as sotalol. 31
The Nernst equation describes how the ratio of intracellular to extracellular potassium
affects the RMP of myocardial cells: RMP = 61.5 log [K+i/K+e]. Changes in this ratio,
such as those induced by diuretic therapy, affect cardiac conduction and automaticity.
As a result, low intracellular potassium levels can increase spontaneous depolarization,
automaticity, and the emergence of ectopic foci. 32
Despite this compelling basic information, the link between hypokalemia and clinical
arrhythmogenesis is not a strong one. Caralis et al 32 studied 17 hypertensive men to
determine the relationship of diuretic-induced hypokalemia with ventricular ectopic
activity. They found that the risk for ventricular ectopic activity was marked in a group
of patients who were older and had clinical evidence of organic heart disease. Patients
with these characteristics had increased frequency and complexity of ventricular ectopic
activity during diuretic therapy. In these patients, normalization of serum potassium
levels with oral potassium supplements or potassium-sparing agents reduced the
complexity and frequency of arrhythmias by 85%, even after discontinuation of diuretic
therapy. Therefore, the authors recommended that clinical and laboratory observation
should be used to identify those patients susceptible to diuretic-induced ventricular
ectopic activity (eg, older patients with organic heart disease) and that steps should be
taken to normalize serum potassium levels. Caralis et al speculated that the finding of
electrocardiographic abnormalities in a specific population suggested that modest
disturbances of potassium metabolism alone may not induce arrhythmia; rather,
abnormalities of heart rhythm are most likely when underlying heart disease and low
potassium occur together. 32-33
Although the relation between complex ventricular arrhythmia and hypokalemia
remains uncertain, there is evidence that hypokalemia can trigger sustained ventricular
tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation, particularly in the setting of acute myocardial
infarction. However, the exact mechanism by which hypokalemia provokes ventricular
fibrillation or sudden cardiac death in the absence of an acute myocardial infarction is
unclear. In patients with a history of serious arrhythmias receiving antiarrhythmic drugs,
hypokalemia may reverse the beneficial effects of these agents and render the patient
vulnerable to a recurrence of arrhythmia. 34-35 It is probably important, therefore, to

impose a stricter standard for treatment (potassium <4.0 mmol/L) especially in patients
with heart disease who are at risk for serious ventricular tachyarrhythmias. For example,
the risk of early ventricular fibrillation in acute myocardial infarction is strikingly
increased in patients with serum potassium levels less than 3.9 mmol/L. 34-37 However,
there are no data to prove that aggressive replenishment of potassium in patients with
heart disease necessarily leads to a better clinical outcome.

POTASSIUM SUPPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES:

PREVENTION VS REPLETION
Increasing potassium intake should be considered when serum potassium levels are
between 3.5 and 4.0 mmol. Although treatment of asymptomatic patients with
borderline or "low normal" concentrations is controversial, very low levels (<3.0 mmol)
are universally regarded as undesirable. Efforts to increase potassium intake are
appropriate in certain populations who are vulnerable to cardiac arrhythmias (such as
patients with heart failure, those taking digoxin, and patients with a history of
myocardial infarction or ischemic heart disease). When the serum potassium level is
below 3.5 mmol, potassium supplementation may be warranted even in asymptomatic
patients with mild-to-moderate hypertension. 32
Strategies to minimize the risk of potassium depletion include minimizing the dosage of
nonpotassium-sparing diuretics and restricting sodium intake. Increasing dietary
potassium is the most straightforward means of enhancing potassium intake, but the
high content of some potassium-rich foods is a potential drawback to dietary potassium
supplementation (Table 1). Moreover, dietary potassium is almost entirely coupled with
phosphate, rather than with chloride; therefore, it is not effective in correcting potassium
loss that is associated with chloride depletion, such as in diuretic therapy, vomiting, and
nasogastric drainage. 2 For patients receiving diuretic therapy, an attempt should be
made to reduce the dose or to discontinue therapy. If the potassium depletion is not due
to diuretic therapy, the patient should be evaluated for other causes of potassium loss. 1
When diuretic therapy is necessary, potassium balance should be protected by using
low-dose diuretics and by using diuretics in combination with drugs that have the
potential for sparing potassium (such as [beta]-blockers, potassium-sparing diuretics,
ACE inhibitors, or angiotensin receptor blockers). Repletion strategies also should
include eating foods high in potassium, using salt substitutes, or taking prescription
potassium supplements (Table 4). 2

Table 4. Potassium Supplements

Potassium salts include potassium chloride, potassium phosphate, and potassium

bicarbonate. Potassium phosphate is found primarily in food, and potassium bicarbonate
is typically recommended when potassium depletion occurs in the setting of metabolic
acidosis (pH <7.4). In all other settings, potassium chloride should be used because of
its unique effectiveness against the most common causes of potassium depletion.
Moreover, hypochloremia may develop if citrate, bicarbonate, gluconate, or another
alkalinizing salt is administered, particularly in patients adhering to diets that restrict the
intake of chloride. Potassium chloride is available in either liquid or tablet formulations
(Table 4), 2 and all potassium formulations are readily absorbed. Although liquid forms
may be less expensive, they have a strong, unpleasant taste and often are not well
tolerated.

COMPLIANCE ISSUES AND POTASSIUM REPLACEMENT

THERAPY
As with many long-term therapies, compliance can be a challenge with potassium
supplementation. Specific characteristics of a medication, such as appearance, color,
taste, size, ease of swallowing, and cost can all influence patient compliance. 45 Studies
demonstrate that drug regimens should be simplified to the greatest extent possible to
enhance compliance. 46 For instance, compliance rates can be improved by requiring the
fewest doses of medication per day. An examination of automated pharmacy records by
Halpern et al 45 documented this hypothesis. In their study of more than 2000 patients,
the investigators determined the mean adherence ratios for 1 pill vs 2 or more pills daily
with an equivalent dosage of potassium supplementation. At 1 year, the mean adherence
ratio was significantly higher for patients taking 1 pill compared with those taking
multiple pills per day. The worst ratios were observed in patients who were treated with
liquid potassium supplements, which the authors speculated may have been due to
increased side effects, poor taste, and the inconvenience of liquid supplements. 45 In
their conclusion, the authors emphasized that "patient adherence is vitally important in
the successful treatment of disease, especially in asymptomatic long-term diseases....

Since potassium supplements are typically indicated for long-term use, it is important to
optimize patient adherence." 45
Reported adverse effects of potassium supplements affect primarily the gastrointestinal
tract, and they include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, flatulence, and abdominal pain or
discomfort. Ulcerations of the small bowel have been reported after the administration
of enteric-coated potassium chloride tablets. A few cases of small bowel ulceration,
stricture, and perforation have been associated with wax-matrix formulations. 47
Although slow-release tablets have been associated with gastrointestinal tract
ulcerations and bleeding, the risk of these complications is low and seems to be lowest
with the use of microencapsulated preparations. 2

POTASSIUM REPLETION AND THE ROLE OF MAGNESIUM

Magnesium is an important cofactor for potassium uptake and for the maintenance of
intracellular potassium levels. Recent studies using cellular models confirm the critical
role of magnesium in maintaining intracellular potassium and indicate that the
mechanisms are multifactorial. 48 Whang and colleagues 48 demonstrated that
coexisting magnesium and potassium depletion could lead to refractory potassium
repletion, which is the inability to replete potassium in the presence of unrecognized and
continuing magnesium deficiency.
Many patients with potassium depletion may also have magnesium deficiency. In
particular, loop diuretics (eg, furosemide) produce substantial serum and intracellular
potassium and magnesium loss. Digoxin accelerates the excretion of magnesium by
reducing its reabsorption at the renal tubules. The role of magnesium in maintaining
intracellular potassium is particularly important in cardiac myocytes because it
desensitizes them to the calcium-induced arrhythmogenic actions of cardiac glycosides.
Routine determination of serum magnesium levels should be considered whenever the
measurements of serum electrolytes are necessary in a patient. Whang et al 48
recommend considering the repletion of both magnesium and potassium for patients
with hypokalemia. Dietary sources of magnesium include whole-grain cereals, peas,
beans, nuts, cocoa, seafood, and dark green vegetables.

CONSENSUS GUIDELINES FOR THE USE OF POTASSIUM

REPLACEMENT IN CLINICAL PRACTICE
Low serum potassium concentration is perhaps the most common electrolyte
abnormality encountered in clinical practice. Strategies aimed at achieving and
maintaining normokalemia must take into account such factors as (1) baseline
potassium values, (2) the presence of underlying medical conditions (eg, CHF), (3) the
use of medications that alter potassium levels (eg, nonpotassium-sparing diuretics) or
that lead to arrhythmias in the presence of hypokalemia (eg, cardiac glycosides), (4)
patient variables such as diet and salt intake, and (5) the ability to adhere to a
therapeutic regimen.
Because of the multiple factors involved, guidelines therefore should be directed toward
patients with specific disease states, such as those with cardiovascular conditions, and
toward the general patient population. The following list encompasses our general

practices for the use of potassium. The guidelines were developed at a 1998 meeting of
the National Council on Potassium in Clinical Practice. It is clear that controlled clinical
studies are necessary to determine the specific recommendations.

General Guidelines
1. Dietary consumption of potassium-rich foods should be supplemented with potassium
replacement therapy. Often, increasing dietary potassium intake is not completely
effective in replacing the potassium loss associated with chloride depletion (eg, that
which occurs in diuretic therapy, vomiting, or nasogastric drainage) because dietary
potassium is almost entirely coupled with phosphate, rather than with chloride. In
addition, the consumption of potassium-rich foods in amounts that are sufficient to
increase the level of serum potassium level to acceptable concentrations may be costly,
and it may lead to weight gain.
2. Potassium replacement is recommended for individuals who are sensitive to sodium
or who are unable or unwilling to reduce salt intake; it is especially effective in
reducing blood pressure in such persons. A high-sodium diet often results in excessive
urinary potassium loss.
3. Potassium replacement is recommended for individuals who are subject to nausea,
vomiting, diarrhea, bulimia, or diuretic/laxative abuse. Potassium chloride has been
shown to be the most effective means of replacing acute potassium loss.
4. Potassium supplements are best administered orally in a moderate dosage over a
period of days to weeks to achieve the full repletion of potassium.
5. Although laboratory measurement of serum potassium is convenient, it is not always
an accurate indicator of total body potassium. Measurement of 24-hour urinary
potassium excretion is appropriate for patients who are at high risk (eg, those with
CHF).
6. Patient adherence to potassium supplementation may be increased with complianceenhancing regimens. Microencapsulated formulations have no unpleasant taste and are
associated with a relatively low incidence of gastrointestinal side effects.
7. Potassium supplementation regimens should be as uncomplicated as possible to help
optimize long-term compliance.
8. A dosage of 20 mmol/d of potassium in oral form is generally sufficient for the
prevention of hypokalemia, and 40 to 100 mmol/d sufficient for its treatment.

Patients With Hypertension

1. Patients with drug-related hypokalemia (ie, therapy with a nonpotassium-sparing
diuretic) should receive potassium supplementation.
2. In patients with asymptomatic hypertension, an effort should be made to achieve and
maintain serum potassium levels of at least 4.0 mmol/L. Low serum potassium levels
(eg, 3.4 mmol/L) in asymptomatic patients with uncomplicated hypertension should not

be regarded as inconsequential. Dietary consumption of potassium-rich foods and

potassium supplementation should be instituted as necessary.

Patients With CHF

Potassium replacement should be routinely considered in patients with CHF, even if the
initial potassium determination appears to be normal (eg, 4.0 mmol/L). The majority of
patients with CHF are at increased risk for hypokalemia. In patients with CHF or
myocardial ischemia, mild-to-moderate hypokalemia can increase the risk of cardiac
arrhythmia. In addition, diuretic-induced hypokalemia can increase the risk of digitalis
intoxication and life-threatening arrhythmias.
In light of the above information and the potential for hyperkalemia to occur secondary
to drug therapy with ACE inhibitors or angiotensin II receptor blockers, regular
monitoring of the serum potassium level is essential in these patients. At any time, stress
can trigger the secretion of aldosterone and the release of catecholamine in response to
low cardiac output, thereby precipitating a fall in the serum potassium level.

Patients With Cardiac Arrhythmias

Maintenance of optimal potassium levels (at least 4.0 mmol/L) is critical in these
patients and routine potassium monitoring is obligatory. Patients with heart disease are
often susceptible to life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias. In particular, such
arrhythmias are associated with heart failure, left ventricular hypertrophy (characterized
by an abnormal QRS complex), myocardial ischemia, and myocardial infarction (both
in the acute phase and after remodeling). The coadministration of magnesium should be
considered to facilitate the cellular uptake of potassium.

Patients Prone to Stroke

It is prudent to maintain optimal potassium levels in patients at high risk for stroke
(including those with a history of atherosclerotic or hemorrhagic cerebral vascular
accidents). Although the effectiveness of potassium supplementation in reducing the
incidence of stroke in humans has not been demonstrated in randomized controlled
trials, prospective studies suggest that the incidence of fatal and nonfatal stroke
correlates inversely with dietary potassium intake. In addition, the association of stroke
with hypertension is well known.

Patients With Diabetes Mellitus

Potassium levels should be closely monitored in patients with diabetes mellitus and
potassium replacement therapy should be administered when appropriate. Data
underscore the adverse effects of glucose and insulin on potassium levels and the high
incidence of cardiovascular and renal complications in patients with diabetes mellitus.
These factors are specific to patients with type 2 diabetes who have poorly controlled
serum glucose levels.

Patients With Renal Impairment

Data suggest a link between potassium levels and lesions of the kidneys in patients with
renal disease or diabetes. Animal studies have demonstrated that potassium may offer a
protective effect on the renal arterioles. The clinical implications of these findings are
not yet clear.
Accepted for publication February 28, 2000.
This article is based on a symposium supported by a grant from Key Pharmaceuticals,
Kenilworth, NJ.
The National Council on Potassium in Clinical Practice participants include: Jay N.
Cohn, MD,Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota Medical School,
Minneapolis; Peter R. Kowey, MD, Department of Cardiology, Lankenau Hospital and
Medical Research Center, Wynnewood, Pa, Department of Medicine, Jefferson Medical
College, Philadelphia, Pa; Barry J. Materson, MD, Department of Medicine, University
of Miami, Miami, Fla; L. Michael Prisant, MD, Department of Medicine, Director of
Cardiology Fellowship Training, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta; Elijah Saunders,
MD, Department of Medicine, Hypertension Division, University of Maryland School
of Medicine, Baltimore; Dorothy L. Smith, PharmD, President, Consumer Health
Information Corporation, McLean, Va, Department of Community and Family
Medicine, Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, DC; Louis Tobian,
MD, Department of Medicine, Division of Hypertension, University of Minnesota
Medical School, Minneapolis; and Paul K. Whelton, MD, Tulane University School of
Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, La.

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Arrhythmia; Dietary Supplements; Guidelines; Heart Failure, Congestive;

Hypokalemia; Magnesium; Potassium

Accession Number: 00000779-200009110-00001

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