The Building Brick

of Sustainability

by Michael Chusid, RA, FCSI, Steven H. Miller, CSI, and Julie Rapoport, PhD, PE, LEED AP
Photo Steven H. Miller

BRICK MASONRY HAS BEEN A PRIMARY

TECHNIQUE OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT FOR
AT LEAST SEVEN MILLENNIA, MAKING IT ONE
OF THE OLDEST CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGIES
IN COMMON USE. ITS LEGACY IN EXISTING
ARCHITECTURE STILL MAKES IT A DESIRABLE,
IF NOT REQUIRED, ARCHITECTURAL CHOICE IN
MANY LOCATIONS.
Although the term applies to a range of materials
such as mud brick and cementitious block, the most
familiar formthe image North Americans
typically associate with the word brickis fired
clay brick, a technology more than 2000 years old.
This longevity stems from beneficial performance
properties, widespread availability of clay, and the
fundamental simplicity of brick production.
Recently, clay brick has come under a different kind
of fire due to its environmental impact. While fired
30 the construction specifier | may 2009

clay brick has certain inherent, sustainable properties

(e.g. durability, high thermal mass, and, often, local
extraction and manufacture1), the kilning process
fundamental to its manufacture has raised some
sustainability concerns because of energy
consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
The brick industry has sought new ways to address
sustainability, altering certain time-honored
practices. Some brick manufacturers have
incorporated recycled content into conventional
brick. Smokestack scrubbing technologies reduce
particulate, and, in some cases, sulfur dioxide and
sulfur trioxide (smog-producing) pollution. A few
brick plants have switched to alternative fuel sources.
Sustainable challenges
Although these efforts are laudable, they do not
address what some consider the most urgent
environmental threatsthe intensive consumption

of non-renewable energy and associated emission of

greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2),
considered to accelerate climate change.
As a vitrified or semi-vitrified ceramic, clay brick
achieves a crystalline or semi-crystalline structure
due to the action of heat.2 It becomes hard and
durable by firing in a kiln. In the United States, most
modern clay brick is produced in tunnel kilns
operating continuously at about 1090 C (2000 F),
where the brick is fired for up to three days. During
normal operations, these kilns are practically never
shut down except for maintenance; they must be
kept hot even when not full. The kilns heat energy
is generally produced by burning natural gas,
coal, or petroleum cokeall of which emit CO2
in their combustion.
The seriousness of the carbon dioxide problem is
evident in a recent proposal by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of the first
comprehensive national system for reporting
emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases
produced by major sources in the country.
According to EPA:

Brick masonry is deeply rooted in architectural tradition. It is often used

as a way for modern structures to fit into locations dominated by older
brick buildings, creating visual harmony and unity.
Photo Steven H. Miller

reporting requirements would apply to suppliers of

fossil fuel and industrial chemicals, manufacturers of
motor vehicles and engines, as well as large direct
emitters of greenhouse gases with emissions equal to
or greater than a threshold of 25,000 metric tonnes
[27,558 U.S. tons] per year. This threshold is roughly
equivalent to the annual greenhouse gas emissions
from just over 4500 passenger vehicles.3

may 2009 | the construction specifier 31

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COMPARING DIFFERENT TYPES OF BRICK

Clay Brick
Standard

ASTM C 216

Concrete Brick
ASTM C 1634

Fly Ash Brick

Meets or exceeds
performance of ASTM C 216
for SW Clay Brick

Embodied Energy

9.3 MJ (8800 Btus)

1.3 MJ (1240 Btus)

0.891.31 MJ
(8501250 Btus)

CO2 Footprint

0.59 kg (1.3 lb)

0.34 kg (0.75 lb)

0.11 kg (0.25 lb)

Recycled Material

06%

Not typical

3599%

Shrinkage/Expansion

Expands 0.08%

Shrinkage 0.065%

Shrinkage 0.065%

Dimensional Consistency

Can vary due to firing and

Very consistent if cured to

Projected to be very consistent

warpage

ASTM C 55 before shipping

due to manufacturing process

230

25

114

Mineral oxides in clay plus

Natural and synthesized

Natural and synthesized

natural and synthesized

mineral oxide pigments

mineral oxide pigments

Initial Rate of Absorption/

Ability to Absorb Mortar
Pigmentation

mineral oxide pigments

Brick made from fly ash utilizes a high proportion of recycled content and
has very low embodied energy and carbon dioxide emission associated
with production, offering a green material choice. Colored brick is achieved
by pigmenting with colorfast mineral oxides.
Photo courtesy Calstar Cement

EPA estimates the program will cover approximately

13,000 facilities, accounting for about 85 to 90 percent
of GHGs emitted in the United States. This program
would apply to an estimated 85 percent of U.S. clay
brick production capacity.
One concept for understanding the carbon
footprint and environmental impact of a product is
its embodied energythe cumulative energy
consumed in the products entire lifecycleas CO2
emission is often a by-product of energy consumption.
According to the National Institute for Standards
32 the construction specifier | may 2009

and Technologys (NISTs) Building for Environmental

and Economic Sustainability (BEES) database, the
average embodied energy for a common fired clay
brick is about 9.3 MJ (8800 Btus). It is estimated a
state-of-the-art brick plant operating at optimal
efficiency might be able to reduce this figure below
5.3 MJ (5000 Btus); however, this would only be
possible in a handful of plants currently in operation.
Each common clay brick fired using fossil fuel is
responsible for the release of about 0.6 kg (1.3 lb)
of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
To understand the meaning of these numbers,
consider the fact an average-sized house in the
United States uses about 20,000 bricks. This quantity
translates to an embodied energy of 185,700 MJ
(176 million Btus) to make the homes brick
cladding. By comparison, the same quantity of
energy used elsewhere would be enough to operate
an average, single-family home for 17 months.4
Innovative products are being created to emulate
traditional brick in performance and appearance,
yet reduce environmental burdens. In general, they
seek to satisfy the performance standard applying to
clay brick, ASTM International C 216, Standard
Specification for Facing Brick (Solid Masonry Units
Made from Clay or Shale). However, like the greening
efforts of traditional brick manufacturers, these new
products each focus on particular sustainability issues
with rather different impacts on the planets future.
(See Aspects of Sustainability, page 34.) It is also

worthwhile to distinguish how green a

product is from the kind of green it
isa distinction that enables design
professionals to specify materials
meeting desired sustainability objectives
and priorities.
Fired brick
Sustainability strategies applied to
traditional brick manufacturing
employ alternative fuels, recycled
materials, or reduced materials.
Innovative, non-clay bricks made by
firing also offer green benefits.

Ybe facing. Moisture thats

et thats what they could

Alternative fuels
A few plants employ methane gas
captured from landfi lls as part of their
firing fuel. Methane is frequently
referred to as natural gas, and its
capture for beneficial use is a valuable
contribution. Presently, only a
handful of plants utilize captured gas
fuel. These plants still consume large
quantities of energy, emitting CO2 in
the process.
Petroleum coke, an inexpensive byproduct of oil refining, is also used as
a firing fuel in a few instances.
Although this product also reduces
energy resource depletion, it still
consumes energy and emits about as
much carbon dioxide as the highest
carbon-content coal.
Recycled materials
Several conventional clay brick
manufacturers claim to employ a
percentage of recycled materials. In
some cases, however, this recycled
material is actually reclaimed virgin
clay excavated from the top layers of
other mining operations, as opposed
to material previously used by
industry or consumers and then
recycled for a second use. Both
reclaimed and recycled content
address material consumption issues.
Use of recycled material can help a
project earn credit under the U.S.

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Using recycled material in brick can help a project earn credit under the USGBCs
LEED program. Unfortunately, these materials have little, if any, impact on the
more fundamental concerns of energy consumption and CO2 emission.
ASPECTS OF SUSTAINABILITY
Sustainability is an umbrella concept that has come to encompass
efforts to address a multitude of environmental sins. Sustainability
issues surrounding brick manufacture (and construction processes
in general) include:
raw materials consumption;
recycled content;
embodied energy; and
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
Raw materials consumption deserves attention to preserve limited
natural resources for future generations. Use of recycled material
helps reduce raw materials consumption, and the associated
environmental impact of extraction processes (e.g. mining and
quarrying). It also relieves the burden on landfills and other disposal
sites. These are important challenges to mitigating human impact on
the natural ecosystem.
The concept of embodied energy has been used to quantify the
energy consumed during extraction, processing, and manufacture of
a building product. Lowering consumption of finite energy resources
such as fossil fuels not only mitigates resource depletion, but also
lightens the environmental burden of resource extraction.
Furthermore, embodied energy relates to greenhouse gases, as
fossil fuel energy consumption is associated with significant carbon
dioxide emissions. It is not an absolute relationship, however,
because the quantity of CO2 emitted varies by fuel type. For example,
the coal used to fire many conventional clay brick kilns emits
approximately twice the CO2 per Btu as natural gas.
Although use of captured fuels (e.g. methane gas from landfills) or
by-product fuels (e.g. petroleum coke) helps slow depletion of fossil
fuel reserves, it does not lessen CO2 emissionsarguably the most
urgent of the sustainability challenges.
CO2 emissions also result from other construction-related activities
besides energy consumption. Portland cement production has a
very large carbon footprint, emitting almost a ton of CO2 per ton of
product. Surprisingly, the energy required for this process accounts
for less than half the CO2 emitted.
When limestone (i.e. calcium carbonate [CaCO3]) is fired in cement
kilns, a chemical transformation takes placefor every molecule of
calcium oxide (CaO) produced, a molecule of CO2 is released. This
means every ton of portland cement production releases about
500 kg (1100 lb) of CO2 from the chemical reaction alone, independent
of energy consumption. Energy consumed for cement kiln-firing
emits the remaining CO2 of the ton-for-ton calculation. Therefore,
more energy-efficient kilning processes can never address even half
of the CO2 problem associated with portland cement. This limitation
presents a strong incentive to identify other cementitious materials
for brick production.

cs

34 the construction specifier | may 2009

To be viable in the industry, innovative brick must meet

the same performance standards as conventional brick.
Here, compressive strength of a fly ash brick is tested. It
exceeded the ASTM International standard, and passed
the freezethaw test for severe weather (SW) brick as well.
Photo courtesy Calstar Cement

Green Building Councils (USGBCs) Leadership in

Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program.5
Unfortunately, they have little, if any, impact on the
more fundamental concerns of energy consumption
and CO2 emission.
Reduced materials
Another strategy entails reducing the amount of clay
per brick. Brick standards allow for coring and deep
frogs. Coring refers to holes through the section that
may amount to 25 percent of the beds surface area,
and deep frogs are recessed panels in the bearing
surface of the brick. Deep frogs require increased
quantities of mortar, which compromises their
environmental benefit.
Neither of these strategies has significant impact on
energy consumption or CO2 emission; the bricks take
up the same amount of space in the kiln as solid brick,
so the number of bricks produced relative to the
quantity of fuel consumed remains the same.

Innovative non-clay brick

A new process uses 100 percent recycled or
reclaimed materials. This mixture consists of:
processed sewage wastes;
recycled iron oxides;
recycled glass; and
virgin ceramic scrap.
These materials are generally ceramic in nature and
sourced from wastestreams of other processes. They
are fired in a traditional clay brick plant in a
somewhat atypical manner. Although the products
recycled material content is laudable, the resulting
brick have embodied energy and a carbon footprint
similar to that of conventional fired clay brick.
Another recycled-content product pioneered in
the United Kingdom, is made of 97 percent recycled
ground glass and cathode ray tube plate glass that is
vacuum-pressed, combined with a binder. It is
kilned at up to 680 C (1256 F) for a maximum of
three hours. This approach addresses materials
consumption, recycling, and to some extent, energy
consumption and CO2 emission. The kiln temperature

is approximately one-third lower than that of typical

clay brick kilns; firing time is also less than five
percent of that taken for typical clay brick.
Non-fired brick
Non-fired brick can be made of concrete, and more
recently, fly ash.
Concrete brick
Made from sand, crushed rock, water, and about 15
percent by weight of ordinary portland cementthe
same types of materials as standard concrete
concrete brick can have strength and density similar
to fired clay brick.
Concrete brick is made in various colors, using
either gray or white portland cement. Pigmenting is
generally achieved with mineral oxides. Iron oxide,
for example, is used to pigment red concrete brick,
and is chemically identical to the iron oxide that
gives fired clay brick its familiar red color. Mineral
oxide pigments produced in accordance with ASTM
C 979, Standard Specification for Pigments for Integrally

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Concrete bricks relatively high carbon

footprint is not primarily attributable to
energy consumption in the brick-making
process. However, production of the
portland cement used in this brick emits
large quantities of carbon dioxide.

FLY ASH
When coal is burned, approximately five to 10 percent of it is turned
into ash. Fly ash is a lighter ash product that would fly away if not
captured in the smokestack (which it is, for all U.S. coal-fired power
plants). The heavier ash that does not rise is called bottom ash.
Fly ash is defined in ASTM C 618, Standard Specification for Coal
Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete,
as the finely divided residue that results from the combustion of
ground or powdered coal and that is transported by flue gases.
It is a powdery substance composed of glassy-smooth particles.
In 2007, about 72 million tons of fly ash were produced in the
United States. Less than 45 percent of it was used in beneficial
applications. During the past decade, approximately half of utilized fly
ash was mixed into concrete; other uses range from soil stabilization
to fillers for paint and plastics.* The remainder is sent to landfills or
kept in retention ponds.
Two classes of fly ash are defined by chemical composition. Class
F generally contains less than 10 percent calcium oxide (lime), and
is used as a pozzolanic additive to replace a percentage of portland
cement in concrete. Class C can contain 20 percent lime or more,
and has both cementitious and pozzolanic properties.
Fly ash is known to contain trace amounts of mercury and other
heavy metals. In the ash produced by the vast majority of American
power plants, these quantities fall far below the thresholds used
by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to define a
hazardous material. It has been used in concrete for decades,
and has been historically included in conventional fired clay brick
in portions ranging from six to 35 percent. The trace heavy metals
present in fly ash are effectively bound and immobilized when
incorporated in a construction material such as concrete or brick.
Environmental groups have endorsed the use of fly ash in construction
materials such as concrete and asphalt.**

cs

* For more information on the properties and uses of fly ash,

see Turning LEED into LeadsCoal Combustion Products in
Building Materials, by Michael Chusid, RA, CSI, CCS, and Kelly
McArthur Ingalls, CSI, CDT, LEED AP, in the April 2003 issue
of The Construction Specifier.
** For example, see testimony of Lisa Evans, project attorney,
Earthjustice, before the Subcommittee on Energy And Mineral
Resources, Committee on Natural Resources, U.S. House of
Representatives, June 10, 2008.

36 the construction specifier | may 2009

Photo courtesy Calstar Cement

Fly ash is a fine, powdery substance scrubbed from the

smokestacks of coal-fired power plants (top). As seen
in the electron microscope image on the bottom, it is
composed of glassy-smooth particles. Some fly ashes
are high in calcium oxide (lime) and silica, which react
with water to form a hard cementitious matrix.
Photo courtesy American Coal Ash Association

Colored Concrete, have been successfully used to

integrally color concrete for decades, and are
considered stable and colorfast.
Some masons have reported a practical problem
with the initial rate of absorption (IRA) of concrete
brick. IRA is important in relation to mortars ability
to adhere to brick and form a bond that will minimize
moisture intrusion. Concrete brick is said to suck up
the mortar too readily. ASTM C 216, Note 6 (Initial
Rate of Absorption [Suction]) states:
Both laboratory and field investigation have shown
that strong and watertight joints between mortar
and masonry units are not achieved by ordinary

construction methods when the units as laid have

excessive initial rates of absorption. Mortar that has
stiffened somewhat because of excessive loss of
mixing water to a unit may not make complete and
intimate contact with the second unit, resulting in poor
adhesion, incomplete bond, and water-permeable
joints of low strength.

Concrete bricks relatively high carbon footprint is

not primarily attributable to energy consumption in
the brick-making process. The embodied energy of a
concrete brick is only about 1.3 MJ (1240 Btu), or 15
percent of a fired clay brick. However, production of
the portland cement used in this brick emits large
quantities of carbon dioxide. A common, non-cored,
concrete brick, weighing about 2.5 kg (5.5 lb), is
associated with approximately 0.34 kg (0.75 lb) of
CO2 released into the atmosphere.
Fly ash brick
Fly ash brick (FAB) is a composite of non-clay
materials, a high percentage of which is ash recycled

from coal-fired electrical power plants. (See Fly

Ash at left.) According to some manufacturers in
the United States, fly ash-based brick and products
may be available in commercial quantities before the
end of this year.
At least one FAB manufacturing process contains
up to 50 percent Class C fly ash, a self-cementing
material. Class C fly ash is composed of high
proportions of silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide, and
calcium oxide. Adding a small amount of water
initiates a chemical reaction between these materials
similar in both process and product to cement
hydration. The remaining volume of this brick
includes sand, recycled coal bottom ash, or other
fine, recycled materials.
FAB tests to meet or exceed ASTM C 216
performance standards for conventional clay brick;
it is also within the allowable shrinkage limits for
concrete brick in ASTM C 55, Standard Specification
for Concrete Building Brick. Professional mason field
testing has determined FAB has good mortar
adhesion, is easy to build with, and can be cut more

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Samples of fired clay brick (left) and concrete brick (right). Both are associated with high levels of carbon dioxide emission.
Photo Steven H. Miller. Photo courtesy Calstar Cement.

Concrete brick typically costs about 20

percent less than basic clay brick. Fly ash
brick is expected to be competitively priced
with red clay brick, and may possibly be
less expensive once in full production.
cleanly than conventional fired clay brick. FAB is
expected to be available in a range of brick sizes and
surface textures. A palette of colors can be achieved
using stable, colorfast mineral oxide pigments.
Fly ash brick prototypes have achieved embodied
energy and CO2 emission levels in the range of 15 to
20 percent that of clay brick, and may drop below 10
percent in full production.
Of the 72 million tons of fly ash produced in the
United States each year, more than half is dumped in
ponds and landfi lls. FAB production diverts fly ash
from landfi lls or retention ponds. Making it into
brick binds and immobilizes it, transforming fly ash
from an environmental burden into a useful
material. Both the National Resources Defense
Council (NRDC) and Earthjustice recognize and
encourage the beneficial use of fly ash in concrete
and other construction materials.
38 the construction specifier | may 2009

Fly ash brick testing has determined it is a safe

product. It passes by a wide margin in EPAmandated tests for potentially hazardous
materialslandfi ll simulation and rainwater (acid
rain) leaching testswith no detectable mercury.
Although not required by regulatory agencies for
construction materials, a dermal exposure test also
revealed no detectable mercury levels.
Costs
Pricing of conventional clay brick varies widely
depending on regional factors. For example, a basic
brick at a warehouse chain store in Fremont,
California, costs approximately 40 percent more
than one at the same chain in Los Angeles,
California. Style also influences pricing. In the
Chicago market, different styles of commercial/
architectural brick range from $0.40 to $0.80 each.
Transportation costs can increase prices by a high
percentage relative to cost of the material itself.
Consequently, clay brick manufacturing is widely
dispersed, and brick bought close to the source is
significantly less costly than material trucked a few
hundred miles.
Concrete brick typically costs about 20 percent
less than basic clay brick. Fly ash brick is expected

to be competitively priced with fired clay brick.

Once in full production, FAB may possibly be less
expensive than clay brick, if purchased similarly
close to its source.
Conclusion
The masonry industry continues to seek ways to
make its products more sustainable, using
alternative fuel sources and incorporating recycled
content. However, the fundamental process for fired
clay brickfusion under intense heatmakes a
high carbon footprint inevitable. Innovative brick
makers are attempting to break through this barrier
by lowering the heat of firing, if not eliminating it
altogether. Non-fired fly ash brick achieves strength
via chemical reaction instead of heat fusion, while
employing a high percentage of recycled material.
Brick construction can help a project earn several
credits under LEED, including recycled-material
content, and regional materials.6 However, LEED
does not currently provide credits for reducing
embodied energy content or CO2 emissions
associated with building materials.

Brick masonry has been a part of the built environment for at least seven
millennia, making it one of the oldest construction technologies still
in common use. Its longevity stems from performance properties, the
availability of clay, and the simplicity of brick production.
Photo BigStockPhoto.com

may 2009 | the construction specifier 39

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Field testing demonstrates fly ash brick is easy to build with. The photo on the right shows the material has good mortar adhesion.
Photos courtesy Calstar Cement

Many clay brick manufacturers also make pavers.

Additionally, a large number of concrete brick
producers make pavers and concrete masonry units
(CMUs). Although performance standards for these
products differ from brick, the sustainability issues
are largely the same. Some fly ash brick makers
produceor are expected to producepavers
and block as well. These products offer the same
sustainability advantages as their brick.

Such advances enable brick masonry to keep its

traditional place in the repertoire of architectural
expression without compromising sustainable
cs
practice in building construction.
Notes
1
See Clad in Green, by Charles (Chip) B. Clark Jr.,
PE, AIA, LEED AP, in the October 2008 issue of
The Construction Specifier.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

Authors
Michael Chusid, RA, FCSI, is president of Chusid
Associates, a consulting firm specializing in technical and
marketing services for advanced construction products and
materials. A member of the Los Angeles Chapter of the
U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), Steven H. Miller, CSI,
is an award-winning freelance journalist and photographer
specializing in issues of the construction industry. He is
also a consultant to Chusid Associates. Chusid and Miller
can be contacted via www.chusid.com. Julie Rapoport,
PhD, PE, LEED AP, is director of product development
at Calstar. She received her PhD in civil engineering
specializing in cementitious materials from Northwestern
University. Rapoport is a licensed professional engineer in
California and a LEED-Accredited Professional. She has
investigated cementitious materials in both research and
industry for more than a decade. Rapoport is a member of
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) and American
Concrete Institute (ACI), and sits on the latters Technical
Committee on Sustainability. She can be reached at
jrapoport@calstarcement.com.

40 the construction specifier | may 2009

Abstract
Brick production has three major issues determining its environmental
impactmaterial usage, energy consumption, and associated
CO2 emissions. Recent advances address these concerns with the
development of fly ash brick, a composite of non-clay materials. This
article explores the technology, delving into possible applications.
Masterformat No.
04 20 00Unit Masonry
32 14 16Brick Unit Paving
Uniformat No.
B2010Exterior Wall Exterior Skin
B2010Exterior Wall Construction
G2010Roadway Unit Pavers
G2030Pedestrian Unit Pavers
Key Words
Divisions 04, 32
Carbon footprint
Concrete brick

Fired brick
Fly ash brick
Sustainability

The word ceramic is said to derive from the IndoEuropean word ker, which means heat. High heat is
a fundamental element of ceramic manufacture.
3
See the EPA press release, EPA Proposes First
National Reporting on Greenhouse Gas Emissions,
March 10, 2009.
4
The EPA estimates 124 million Btus per year are
consumed by the average single-family home.
5
Points can be earned under LEEDs Materials and
Resources (MR) Credit 4, Recycled Content. It is
expected a revision of the program, LEED 2009, will
be released shortly. Under the current draft of the
revision, this credit remains unmodified. However,
it is still subject to change, and should be checked
against the final published version when available.
USGBC states all new project registrations will be
required to use LEED 2009 as of August this year.
6
Projects employing regional materials can earn
points under LEEDs MR Credit 5, Regional
Materials. These credits are the same in the current
draft of LEED 2009, but still subject to revision.
See note 5.

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Most frequently specified ladder manufacturer.

Security
Certified to meet OSHA/ANSI 3124 standards.

Convenience
Custom options and fast lead times (7 days from receipt of order).

Quality
Lightweight, non-spark, maintenance-free, high-strength 6063-T aluminum
construction with 1-1/4 deeply serrated square rungs for maximum grip and foot
traction.

Variety
Three basic types of aluminum ladders: fixed access ladders, ship ladders, and cage
ladders.

Safety
1600 lbs. capacity.

Go to www.okeeffes.com to select your ladder model, options

and finishes and receive a Quick Quote within 24 hours.

888.653.3333

www.okeeffes.com

The Architectural Aluminum Ladder Leader Since 1939.

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