Linear Algebra and Finite Dimensional Quantum Mechanics

Dirac Notation:
 
Let V be a be a vector space. The ket v , read ket - v , is the vector in V whose

name is v . An older notation, is v . If V is an inner product space there is a (unique) linear

 
 
   

   
functional w V dual to w V such that w v = w , v V . Notation:
 

 def  
w  = w , read bra - w , is the linear functional in V dual to w
 

  def
  

is the result of applying w  to  v
w  v = w  v
Exercise 1: Show that is an antilinear isomorphism between V and V .
 

  
   
The outer product  ,  =  of  ,  V is the linear operator on V
 
 

 
  
defined by   v =  v  for all v V . By definition, an operator P End(V )

is an orthogonal projection if P 2 = P and P is self adjoint ( hAv, wi = hv, Awi for all

v, w V ).

 
 = 1 . Show that   is the orthogonal projection onto
 
the one dimensional subspace of V spanned by  .

 
(2) Suppose i  j = ij , i, j = 1, , k d = dimV , is an orthonormal set in V . Show
k  

P
 i i  is the orthogonal projection onto the k dimensional subspace of V
that
i=1
 
spanned by i , i = 1, , k .
k  

 
P
 i i  = 1l .
(3) Suppose  j , j = 1, , d , is an orthonormal basis for V . Show that
Exercise 2: (1) Suppose

i=1

Complex Coordinate Space:

Cn is the vector space of column vectors. Its dual space Cn is the vector space of
row vectors: y Cn is identified (antilinearly) with a linear functional on Cn by

x1
n
P

..
x 7 ( y1 yn )
=
yj xj .
.
j=1

xn
 
The ket  is the column vector in Cn whose name is . The corresponding bra


.
 = ( 1 n ) = .. = 
n
1


 
   
 =  ,  Cn . The general element of C2 is the superposition (linear com 
 
1
0
bination)
+
with complex amplitudes (complex coefficients) and . It is
0
1
the convention in quantum computation/information to give the names
  1
  0
0 =
, 1 =
0
1
2
to the standard basis for C .

and

Distance Preserving Maps:

Let V be a finite dimensional, inner product space.
Exercise 1: Let f : V V be an inner product preserving map ( hf (v), f (w)i = hv, wi for

all v, w V ) on V with f (0) = 0 . Show that f is a linear map U with U = U 1 . That

is, f is a unitary transformation on V .
( Hint: If v1 , , vn is an orthonormal basis for V , then so is f (v1 ), , f (vn ) . For all
n
n
n
P
P
P
vV , v=
hv, vn i vn 7 f (v) =
hf (v), f (vn)i f (vn ) =
hv, vn i f (vn ) . )
j=1

j=1

j=1

Exercise 2: Let f : V V be a distance preserving map ( kf (v) f (w)k = kv wk for all

v, w V ) on V with f (0) = 0 . Show that f is a unitary transformation on V .

( Hint: The polarization identity, hv, wi =

1
4

kv + wk2 kv wk2 kv + wk2 + kv wk2

implies that hf (v), f (w)i = hv, wi for all v, w V . )

Exercise 3: Let f : V V be a linear, length preserving ( kf (v)k = kvk for all v V )

map on V . Show that f is a unitary transformation on V .
Spectral Decomposition of Self Adjoint Operators:
Let V be a finite dimensional inner product space and A, P, U End(V ) :


The adjoint of A is the unique operator A such that hAv, vi = v, A v for all
vectors v V .

A is self adjoint (Hermitian) if A = A .

P is a projection if P 2 = P . An orthogonal projection is an self adjoint projection.
U is unitary if U = U 1 .
Exercise 1: Show that the eigenvalues j , j = 1, , r , of a self adjoint operator A are
real and that the corresponding eigenspaces Ej are pairwise orthogonal.
2

Exercise 2: Suppose A is self adjoint, 1 < < r and let

det(A I) = ( 1 )m1 ( r )mr
Y
(A)
Ak I
Pj =
, j = 1, , r
j k
k6=j

(A)

We write, Pj = Pj

, when the dependence on A is clear. Show by induction on n = dimV :

Pj , j = 1, , r , is a set of orthogonal projections that commute with A and satisfy

L
Pj Pk = jk Pk , Im(Pj ) = Ej , Tr Pj = dim Ej = mj , Ker(Pj ) =
Ek .
k6=j

1l =
A=

r
P

Pj , V = E 1 E r

j=
r
P

j Pj (Spectral Decomposition of A )

j=1

Let m
j =

j1
P
i=1

mi and vm +1 , , vm +mj be an orthonormal basis for Ej . Then,

j

v1 , , vn is an orthonormal basis for V . The matrix representation of A in this


 L
r
j Imj , where Im is the m m identity matrix.
basis is hvi , Avj i =
j=1


If A is represented as a self adjoint matrix aij ( aji = aij ) acting on Cn , then
the matrix U whose columns are the orthonormal eigenvectors vj is unitary and
r




L
U 1 A U =
j Imj and U 1 Pj U = Om Imj Om+ are diagonal.

Here, m+
j =

j=1
r
P

i=j+1

mi and Om is the m m zero matrix.

( Hint: A has a normalized eigenvector, say v1 in V . Let W be the orthogonal complement

of v1 . Show that W is an invariant subspace of V for A and that the restriction B of A
to W is a self adjoint operator on W . Apply the induction hypothesis to B acting on W .)
Spectral Decomposition of Commuting Self Adjoint Operators:
Let A1 , , As be a set of pairwise commuting self adjoint operators on the finite
dimensional inner product space V .
Exercise 1: Show that there are orthogonal projections P1 , , Pr such that:
Pj Pk = jk Pk
1l = P1 + + Pr
Ej = Im(Pj ) is a simultaneous eigenspace for all Ai , i = 1, , s
Let ij be the eigenvalue of Ai acting on the eigenspace Ej . Then, Ai =
3

r
P

j=1

ij Pj

 If A1 , , As are represented as self adjoint matrices acting on Cn , then there is a

unitary matrix U such that U 1 Ai U is diagonal for all i = 1, , s .

( Hint: Induction on s .)
Square Roots of 2 2 Matrices:

The matrix B is a 
square 
root of the matrix A if B 2 = A .
0 1
has no square root.
Exercise 1: (1) Show that
0
0


1 0
(2) Show that 1l =
has infinitely many square roots. (Hint: If B is a square root
0 1
of 1l , so is CBC 1 for 
any invertible
matrix C .)

a b
Exercise 2: Suppose A =
and B 2 = A . Show that
c d

(1) tr (B)B = A det A I , where I is the 2 2 identity matrix.

(Hint: B 2 tr (B)B 
+ (det B)I = 0 for any 2 2 matrix B .)

(2) If A = 0 , then B =
, where 2 + = a .




(3) If A = a I and a 6= 0 , then B =
, where 2 + = a , or B = a I .

(4) A 6= a I has a square root B if and only if either tr A 6= 0 or det A 6= 0 :

det AI

tr A 2 det A

If (tr A)2 6= 4 det A and det A 6= 0 , there are exactly 4 roots B = A

the signs in the numerator and denominator are the same.

A
.
If (tr A) 6= 0 and det A = 0 , there are exactly 2 roots B = tr
A

If (tr A)2 = 4 det A 6= 0 , there are exactly 2 roots B =

A+ 12 (tr A) I

2 tr A

If (tr A) = 0 and det A = 0 , there are no roots.

Square Roots of Positive Operators:
By definition, an operator A on a finite dimensional inner product space V is
positive if it is self adjoint and hv, Avi 0 for all v V .
Exercise 1: Show that a self adjoint operator is positive if and only if its eigenvalues are
nonnegative.
Exercise 2: Show that a positive operator A has a unique positive square root. Precisely,
1

there is a unique positive operator called A 2 such that A = (A 2 )2 .

(Hint: Let 0 1 < < r be the nonnegative square roots of the eigenvalues of A .
1

Take the spectral decomposition A = 12 P1 + + r2 Pr and set A 2 = 1 P1 + + r Pr .

4

For uniqueness, introduce the polynomial p(z) =

r
P

j=1
1

k6=j

zk2
J2 k2

and verify that p(A) =

A 2 . If B is any positive operator with B 2 = A , B A 2 = B p(B 2 ) = p(B 2 ) B = A 2 B .

1

Consequently, A 2 and B have a common spectral decomposition.)

Matrix Spaces:
Matm,n (C) is the vector space of all complex m n matrices. We write Matn (C)
for the space of square matrices Matn,n (C) .
(m,n)

Exercise 1: Let Ek

be the m n matrix with k, component 1 and all other compo(m,n)

nents 0 . We write Ek = Ek

, when the dimensions m, n are unambiguous. Show that

the mn matrices Ek , k = 1, , m, = 1, , n , are a basis for Matm,n (C) .

Matrix Inner Product:
The inner product of any two rectangular m n matrices A and B is defined by
p
hA, Bi = tr (A B) . The Hilbert-Schmidt norm of an m n matrix A is kAk = hA, Ai .
The jth row and kth column of A are denoted by Aj and Ak .

Exercise 1: (1) Identify column (row) vectors with n 1 ( 1 n ) matrices and show that

hA, Bi is the standard inner product on Cn ( Cn ).

n
n
n
P
P
P
(2) Show that hA, Bi =
ajk bjk =
hAj , Bj i =
hAk , Bk i is an Hermitian
j,k=1

j=1

k=1

inner product on the complex, vector space Matn (C) of all n n matrices with complex
components.
(3) Show that kABk kAk kBk . (Hint: kAk2 =

n
P

j,k=1

|ajk |2 =

n
P

k=1

kAk k2 =

n
P

j=1

kAj k2 .

n P
n
n P
n
 2

P
P
T
|
kAj k2 kBk k2 .)
By Schwarzs inequality kABk2 =
| Aj , Bk
k=1 j=1

k=1 j=1

Pauli Matrices:
The Pauli matrices are






0 1
0
1 0
1 = X =
, 2 = Y =
, 3 = Z =
1 0
0
0 1
The commutator and anticommutator of A, B Matn (C) are [A, B] = AB BA and
{A, B} = AB + BA respectively. Let 0 = I2 .
Exercise 1: (1) Show that the Pauli matrices are both self adjoint and unitary.
3
P
(2) Show that [j , k ] = 2
jk , {j , k } = 2 jk I2
=1

and j k = jk 0 +

3
P

jk , where jk is the LeviCivita symbol.

=1

(3) Calculate the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of j , j = 1, 2, 3 .

(4) Show that

1
2

1
2

0 ,

1 ,

1
2

2 ,

1
2

3 is an orthonormal basis for the real, vector space

of 2 2 Hermitian matrices. That is, hj , k i = tr (j k ) = 2 jk . Thus, a 2 2

3
P
hA, j i j .
Hermitian matrix A = 12
j=0

Matrix Geometric series:

If 0 < r < 1 , the geometric series

z k is absolutely, uniformly convergent on the

k=0

disk Dr (0) = { z C | |z| < r } to (1 z)1 .

Exercise 1: Show that:

P
(1) If r < 1 , the matrix geometric series
Ak is absolutely, uniformly convergent on the
p k=0




ball Br (0) = A Matn (C) kAk = Tr(A A) < r in Matn (C) of radius r centered at

P
the zero matrix to (I A)1 . So (I A)1 =
Ak on B1 (0) .
k=0

(Hint: kAk k kAkk r k and (I A)

(2) If kAk < 1 , k(I A)1 k

1
1kAk

N
P

k=0

Ak = I AN+1 )

The Matrix Exponential Series:

The exponential series ez =

k=0

bounded subset of C .

1
k!

z k is absolutely, uniformly convergent on each

Exercise 1: Show that the matrix exponential series eA =

k=0

1
k!

Ak is absolutely, uniformly

convergent on each bounded subset of Matn (C) and keA k ekAk for all A .
Exercise 2: For all A, B Matn (C) show that:

(1) If B commutes with A ( AB = BA ), then eA+B = eA eB .

P m! k
A B and
(Hint: If A and B commute, (A + B)m =
k! !
k+=m

eA eB =

k,=0

1
k! !

Ak B =

m=0 k+=m

1
k! !

Ak B .)

(2) If C Matn (C) is invertible, then C eA C 1 = eCA C

(Hint: C Ak C 1 = (C A C 1 )k )

(3) (eA ) = eA

(4) det(eA ) = eTrA

6

is upper triangular, T k is also upper triangular and (T k )jj = (tjj )k .

n
Q
is upper triangular, (eT )jj = etjj and det(eT ) =
etjj . In general, there is an

(Hint: If T = tij
So, eT

j=1

invertible C such that CAC 1 is upper triangular.)

n
1
1
(5) eA+B = lim e n A e n B
n

1
1
1
Hint: Show ke n (A+B) kj , ke n A e n B kj ekAk+kBk , for j n , and
n1
n1
P n1k
P
kX n Y n k = k
X
(X Y )Y k k
kXkn1k k(X Y )kkY kk ,
k=0

k=0

for all square matrices X, Y . So,

n
1
1
1
1
1
keA+B e n A e n B k n ekAk+kBk ke n (A+B) e n A e n B k
1

1
2n (A

+ B) + O( n12 ) , e n A e n B = I +

1
1
1
ke n (A+B) e n A e n B k = O( n12 ) .

Show e n (A+B) = I +

1
2n (A

+ B) + O( n12 ) and

The Unitary Group:

Let U (n) be the subset of all unitary matrices in Matn (C) .
Exercise 1: (1) Show that U (n) with matrix multiplication and inverse is a group.
(2) Show that U (n) is a closed, bounded, and therefore compact, subset of Mn (C) .

(Hint: kAk = n for all unitary matrices A .)

Let SU (n) be the subset of all matrices in U (n) with determinant 1 . It is a
subgroup of U (n) .

o
n

2
2
||
+
||
=
1
.
Exercise 2: (1) Show that SU (2) =





(2) The map (, ) 7
from the unit 3 dimensional unit sphere S 3 C2 onto

SU (2) Mat2 (C) is a homeomorphism (continuous bijection whose inverse is also
continuous) that identifies SU (2) with S 3 .

Density Operators:
An operator on an inner product space V is a density operator if it is positive
and Tr = 1 . By definition, the purity of is Tr 2
Exercise 1: (1) Let
Pj , j = 1, , r , be orthogonal projections with Pj Pk = jk Pk and 1l =
pj 0, j = 1, , r , with

r
P

mj pj = 1 , where mj = TrPj .

j=1

r
P

j=1

Pj

Show that =

r
P

pj Pj is a density operator with purity

j=1

r
P

j=1

mj p2j and conversely that

every density operator is of this form.

 

 

 
(2) Let  v V be normalized, v  v = 1 . Show that =  v v  is a density operator
and Tr 2 = 1 . Density operators of this kind are called pure.

 
(3) If is a density operator and Tr 2 = 1 , then there is a normalized  v V such that
 

=  v v  . Moral: Density operators are pure if and only if they have purity 1 .

Exercise 2: Show that for every x IR3 with r = kxk 1 , the matrix
3
 

 


1  1 + x3 x1 x2 
P
1
x = 2 0 +
xj j = 2
= p1  v1 v1  + p2  v2 v2 
x1 + x2 1 x3
j=1
 
j
x3 +(1)j r

r
is a density operator on
where, pj = 1+(1)
and  vj = 1
2
j
2r

C with purity

1+r2
2

r+(1) x3

x1 +x2

(Hint: If p1 and p2 are the eigenvlues of x , then p1 + p2 = Trx = 1 and

1
4

(1 kxk2 ) .
3
P
xj j to compute the purity.)
Use 2x = 14 (1 + kxk2 ) 0 + 12
p1 p2 = det x =

j=1

Exercise 3: If is a density operator on C2 , show that there is an x IR3 with kxk 1

such that = x .
3
P
h, j i j . )
(Hint: = 12
j=0

Operator Norm:
The operator norm of A Matn (C) is |kA|k = sup kAxk .
kxk=1
xCn

Exercise 1: Show that |k |k is a norm on Matn (C) .

Exercise 2: Show that for all A, B Matn (C) and x Cn :

(1) kAxk |kA|k kxk for all x Cn .

(2) |kAB|k |kA|k |kB|k
(3) If A is self adjoint, |kA|k =
Hint: kAxk2 = hAx, Axi =
2

Show, |kA|k = sup

kyk=1
yIRr

n
P

j=1

sup
Spec(A)

r
P

i,j=1

||

i j hPi x, Pj xi =

2i yi2 =

sup
Spec(A)

||2

r
P

i=1

(A)

2i kPi xk2 , where Pi = Pi

Exercise 3: Show that: (1) The eigenvalues 1 , , r , of A A are nonnegative.

r

1
P

(2) If 1 > > r , then |kA A|k = 1 , |kA|k = 1 and kAk =

mi i 2 ,
i=1

where mi is the multiplicity of i .

Hint: A A is self adjoint, so tr(A A) =

r
P

i=1

i tr(Pi Pi ) =

r
P

i=1

(A A)

mi i , where Pi = Pi

r
r

 P
P
2
yi2 i = 1 .
i kPi xk2 , so |kA|k = sup
Show, kAxk2 = x, A Ax =

(3) |kA|k kAk

kyk=1
yIRr

i=1

n |kA|k . (Hint:

21

(4) |kA |k = |kA|k and |kA A|k = |kA|k

21

+ +

2n

i=1

n 21 )

Matrix Algebras:
A complex algebra A is a complex vector space (e.g., Matn (C) ) with an associative
multiplication, a, b A 7 ab A , (e.g., matrix multiplication) that is left and right
distributive over vector space addition and commutes with scalar multiplication (e.g., matrix
multiplication on Matn (C) ). A - algebra (read, star algebra) is a complex algebra A with

an antilinear map a A 7 a A satisfying (a ) = a and (ab) = b a for all a, b A

(e.g., the adjoint operation on Matn (C) ). A Banach algebra is a complex algebra A with
a norm k k satisfying kabk kakbk for all a, b A and for which every Cauchy sequence

has a limit in A . (e.g., the Hilbert-Schmidt or operator norms on Matn (C) ). A C - algebra

is a - Banach algebra such that ka ak = kak2 for all a A .



(n)
Exercise 1: Eij = pi qj
is the standard basis for the - algebra Matn (C) .
p,q=1,n

Ej ) = ij m .
= Eji and hEim , Ej i = Tr(Eim
Show that Eij Epq = jp Eiq , Eij
(n)

The superscript is dropped, Eij = Eij , when the dimension n is unambiguous.

Exercise 2: Show that Matn (C) with the operaor norm |k |k is a C - algebra.
Tensor Products of Matrices:
The tensor (Kronecker) product A B of A Matk, (C) and B Matm,n (C)


is the block matrix A B = aij B Matkm,n (C) . Tensor product is an associative,

bilinear operation on matrices.

Examples:

1
0
0
0
   
   
   
   
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0

=
=
=
=
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1


 


1
1
1 0 =
0
0

 


0
0
1 0 =
1
1


a11
a21

(m)

Let ek

a12
a22

b11
b21

b12
b22

0
0

0
0


 


1
0
0 1 =
0
0

 


0
0
0 1 =
1
0

a11 b11
a b
= 11 21
a21 b11
a21 b21

a11 b12
a11 b22
a21 b12
a21 b22

a12 b11
a12 b21
a22 b11
a22 b21

1
0

0
1

a12 b12
a12 b22

a22 b12
a22 b22

1k
.
= .. be the standard basis of column vectors for Cm .
mk

(m)

Exercise 1: Show that ek

(n) T

(m,n)

, k = 1, , m, = 1, , n is the standard basis Ek

for the vector space Matm,n (C) .

Exercise 2:
Tensor Products of Matrix Spaces:
Axioms of Finite Dimensional Quantum Mechanics:

10