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Magnification: Degree to which the size of the image is larger than the object.
Resolution: Degree to which it is possible to distinguish between two points that are close together.
State the resolution and magnification that can be achieved by a light microscope, TEM
and SEM and the need for staining samples.
Type of
Microscope
Light
Microscope
Magnificati
on
X1500
Resoluti
on
200nm
Scanning
Electron
Microscope
X100 000
0.1nm
Transmissio
n Electron
Microscope
X500 000
0.1nm
Staining
Extra information
Outline the interrelationship between the organelles involved in the production and
secretion of proteins
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Organelle
Structure
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Nuclear
envelope
Rough ER
Smooth ER
Lysosome
Golgi
Apparatus
Function
Cell
membrane
Cell Wall
-Outside cell membrane. Made of cellulose that forms sieve like network
that makes wall strong. Held rigid by turgid pressure it supports plant.
Vacuole
Maintains cell stability. Filled with water and solutes so pushes
cytoplasm against cell wall = turgid. All plant cells turgid, helps support
plant. Important in non woody plants.
Mitochondri Two membranes separated by fluid
Produce ATP during respiration.
a
filled space. Inner membrane
folded to form cristae. Central part
called matrix.
Amyloplast
Stores starch in plants.
Ribosomes
Tiny organelles. Some free in
Site of protein synthesis in cell
Eukaryote
cytoplasm Prokaryote
and some bound to ER.
where proteins made. Free
Ribosomes
make proteins that stay
Animal
Plant
Bacterial
in the cell cytoplasm.
Cell
Cell
Cell
Chloroplast Two membranes separated by fluid
Site of photosynthesis.
Plasma
s
filled space. Inner membrane
Membrane
membranes.
Lysosome
Centrioles
Small tubes of
protein.
Take part in cell division and form
spindle which moves
Ribosome
division.
Smooth ER
Vesicle
Golgi apparatus
Mitochondrion
Mesosomes
Chloroplast
Centriole
Cilia
Undulipodia
Flagella
Mem
bran
e
X
Pla
nt
Cell
s
X
Anim
al
Cells
N/A
N/A
X
X
X
X
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
X
X
Prokaryotes:
-No membrane bound organelles
-Cell wall of peptidoglycan
-Capsule
-Smaller ribosomes
-Plasmids no nucleus, general area is nucleoid
Roles of membranes:
Separate contents
Internal membranes
Organelle contents from cytoplasm
Separate DNA from cytoplasm
Protect cell from lysosomes
Surface membranes
Separate contents from environment
Phospholipid bilayer
Protein molecules
Carbohydrates
Cholesterol
Glycolipids
Glycoprotein
s
Proteins
Structure/Placement
Phosphate head, Fatty acid
tail.
Form mirror image, fatty acid
on inside, phosphate head on
outside.
Fits between fatty acid tails in
bilayer
Type of lipid.
Phospholipid molecules with
carbohydrate attached.
Protein molecule with
carbohydrate attached
Function/Role
Forms phospholipid bilayer
Hydrophobic layer creates barrier and separate
contents.
-Carrier proteins are shaped so a specific molecule fits in them at the membrane surface, change is
shape allows it through to the other side.
Describe the role of membrane proteins in passive transport
-Membrane made of phospholipids, fat soluble molecules pass through (steroid).
-Small molecules and ions small enough to pass through. (sometimes water).
-Different membranes have different carrier/channel proteins.
Substances moved by:
Simple diffusion
Facilitated diffusion using
channel proteins
Facilitated diffusion using
carrier proteins
Examples
Gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide. Lipid based molecules
like steroid hormones.
Ions like sodium and calcium
Large molecules like glucose and amino acids.
Describe and explain what is meant by active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis.
-Active transport is the movement of molecules from a low concentration to a high concentration
against a concentration gradient, using ATO to drive protein pumps.
-Difference between protein pumps and carrier proteins:
-Replicated DNA proofread by enzymes, if not copied properly may cause mutations and cells cant
function properly.
Explain the significance of mitosis, for growth, repair and asexual reproduction in
animals and plants
-Growth meristem cells in plants. Found in Cambium, and root and shoot apex.
-Asexual reproduction
-Repair/replace damaged cells.
Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the stages of mitosis
-Prophase:
-Metaphase:
Anaphase:
-Telophase:
-Cytokinesis:
Origin
Produced from
undifferentiated
stem cells in
bone marrow.
Epithelial
cells
Sperm
Cells
Palisade
cells
Root hair
cells
Xylem
Epidermal layer
of plant roots
Meristem cells
Phloem
Guard cells
Explain the meaning of the terms tissue, organ and organ system.
-A tissue is a collection of similar cells and perform a common function.
-An organ is a collection of similar tissues working together to perform a particular function.
-An organ system is made up of similar organs working together to perform an overall life function.
Explain, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, how cells are organised into tissues,
using squamous and ciliated epithelia xylem and phloem.
- There are four main types of animal tissue:
-Xylem:
-Phloem:
Discuss the importance of cooperation between cells, tissues, organs and organ
systems
- Movement: the muscular and skeletal system must work together for movement to take place,
but this can only happen if the nervous system instructs muscles to coordinate their actions. As
muscles and nerves work, they use energy, so they require a supply of nutrients and oxygen from
the circulatory system, which in turn receives the chemicals from the digestive and ventilation
systems.
Explain, in terms of surface area to volume ration, why multicellular organisms need
specialised exchange surfaces and single celled organisms do not
-Organisms need certain substances from environment and need to remove waste products.
-As the size of an organism increases, its surface area to volume ratio decreases.
-Required substances will not be able to get to core of body, only surface and will not exchange fast
enough to keep cells alive.
Describe the features of an efficient exchange surface with reference to diffusion of
oxygen and carbon dioxide across and alveolus
- Large surface area =more space for molecules to diffuse
-Short diffusion path = reduce diffusion distance, faster
-Maintain concentration gradient (fresh supply on one side, removal on other) =CO2 concentration
higher in blood than alveoli, diffuses across. Oxygen concentration higher in alveolus than blood.
-Removal = CO2 removed by breathing out. Oxygen removed by blood (red blood cells take to
tissues)
Describe the features of the mammalian lung that adapt it to efficient gas exchange
-Alveoli have large surface area
-Alveolus wall is one cell thick. Capillary wall is one cell thick. Both made of squamous cells, in
close contact.
-Narrow capillaries, red blood cells close to wall, close to air.
Outline the mechanism of breathing (inspiration, expiration) in mammals, with
reference to the function of the rib cage, intercostal muscles and diaphragm.
Inhalation
Diaphragm flattens digestive organs
underneath
Intercostal muscles contract to raise ribs
Volume of chest cavity increases
Pressure drops below atmospheric
Air moves in
Expiration
Diaphragm pushed up by digestive organs
underneath
Intercostal muscles relax and ribs fall
Chest cavity volume decreases
Pressure rises above atmospheric
Air moves out
Describe the distribution of cartilage, ciliated epithelium, goblet cells and smooth
muscles and elastic fibres in the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles and alveoli of the
mammalian gaseous exchange system
Describe the functions of cartilage, ciliated epithelium, goblet cells and smooth muscles
and elastic fibres in the mammalian gaseous exchange system
Cartilage
(Thick
walls made
of several
layers of
tissue).
Ciliated
epithelium
Goblet
cells
Smooth
Distribution
Found in C
shaped/incomplete
rings Trachea:
wider
Bronchi: narrower,
less regular
Epithelium
Under epithelium
Lumen
Function
-Structural role, hold trachea and bronchi open.
-Prevent collapse when low pressure during inhalation.
-Incomplete rings make it flexible to allow movement of neck
and oesophagus.
muscles
Elastic
fibres
Explain the meanings of the terms tidal volume and vital capacity
-Tidal volume volume of air moved in and out of the lungs with each breath when at rest (approx.
0.5dm)
-Vital capacity the largest volume of air that can be moved into and out of the lungs in a single
breath.
Describe how a spirometer can be used to measure
Spirometer is a chamber filled with oxygen floating on a tank of water.
Person breaths through mouthpiece connected to oxygen.
When they take in oxygen, the chamber sinks down.
Breathe out, air pushed back in so chamber floats up.
Vital capacity: breathe in and out as much as they can
Tidal volume: breathe normally
Breathing rate: ask person to breath normally. Divide number of breaths by time.
Oxygen uptake: Difference in volume
Explain the need for transport systems in multicellular animal in terms of size, activity
and surface are to volume ratio
Size: The larger the animals, the smaller the surface area to volume ration, but the more cells,
therefore more substances are needed Cells deeper in the body will not get any needed
substances.
Level of activity: The more active an animal, the more oxygen used in respiration which supplies
the energy needed for movement.
Surface area to volume ratio: large animals need tissues and structure support for strength so body
gets thicker but surface area does not change. The surface area to volume ration decreases
therefore a transport system is needed to supply all the oxygen and nutrients required.
Explain the terms single and double circulatory system with references to the
circulatory systems of fish and mammals
-Single circulatory system= blood flows through heart once during each circulation e.g. fish ( heart
gills body heart)
Blood flows slower to rest of body after reduced to go through capillaries, limits rate of delivery.
Dont need to maintain body temperature.
-Double circulatory system= blood flows through heart twice during each complete circulation e.g.
mammals
(heart
body heart --< lungs heart)
heart increase pressure and fast delivery. Better for active animals to maintain body
temperatures.
Explain the meaning of the terms open and closed circulatory system with reference to
the circulatory system of fish and insects
-Open circulatory system = blood not always in vessels e.g. insects
-Closed circulatory system = blood is always in vessels e.g. fish
Describe the internal and external structure of the mammalian heart
Internal
-Four chambers
-Atria receive blood from major veins
-Ventricles separated by septum.
-Atrium and ventricles separated by
atrioventricular valves.
-Valves attached to tendinous cords.
Found in C shaped/incomplete rings
External
-Coronary arteries lie over surface of heart
(carry oxygenated blood)
-Atria in the middle of cavity.
-Firm red muscle = ventricles.
Explain the difference in thickness of the walls of the different chambers of the heart in
terms of their functions
-Atria: thin wall, doesnt need to create pressure as blood goes to ventricles
-Right Ventricle: thicker than atria, allows pump blood out heart. Thinner than left ventricle as
pumps blood to lungs, doesnt need to go far, capillaries are thin so low pressure needed to
prevent bursting.
-Left Ventricle: 2 or 3 times thicker than right ventricle. Needs sufficient pressure to overcome
resistance of systematic circulation.
Describe the cardiac cycle with reference to the actions of the valves in the heart
St
ep
1
Contract/Relax/
Valves
Atria and Ventricles relaxed
Atria contract
simultaneously
6
7
Direction of
blood flow
Major veins
into atrium
Atrium to
ventricles
Ensure
ventricles full
of blood
Part of cardiac
cycle
Diastole
Ventricles up to
arteries
Ventricular
systole
Stage of
heartbeat
Atrial systole
Heart starts to
fill
-Veins:
-capillaries:
Thin walls
Allow exchange of materials via tissue fluid
Single layer of endothelial cells reduce diffusion distance
Lumen narrow, squeeze red blood cell
Blood
Erythrocytes, Leucocytes,
Platelets
Hormones and plasma
proteins
Transported as
lipoproteins
A lot
More
Tissue fluid
Phagocytic white blood
cells
Hormones, proteins
secreted
None
Lymph
Lymphocytes
Less
Less
Less
Less
More
Little
Less
More
Less
More
Some
More than in blood
Vascular
Bundle
Xylem
Sieve
tube
element
s
Compani
on cells
Structure
Function
Number of leaves: more leaves, more surface area for water loss
Number, size and position of stomata: Larger stomata, more water loss. Stomata on lower
surface, water loss slower.
Light: In light, stomata open to allow gas exchange
Presence of cuticle: Waxy cuticle prevents water loss
Temperature: Higher temp, increase evaporation, diffusion and decrease water vapour in
air, causing diffusion of water out (negative water potential in environment)
Relative humidity: reduce rate, smaller water potential gradient
Air movement:: carry water vapour away, increase water loss by maintaining high gradient
Water availability: little water in soil, water loss reduced by closing stomata
Hair on surface of leaf: trap layer of air close to leaf that become saturated with moisture,
reducing diffusion out of stomata as water potential gradient has been changed
Stomata in pits
Rolling leaves, lower epidermis not exposed to atmosphere
Low water potential inside cell: changing water potential gradient
Describe the mechanism of transport in phloem involving active loading at the source
and removal at the sink, and the evidence for and against this mechanism
1.
2.
3.
4.
ATP used by companion cells to transport protons out of cytoplasm into surrounding tissue
Set up diffusion gradient. Hydrogen ions diffuse back into cells
Done through cotransported proteins. Allow hydrogen ions bring sucrose back with them
Sucrose concentration builds up and diffuse into sieve tube elements through
plasmodesmata
5. Sucrose in sieve tube elements reduces water potential
6. Water enters, increase hydrostatic pressure
7. Water moves down sieve tube element from higher to lower hydrostatic pressure art sink
8. Sucrose moves (diffusion/active transport) from sieve tubes to surrounding cells
9. Increases water potential in sieve tube element, water move in
10. Reduce hydrostatic pressure at sink
For:
Against: