Literature Review: Potential Impacts of Plug-In

Electric Vehicles on Electric Power Systems

S. Lpez, J. Caicedo, M. Maman, A. A. Romero, G. Ratt
Instituto de Energa Elctrica
Universidad Nacional de San Juan CONICET
San Juan, Argentina
aromero@iee.unsj.edu.ar
Abstract The air in most large Latin American cities is
polluted, primarily because their automotive fleet is composed of
internal-combustion engine vehicles. This also implies a strong
fossil-fuel dependency. Petroleum fuels are nonrenewable and, as
a consequence, the current mobility model becomes
unsustainable. Great expectations have been put in electric
vehicles. Such vehicles are already penetrating the automotive
market and, soon, will be part of the alternatives of mobility in
countries of Latin America. Therefore, research and
development efforts must be conducted in order to facilitate the
transition between the old technology, of internal-combustion
engine vehicles, to the new e-mobility technology, in an efficient
and effective way. At the Instituto de Energa Elctrica, a threeyear research project has begun. The scope of the project
includes the analysis of potential impacts of massive penetration
of electric vehicles on both: the power system and the way in
which it is traditionally operated. In this paper, a partial result of
the natural first step in a scientific research is presented, that is a
literature/bibliographic review. The paper focuses on three main
issues: the impacts on the network planning, on the power quality
and on the tariff schemes. After a brief introduction and a
quantitative analysis of the available literature on the subject,
each one of the issues is separately presented. Finally, the
conclusions of the paper are given.
Index Terms Network planning, Plug-in electric vehicle,
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, Power Quality, Reliability, Smart
Grid, Tariff, Time of use.

I. INTRODUCTION
On December 11 in Mexico, at the 2010 United Nations
Climate Change Conference, the Cancun Agreements were
reached and signed. On that occasion, industrialized countries
agreed to help developing nations deal with climate change.
Several main objectives were declared, however, the one
concerned with this paper is mitigation. I. e., textually:
Establish clear goals and a timely schedule for reducing
human-generated greenhouse gas emissions over time to keep
the global average temperature rise below two degrees [1]. In
reference [2], the International Agency of Energy states that to
reach the 2C goal requires the long-term concentration of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere to be limited to about 450
parts per million of carbon-dioxide equivalent (ppm CO2-eq).
Despite this laudable objective, scientific community estimates
that even if global emission rates are stabilized at present-day
levels and with zero emissions after 2030, there is a 25%

978-1-4799-6251-8/14/$31.00 2014 IEEE

probability that warming exceeds 2C. Moreover, as was

concluded in [3], every year of delayed action increases the
chances of exceeding 2C warming.
Furthermore, and from an economic point of view, from
contemplating the different forecasted scenarios for future oil
prices, a common characteristic appears: increasing prices [2].
These two highlighted environmental and economic facts
(together other extremely important technological issues) are
some of the key aspects to understand why if early antecedents
of e-mobility first appeared in the late 1830s, electric vehicles
have only been considered now, to be part of the scheme of
mobility in the future society. In fact, plug-in electric vehicles
and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, and in what follows
Electric Vehicles (EVs), are set to be introduced into the mass
market as a near-term technology to contribute to reduce both
oil dependence and greenhouse gas emissions from the
transportation sector.
EVs obtain their fuel from the grid, when they are plugged
into a standard electric power outlet (either at home, at work,
or at parking facilities) to charge their batteries. Therefore,
surely the massive connection of EVs will impact on several
aspects related to traditional power systems, e.g., on the way in
which the electric power infrastructure is operated and its
expansion is planned, on its reliability, on the business model,
etc. Then, e-mobility technology brings several technoeconomic challenges for power engineers.
Many studies regarding EVs are being performed around
the world. However, much less has been done in developing
countries and even less particularly on Latin America.
Therefore, important research and development efforts must be
conducted in order to facilitate the transition between the old
technology, of internal-combustion engine vehicles, to the new
e-mobility technology, in an efficient and effective way,
especially in developing nations.
At the Instituto de Energa Elctrica, a three-year research
project, on the subject, has started. This project is funded by
the Agencia Nacional de Promocin Cientfica y Tecnolgica
(ANPCyT), in Argentina. In this paper, partial results of the
natural first step of any scientific research are presented, that is
a literature/bibliographic review. The paper focuses on three
main issues: the impacts on the network planning, on the power
quality and on the tariff schemes. By giving an overview on
these topics, the paper demonstrates possible future directions

of research in power systems and its strong relationship with

the e-mobility; thus providing a suitable framework of analysis
to the researchers interested in dealing with this new
technology and its related problems.

and only few documents come from Latin American countries,

i.e., 174 references were found.

The literature review is an essential step in any research

project. It must ensure obtaining the most relevant information
in the field of study, from a base of knowledge, which is
usually extensive. For instance, in this article a set of search
rules have been defined and used in the extensive catalog of
citations and abstracts from journals and conferences:
Elseviers Scopus [4]. The number of references found by each
one of the rules, and filtering only documents belonging to the
engineering field, is reported in Table I.
TABLE I
NUMBER OF REFERENCES OBTAINED BY SEARCHING WITH DIFFERENT RULES
IN THE BASE OF KNOWLEDGE IN SCOPUS

Type of document

Search rule

Other
(*)

Total

10,260 1,180

16,837

Conf.
Paper

Book Article Review

electric vehicle
electric vehicle AND
planning
electric vehicle AND
power quality
electric vehicle AND
harmonic
electric vehicle AND
tariff

24

5,154

219

180

12

318

64

574

84

188

15

290

101

170

25

299

21

26

49

(*) Other: Book Chapter, Conference Review, Note, Short Survey, Business
Article, Report, Letter, Abstract Report, Editorial, Erratum, Article in Press.
Survey data: 21/02/2014.
3000

Number of documents

2500

Total
Book
Article
Conference Paper

2000
1500
1000
500
0
1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2014

Year
Fig. 1. Temporal evolution of the document production on the subject
electric vehicle.

By searching the keywords electric vehicle, 16,837

results were found. This indicates that there is a huge base of
knowledge on this topic. However, only hundreds of references
are related to the specific impacts that are dealt with in this
paper. In Fig.1, a plot of the temporal evolution by type of
documents is presented. It is notable how e-mobility is
becoming a fertile field for exploration, in which research is
increasing exponentially. However, as shown in Fig. 2, most of
the research, currently developed, is concentrated in
industrialized countries, mainly in United States and China,

Country

II. BASE OF KNOWLEDGE: ELECTRIC VEHICLE

United States
China
Japan
Germany
South Korea
United Kingdom
France
Italy
Canada
Taiwan
India
Australia
Iran
Latin America

174
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

Publications
Fig. 2. Scientific production by country.

In this context, some of the main references found through

the different search rules are analyzed in what follows.
III. ELECTRIC VEHICLE AND PLANNING
The large-scale deployment of EVs on the power system
implies significant impacts on the electricity demand, and
therefore, in the generation, transmission and distribution
system planning. However, the current trend of the consulted
references, in relation to the expansion, shows that major
impacts will affect the distribution networks. One of the
reasons of why there is prolific research in the distribution area
can be reflected in [5], by the research group of the Department
of Energy of Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, from US.
This group has determined that there is sufficient power
capacity installed at transmission and generation levels, but the
situation is not the same for the power infrastructure in
distribution networks.
In this sense, in [6] a quantitative study of the incorporation
of EVs on the distribution network of Santiago de Chile is
developed. This methodology allows scheduling the expansion
of the network, estimating an increase of the load from the
current characteristics of automotive fleet that exists in every
area of the city. Moreover, various scenarios for the inclusion
of EVs are presented through a percentage of the current
vehicle fleet for a period of analysis that contemplates 2020 as
deadline. As a conclusion of this work, a large increase in the
total demand, for the assessed scenarios of EVs penetration, is
rejected. This result is clear since a large penetration of EVs in
Santiago city is not expected until 2020. However, the
disaggregated demand could affect some local points of the
distribution network even in scenarios of low penetration. I.e.,
these affectations are mainly due to the number of vehicles
connected to the feeders, the superposition of effects when the
EVs power consumption is at the peak of the demand, etc.
In [7], Mahalik et al., carried out a study of impacts on the
electric system of the State of Illinois, located in the Midwest
of the US. This work is evaluated in a similar way to [6],
assessing the future impacts due to additional load that
represent the connection of EVs. The presented methodology
simulates the behavior of the system in different scenarios of
EV penetration, in order to compare the impact which could be

incurred in each case from a base of EVs, baseline scenario. As

in [6], the scenarios consider the inclusion of this type of
vehicles in the system taking into account a horizon of
planning, in which the penetration is estimated through a
percentage of the vehicle fleet of the city. As a result of the
methodology, the increase in demand in the power system for
the analyzed period is 0.8%, which represents a slight increase
in demand of power and, which must be provided through
additional generation.
In [8], Poch et al., applied a similar methodology to the one
presented in [7], but in the West of US. Moreover, the obtained
results on the impacts of the connection of EVs are lightly
different. First of all, the study shows that those generation
units that provide base load in the system are not able to supply
the additional load that will represent EVs. Furthermore, it
evaluates the possible impact of the transmission line
congestion on the dispatch of generators. This last impact is
associated with the constraints of the generators that can lead to
a more costly system operation.
In [9], McCarthy and Wolfs performed some work that
assessed the impact of EVs connection on the power system of
the city of Perth, Australia. The planning horizon is ten years
(2010-2019). In this case, studies of the impacts on generators,
underground cables, overhead lines and power transformers,
are performed. In that work, the authors determined that for
any charging scenario of EVs the electric power may be
supplied with the current generation fleet and the assets of the
transmission system, since they are underutilized most of the
time. Distribution level was not analyzed in [9].
Reference [10] is a work of similar characteristics to those
already presented, but the developed methodology is applied to
two distribution areas. An area consists of 6,000 residential
customers connected to the low-voltage level while the
remaining area is an industrial and residential area with more
than 61,000 customers. The presented methodology first deals
with knowledge of the actual areas of distribution. Then,
scenarios of penetration are generated by means of a load
evaluator for EVs connected in peak and off-peak of load.
Finally, the model based on the concept of optimally adapted
network is employed for planning. It identifies where it is
convenient to make investments. The results in this paper show
quantitatively how the investment costs are dependent on the
charging strategies of EVs analyzed in each penetration
scenario.
In [11], a study applied to a distribution system is
presented. It proposes a multi-year and multi-objective
planning algorithm that allows adapting scenarios of high
penetration of EVs, with the injection of renewable distributed
generation. It minimizes associated cost, such as reinforcement
of the system and energy losses. That work, on one hand,
solves the problem of planning that determines the optimal
level of penetration of EVs on a system of 38 buses. A metaheuristic tool of genetic algorithms is employed to define the
optimal level of renewable distributed generation that will enter
into the system at all of its stages, such as location, size and
year of installation of the units. This planning problem is
defined in terms of non-linear mixed integer multi-objective
programming.

The relevant contributions of [11] are:

The development of a multi-objective scheduling algorithm
that integrates the penetration of EVs altogether with
distributed generation through a generic mathematical
formulation.
The development of a probabilistic annual model of the
energy consumption for a fleet of EVs based on Monte Carlo
simulations.
The investigation of the interaction of renewable distributed
generation units and requirements of EVs load.
The work presented in [12] by ElNozahy and Salama
constitutes an original contribution to assess the impact of EVs
on distribution systems, since it gives a framework based on
Monte Carlo simulations to treat various uncertainties that
influence the process of charge, such as individual driving
habits, the level and type of EV to be connected, and
uncertainties associated with the load level. This study gives an
idea of the impacts foreseen by its probability of occurrence
and also identifies the more vulnerable physical assets of the
distribution system.
IV. ELECTRIC VEHICLE AND POWER QUALITY
The integration of EVs within the power system could
affect the quality of supply causing technical problems in
distribution networks, such as increased losses, harmonics,
imbalance, voltage sags, etc. [13]. Being chargers for EVs
based on power electronics (nonlinear loads), they could cause
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) problems that must be
analyzed through different studies: transient analysis,
identification and power flow calculation of harmonic loads,
and so on. According to the bibliography reviewed by the
authors, most studies of power quality related to the connection
of EVs are concerned with harmonics and voltage imbalance.
Other disturbances such as voltage drops (including voltage
sags) and noise have also been studied. Reviews of applicable
standards and solutions to power quality disturbances were also
found in bibliography consulted.
A. Harmonics
Harmonics are components of voltage or current
waveforms, integer multiples of the fundamental frequency
(usually 50 Hz or 60 Hz) [14]. Such harmonic components,
which generate distortion of the waveform, are produced by
nonlinear loads, e.g., EV battery chargers. Orr et al., studied in
[15] the harmonic currents, voltage distortion and power of
different EV battery chargers. This reference is one of the
pioneer works related to the impact of EVs on the power
system, which dates from 1984. Documentation of five types of
EV battery chargers is presented, including battery chargers
both with & without smoothing current inductor, and with &
without controlled rectifier. Moreover, the expected harmonic
current, active power, reactive power and hourly power factor
values were determined. In addition, in [15] the effect of the
random location of each type of charger along a typical
distribution network was considered. This allows a study closer
to reality, but not taking into account other random parameters
such as the initial state of charge of batteries and the initial
time of charging.

In 1998, Staats et al. presented a statistical method in [16]

to predict the effect of EV batter charging on the harmonic
voltage levels. Load modeling as sources of harmonic currents
and the distribution network modeling for each hour of interest
and each harmonic frequency are proposed. The method was
validated through a case study on a specific distribution
network and results were presented. Summarizing, the method
allows for obtaining the Total Harmonic Distortion in Voltage
(THDV) in the system nodes, caused by the injection of
harmonic currents, allowing evaluating if THDV limits set by
standards are exceeded.
In 2011, J. Trovo et al. described the power quality
characterization of battery chargers for two EVs in [17]: a
forklift and a car for private use. Voltage, current and active
and reactive power were monitored during the battery
charging, from which the Total Harmonic Distortion in Current
(THDI) and the THDV were determined for each case. Finally,
reconfiguration of the network is presented as a solution, and
the concept of load leveling is introduced as an alternative to
minimize the impact of EV chargers on distribution networks.
In 2013, Jiang, et al., developed a comprehensive
probabilistic approach based on Monte Carlo simulation to
evaluate the impact of EV battery chargers in the distribution
network in [18], which considers randomness in parameters
such as the charging time, charging duration and location of
vehicles. Moreover, a simple forecast model of EV penetration
based on consumer trends is presented to study future
scenarios. Furthermore, the electric model of a typical
distribution network, the harmonic model of an EV battery
charger and other nonlinear load models were developed. The
method was proven through some case studies, demonstrating
the effect of harmonics produced by EVs, and the increasing of
the neutral voltage caused by the connection of EVs.
B. Voltage imbalance
The condition of imbalance occurs in a three-phase system
when voltages differ in magnitude and/or do not have 120
degrees of phase difference [14]. The number of EVs in
residential distribution networks is expected to increase in the
coming years, however, the level of penetration and connection
points are uncertain. EV chargers are single-phase loads in
residential networks; therefore they could cause voltage
imbalance in the three-phase system. This impact is studied in
papers such as [19], where Shahnia et al., present a sensitivity
analysis of voltage imbalance and a stochastic evaluation to
determine the location and levels of charging and discharging
of EV batteries, this study found that voltage imbalance levels
are higher at the end of the distribution feeder.
Another contribution to the study of voltage imbalance is
[20], where Meyer et al., describe the EV battery charging
behavior of five different chargers and present actual
measurements of voltage imbalance in a distribution network.
Moreover, a statistical analysis of the impact on voltage
imbalance is also included.
In [21], Garca and Jimnez propose an algorithm to carry
out power flow calculations, taking into account the connection
of EVs in distribution networks. A model that simulates
charging and discharging of EVs was developed. The

algorithm was proven in [21] through a case study applied to

the IEEE 13-node system. Results of simulation allow
analyzing the impact of EVs on voltage unbalance in the
distribution network.
C. Other disturbances
Connecting EVs cause other disturbances such as voltage
sags and noise, among others. In [22], voltage drops caused by
small wind turbines and EVs are studied from a statistical
model which considers randomness of loads, wind speed and
the charge level of EV batteries. An important contribution of
the methodology proposed in [22] is that it allows for swift
analysis of the daily probability of voltage violations in a
distribution network, thus providing effective solutions in
regulation, by short-term and medium-term planning.
Voltage sags are short reductions of nominal voltage in
10% to 90%, with duration from half cycle to one minute [14].
In [23], Lee et al. carried out a study of sags and voltage
unbalance caused by EVs in distribution networks. A model of
battery charger for EVs in ATP was developed and simulations
in a distribution network were performed, considering
parameters such as penetration of EVs and the amount
connected each hour a day. EVs are considered loads and
charging points are concentrated, therefore, the connection of
several EVs can cause voltage sags in distribution feeders. This
is assessed through a case study in [23].
In [24], simple models are proposed to study emissions of
electromagnetic noise produced by traction of EVs and noise
coupling channels are determined. The models are validated
through laboratory tests. It is concluded that the main cause of
noise in EVs is the high frequency switching of power
electronic devices in the electrical traction system.
D. Solutions and standards
By now, some solutions to the problems that cause the
connection of EVs on power quality have been proposed, such
as [25], where a method to mitigate harmonics in a smart grid
context was proposed, and optimal dispatch of tap changers
considering shunt capacitor installing was carried out.
Additional achievements are presented in [26], where the
design of an EV battery charger with power quality
compensation is described. This charger is designed based on
static converters (IGBTs) and controlled with Pulse-width
Modulation (PWM), allowing compensation of reactive power
and active unbalanced currents.
The integration of EVs and its charging infrastructure
require considering operational and safety aspects to ensure
quality of services related to EVs and other customers [27].
Hence, it is essential to establish a regulatory framework to
bring the guidelines to implement these new technologies, so
that the power quality parameters remain within limits. In [28],
adaptation of emerging concepts of microgrids and EVs to
power quality standards is investigated, where it is concluded
that regulations related to EVs should be considered from the
EMC viewpoint, since EVs are both receptors and source of
disturbances. High penetration of EVs scenarios require special
consideration to establish the regulatory framework, because
the current power quality limits for power distribution
networks will probably be violated.

V. ELECTRIC VEHICLE AND TARIFF

With the imminent massive penetration of EVs to the
network, some aspects should be studied carefully, such as the
economic impact model development and methodologies for
pricing implementation, considering the technological potential
of smart grids. In the literature reviewed for this article, the
highlighted thematic areas are: load profile smoothing and
energy resource optimization. The massive connection of EVs
to the power system is primarily a load increase; this increase
may contribute to reach the peak of power demand if the
control load techniques are not considered. Summarizing,
technical and economic impacts in the network depend on the
adopted strategies for charging or discharging EV batteries.
In [29], the possibility of including residential customers in
programs of power demand response is studied. Such programs
may help to reduce the negative impacts of large scale EVs
connection. Financial incentives to the EV owner are proposed
based on existing rates of time of use (TOU) in the service
territory of Madison Gas & Electric. Discounts and additional
incentives were also used to encourage participation of owners
of EVs. The parameter used to determine the effectiveness of
the various discounts and incentives was the ratio of vehicle
purchase premium to fuel cost savings over ten years of vehicle
life. At each considered case in this analysis, the initial savings
were more effective than savings due to time of energy use; the
latter was insufficient to convince the owners of EVs to
sacrifice comfort for financial savings.
Because of the potential economic impacts of EVs, the
consumers must take decisions based on a cost-benefit
analysis. In this context, [30] shows that with increasing load
due to EV, the mean and standard deviation of Locational
Marginal Prices (LMP) would increase substantially and,
therefore, EV charging would be much more expensive than
nowadays, considering a short-term horizon. Furthermore, the
impact of charging EVs at home and charging with a battery
supplier is compared. The battery supplier is not only able to
charge batteries at a much lower price than the cost incurred by
charging at home, but also to stop increasing the mean of LMP
and to reduce the standard deviation of LMP, avoiding
congestion effects of the electricity transmission.
As expressed in [31], through an on-line energy
management (EM), costs for using different energy sources can
be minimized. This approach is applicable to a dynamic energy
market. The EM system minimizes fuel equivalent of EVs
considering the condition of plug-in, and run an optimization
algorithm on-line, using knowledge of energy prices taken
from the network by EVs, and price of electrical energy stored
in its battery. The greater the differences in prices of the
electricity grid in time intervals of a future horizon, the greater
the benefits that can be achieved. Hence, if it is seen that
penetration of renewable energies increased, the value of the
available energy is an attractive economic potential.
The network constraints are a problem that must be faced in
a massive penetration of EVs scenario. Constraints can limit
the increasing of EVs penetration, if additional measures are
not considered. In this context, two different approaches are
implemented to address this problem in [31]: 1) a simple
double-rate approach, where economic incentives are provided

to owners of EVs to change their vehicles charging for off-peak

hours; 2) adopting an approach of active load management,
where battery power is distributed throughout peak hours. The
policy of double tariffs proved to be more effective, improving
the ability to integrate the network up to 14%. However, this
result was obtained by using the policy framework of double
current rate of Portugal. As a conclusion of [31], it is likely that
the policy framework of double current rate can be improved if
a double dynamic tariff is created and dedicated to EVs. This
methodology is also able to monitor the operating conditions of
the network at any time, allowing more efficient use of
available resources.
Given the scenario of massive penetration of EVs, the
dispatch center requires demand management policies for these
loads. The state of charge and the charging cost should be
optimized, maintaining them at a safe limit to avoid
overloading. Management of charging tariff requires data
acquired from a center, followed up by the processing step;
however, when the problem scale is greater, the central focus
may suffer individual node/link and scalability failures. For
avoiding this, an approach for cooperative distributed charging
of EVs using local prices as control signal is presented in [33].
The charging stations work as local energy distributors, selling
power to the connected vehicle, while the price is coordinated
with their neighbors, in response to the offered price, the smart
vehicle charger adjusts the charging current to maximize user
utility. This process is repeated until the convergence to the
global optimum is obtained. Thus, it is possible to remove the
control/coordination center, and to avoid link/single node
failures.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
E-mobility in Latin America is a timely, vital topic to be
considered because of the several possibilities for sustainable
development. However, in Latin America, research in this field
is quite limited when compared to the intensive work
developed in industrialized countries. In effect, the e-mobility
research subject is a potent fertile field for exploration.
In particular, three main subjects related to the power
systems, which will be impacted by the massive penetration of
EVs, have been reviewed in this paper, i.e., planning, power
quality and tariffs. Regarding planning, the current trend of the
consulted references, in relation to the expansion, shows that
major impacts will affect the distribution networks. However,
some studies have also shown that impacts could even be
transferred to the transmission and generation levels, especially
when congestion of overhead lines occurs. Regarding power
quality, harmonics and voltage imbalance are the most studied
topics. Other aspects have been studied, such as voltage drops
and increased losses. Most of these studies show that the
impact on power quality will be significant for future scenarios,
only considering a high penetration of EVs, mainly affecting
the distribution network. Finally, regarding tariffs, the trend
topics are: load profile smoothing and energy resources
optimization. In fact, the load increase due to EVs may
contribute to reach the peak of power demand if control
techniques are not considered. Summarizing, technical and

economic impacts in the network depend on the adopted

strategies for charging or discharging EV batteries.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by the Agencia Nacional de
Promocin Cientfica y Tecnolgica (ANPCyT) and the
Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientficas y Tcnicas
(CONICET), Repblica Argentina.
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