FracturedReservoirModeling

SS2014
Dr.RainerMller

Whatisafracturedreservoir?
Thebehavior,capabilityofstorageandmovementoffluidsandgasesinrocksisgenerally
controlledbytheproportionofopenspaces(pores,interstices)intherockmatrix.
Thisattributeofrocksisdescribedasporosity.Theporesmaybeinterconnectedorisolated.
absolute porosity Pt =(bulkvolume solidvolume)/bulkvolumex100
effectiveporosityPe =interconnectedporevolume/bulkvolumex100
Aswell,the matrixpermeability thecapabilitytotransmitfluidsorgases iscontrolledby
theeffectiveporosity.

TypesofPorosity
Primaryporosityisdevelopedduringsedimentation.In
clasticrocks,theprimaryporositycorrespondsatalarge
extendtotheintersticesbetweengrains,andiscontrolled
bythegrainsize,theroundnessandthepackageofthe
grains.
Secondaryporosityorinducedporosityistheresultof
geologicalprocessesactingafter theformationofrocks.
Possiblecausesare:
Fundamentaljointpatternbylossofwater),
thedissolutionofsoluteprimarycomponents (pressure
solution,stylolites)or
dolomitization inlimestones and
thetectonical formationoffractures.
Vuggy porosityisaspecialtypeofsecondaryporosity,dueto
theirregual dissolutionofof largercomponents,suchas
fossilsincarbonaterocks.
Porositymaybedistinguishedintoeffective(open)andineffective(closed)porosity.

Whatisafracturedreservoir?
Fracturesmayincreasetheeffectiveporosityofrocksbyinterconnectingtheprimary
(matrix)porosityand(inconsequence)thepermeability(fracturepermeability).
So,theymaysupporttheflowofhydrocarbonsreservoirs,thus,theproductionrate.
Insomehydrocarbondepositsfractureassemblagesaretheleadingfactorsofthedeposits.
Thesedepositsarecalledfracturedreservoirs.
Ontheotherhand,astheformationandopeningoffracturesdependonpressure,the
closureofopenfractureduringextractionofhydrocarbonscoulddowngradeflowrates.
Therefore,theknowledgeoftypesoffractures,theirbehaviorandtheiroriginisofmajor
importancefortheexplorationandproductionofhydrocarbons.

TheUseofFracturesinPetroleumReservoirs
Fracturespresentbothproblemsandopportunitiesforexplorationandproductionfrom
petroleumreservoirs.
Manypetroleumreservoirsweregeneratedinhighlyfracturedrocks,wherefractureproperties
suchasdensityandorientationarecrucialtoreservoireconomics.Thisaspectappliesespecially
tocarbonatereservoirs.
Inmostcasesthefracturesareusuallyimportantofpermeabilityratherthanporosity.Matrix
porositystoresthehydrocarbons,andfracturesprovidepermeablepathwaysfortheirtransport.
Theobjectiveofhydrocarbonexplorationinfracturedreservoirsistofindareasofintense
fracturing,orsweetspots.(CommitteeonFractureCharacterizationandFluidFlow1996)

FracturesinPetroleumReservoirs:Examples
Fracturedhydrocarbonreservoirsprovideover20%oftheworldoilreservesandproduction.
Examplesoftheprolificfracturedpetroleumreservoirsare:
1) theAsmari limestonereservoirsinIran,
2) thevugular carbonatereservoirsinMexicoand
3) thegroupofchalkreservoirsoftheNorthSea.
Thesereservoirsproducemorethanfivemillionbarrelsofoilperday;
theircommonfeatureisalonglifespan,whichcouldlastseveraldecades.
Thereisalargenumberofotherfracturedhydrocarbonsreservoirsofverydifferentfeatures
fromtheabovereservoirs.
TheAustinchalkfield,
theKeystone(Ellenberger)fieldinTexa,and
theTempa Rossa fieldinItaly
Thosedepositshaveverylowporosities.
Ontheotherhand,theaveragematrixporosityoftheEkofisk chalkfieldintheNorthSeais
around35%.

UnconventionalGasReservoirs
Inthelastyears,majoreffortshavebeentargetedonunconventionalgasreservoirs,suchas
shalegasortightgasorcoalbedmethane.
Thesedepositsarecharacterizedbyverylowpermeabilitiesandadsorptionofgasintotherock
matrix.Inthiscase,fracturesarenotonlyusedfortheproductionofgasbutalsoartificially
generatedbythetechniqueofhydraulicfracturing(orabbreviatedasfracking).

Whatshouldweknowaboutfractures?
Tectonicfracturesarenotrandomlydistributedintheearthscrustbutrigidlycontrolledby

typesofrocks,theircomposition,rheologyandthickness,
typesoffractures,
locationanddepth,
density,
filling(aretheyopenornot)andtypeoffilling
orientationsand
the(originalandactual)stressfield.

Theyareconcentratedatdistinctzones(zonesofweakness,fracturezones).
Theirorientation(strike,dip)isstrictlycontrolledbyorientationandtypeoftheactingstress
fieldduringthetimeofformationofthefractures.

Whatarewegoingtotalkabout?

Basicdefinitionsandtypesofthedifferentfractures

Measuringandreconstructionoffractures

Methodsofrepresentationoffractures(roses,stereographicprojection)

Factorscontrollingtheformationandpropagationoffractures
(Stressfields,Mohrcircle)

TypesofGeometricalElementsinGeology

Planes

Lineations

TypesofPlanesinGeology
1)PrimaryPlanes
areplanes,whicharegeneratedduetotheprocessofformationoftherocks.
Beddingplanes(stratificationplanes):
areresultofsomekindofinterruptionorchangeofthesedimentationprocess
areoriginallyorientatedparalleltotheearthsurface(horizontal)
showawiderangeofdifferenttypes,combinations(beddingtypes)andgeometries
areaffectedbylatertectonicalinfluences(fractures,folds,pressuresolution)
maybedistinguishedfromotherplanesbyobservationofchangesofmaterial

TypesofPlanesinGeology
1)Beddingplanes:Examples

right:irregularbeddingplanesofthickbeddedlimestones

left:parallelbedding(flatbedding)ofsandstone siltstone
intercalations

TypesofPlanesinGeology
1)Beddingplanes:Examples

left:ripplebeddinginsandstone

right:laminationinmudstones

TypesofPlanesinGeology
2)Metamorphicfoliation,cleavage
Foliationissecondary,tectonicallycontrolledtypeofplanesinrocks,commonlydevelopedin
finegrainedshalesandleadingtorocks,whicharecalledschist.Foliationorschistosityor
cleavageisareactionofrocks,whichwereexposedtoextremetectoniccompression.

Penetrativeaxialplanecleavageinfoldedschists

Complexfoldingofmetamorphicfoliationinamphibolites

TypesofPlanesinGeology
3)Fractures

Fracturesaresecondaryseparationplanesoftectonicorigininrocks,
whichmaybesubdividedintothreetypes:
a)

Joints

b)

Fissures

c)

Faults

TypesofPlanesinGeology
3a)Joints
Jointsarecommonandfrequentfracturesinanytypesofrocks.
Jointsareseparationplanes,cracks,inrockswithoutanyvisible(oremeasurable)verticalor
horizontaldisplacement.
Inthesenseofviewoffracturemodelling,theyareofmayor
importance.Differenttypesanddifferentoriginsofjointsare
known.
Differentintersectingsetsofjoints

Plumosestructures:areindicators
forcrackpropagationonjoints

TypesofPlanesinGeology
3b)Fissures,tensiongashes
Fissuresarejointlikefractureswithameasurablehorizontaldisplacementnormaltothe
orientationoftheplane.
Itmeans,thatfissuresare(originally)openstructures,whichareofmayorimportanceforthe
migrationandthetransportofliquidsandgas.
Inmanycasesfissuresare(secondarily)filledwithmineralprecipitationslikegypsum,calciteor
quartzorevenraremineralslikeores(veins).
Tensiongashesare(normallysmallscaled)structuresasaresultoftensionalstress.

TypesofPlanesinGeology
3c)Faults
Faultsareseparationplanesinrocksshowing(megascopically)visibleandmeasurable
displacement.
Thedisplacementmaybeobservedby:

thedisplacementofmarkerbeds,

by striations along the fault plane or

by dragging of the nearby beds.

Setofthreenormalfaultsdisplacingalimestonelayer
(Alps,fromRamsay)

Strikeslipfaultinlimestones (LeinetalRift,Mller)

Typesoflineationsingeology:(primary)sedimentarylineations
Manynontectonical,primarytypesoflineations,especiallyinsedimentology,areknown,which
provideuswithinformationabouttransportdirectionsandsourcesofsedimentarymaterial.
Flutecasts,striationmarks,
groovecastsarethebest
knownstructuresofthis
type.
However,eveninigneous
rockslinearalignmentof
needleshapedminerals
servesasindicatorofflow
directionsandinflux
mechanismsofmelts.

Flutecastsonadownsidedbeddingplaneofoverturnedgreywackesequences,Harz

Typesoflineationsingeology:Foldaxis
Foldaxis(hingelines)aretheconnectinglinesof
theinflexionpointsofafold,atwhichthe
concavityofthelimbsreverses(eitheranticline
axisorsynclineaxis).
Foldaxisarethemostimportantgeometrical
elementtodescribetheorientationandtypeof
folds.

Typesoflineationsingeology:Foldrelatedlineations

Fishmouthstructurebetweenboudins inmarbles;
Matreishearzone,Austria.

Mullionstructureinaalternatingsequenceof
greywackes andslates,Eifel(RAMSAY)

Typesoflineationsingeology:Intersectionlines
Infoldedrocks,theintersectionlineationsbetweenfoldrelatedplanescorrespondtothe
orientationofthefoldaxis.
Intersectionsofplanesofthesameorder(suchasbeddingplanes)arecalledlineations.
Intersectionsofplanesofdifferenttype(andorigin),forinstancebeddingplanes(s0)and
cleavage(s1)arecalledlineations.

Pencileshapedpiecesofslates,formedbyaobtuseangle
betweenbeddingandcleavage(lineations).Thelongaxisof
thepencilsrepresenttheorientationoffoldaxis.

Typesoflineationsingeology:Mineralstretching

Typesoflineationsingeology:Mineralgrowth
Newformingorrecrystallized needle
shapedmetamorphicmineralsor
aggregatesofmineralsunder
continuouscompressional stress
conditionsaregrowingparalleltothe
minorstressaxis.

Needles

Platyshapedminerals

Typesoflineationsingeology:Striation
Striationsarescratchmarksonfaultplanes,formedbythetectonicaldisplacementprocessof
thetworigidblocksalongthefaultplane.Theyareofmajorimportance,astheydemonstrateus
therelativeandabsolutedisplacementdirection.

Vertical striations and crescentlike edges indicate, that the (upper) hanging-wall block
was displaced vertically downwards, resulting in a normal fault.
Jurassic limestones, French Jura, (diameter of the picture: 1m), Photo: Mller

Wheredoesstructuralinformationcomefrom?
a) superficialoutcrops:
Advantages:

easilyaccessible,lowcosts
exposedin3dimensionsatlargeextensions
largenumbersofdatamaybecollected
relativetemporalandspatialrelationsofdifferentelements
andgenerationsmaybedistinguished

Problems:

transferofsuperficialinformationtothedepth

Wheredoesstructuralinformationcomefrom?
b) Drillings:informationonfracturesmaybeobtaineddirectlyfromcores,fromvideo
recordingsofthedrillholeorfromspeciallyprocessedlogsorcombinationsoflogs,
producing3Dimages.
Advantages: informationmaybeobtaineddirectlyfromthelocationof
interest
Problems:

highcost,
verylimitedrageofinformationinspace,
limitednumberofdata
orientationandmeasurementofelementsisdifficult

Wheredoesstructuralinformationcomefrom?
b) Seismics:interpretationsofresultsofseismicexplorationin2Dand3D
Advantages: informationmaybeobtainedregionalscaleundgreatdepth
Problems:

highcost,
limiteddetaileddissolution,minorstructuresdifficulttoanalyse,
orientationandmeasurementofelementsisdifficulttoanalyse,

Typesofstructuraldata,tobecollected
Spatialorientationofthefractures: eachkindofstructuralmodelingdependsbasicaly onthe
orientationofthefracturepatterninastatisticalpointofview.Forrepresentationandanalysis
ofthedataspecialmethodsasrosediagramsandstereographicrepresentationareneeded.
Analysisoftype,relationsandoriginofthefractures: usingjoints:observationofgenetically,
temporallyandspatiallyrelatedjoints(setsofjoints).
usingfaults:observationofthetypeoffaults,kinematicsanddimensionofdisplacement.
Spatialrelation,densityofthefractures: veryimportantfortheinterpretationoftheroleofa
specialsetofjointsaspathwayforthemigrationoffluids.Thenumberofjointsofaspecial
orientationhastobecountedandbereferredtoanormalizeddistance.
Openingandfillingoffissures

MeasuringtheOrientationofPlanes
Strike
N
Dip direction
Strikedescribestheorientationofan(imaginary)horizontallineonaninclinedplane
(tothenorthdirection).Strikeisspecifiedbetween0and180.

horizontal plane

Dipdirectionistheorientationofthelineof
steepestpossibledipangleonaninclined
plane(tothenorthdirection),normaltostrike.

Dip angle

Dipangleistheanglebetweentheplanein
questionandan(imaginary)horizontalplane
indipdirection.Dipangleisspecifiedbetween
0and90.

GeologicalCompass
Brunton compass

GeologicalCompass
GermanMiners Compass

GeologicalCompass
GermanClar Compass

Notationof structural data:planes

070/40SE

160/40

N070E,40SE

125/10NE

035/10

N055E,10NE

010/80W

280/80

N010E,80W

170/05W

260/05

N010W,05SW

30/10NW

300/10

N030E,10NW

160/80W
110/50NE

250/80
20/50

N020W,80W

140/10SW

230/10

N050W,10SW

050/15NW

320/15

N050E,15NW

000/40W

270/40

N000,40W

090/50N

000/50

N090E,50N

180/90

090/90

N000,90

N070W,50NE

MeasuringtheOrientationofLineations

Trenddescribestheorientationofan(imaginary)horizontalprojectionofthe
lineationtothenorthdirection).Trendisspecifiedbetween0and180.

horizontal plane
Plunge (angle)

Plungedirectionisthedirectionofthe
inclinationofthelineation(tothenorth
direction),paralleltothetrend.

Plunge(angle)istheanglebetweenthe
lineationinquestionandthe(imaginary)
projectionofthelineationtoanhorizontal
planeinplungedirection.Plungeisspecified
between0and90.

Notationofstructuraldata:lineations
130/40SE

130/40

S050E,40

015/80NE

015/80

N015E,80

15/10NE

015/10

N015E,10

140/42NW

320/42

N040W,42

050/30SW

230/30

50,S030W

100/54NW
170/80N

280/54
350/80

80,N54W

010/20N

010/20

10,N020E

030/13SW

240/13

60,S13SW

014/50S

194/50

S014W,50

140/00

140/00

N040W,00

065/14SW

245/14

S65W,14

10,N80N

ClassificationofFaults

ClassificationofFaults
Normalfaults

Reversefaults

Strikeslipfaults:
G:sinistral
I:dextral

CombinationsofNormalFaults

TypesofReverseFaults

Reversefault:
dip>45 (~65)

Thrustfault:
dip<30
Overthrust:
Dip<20

Faultssymbolsonblackboard!

Thrustduplex:
Combinationofstacked
thrustfaults

Exercise:Determinationoftypeanddisplacementoffaults

Quantitativedeterminationofdisplacementratesoffaults(1)
Todeterminethedisplacementrateof(verticallydisplaced)faultsingeologicalmaps,two
triangularrelationsmaybeused.
Thefirstgeometricalconstructionisexecutedalongasectionverticallytothefaultplanewith
thecomponents:
s =(apparent)horizontalwidthofdisplacement(=horizontalcomponentofw)(heave),
t =verticalwidthofdisplacement(=verticalcomponentofw)(throw),
w =(real)widthofdisplacement(slip)

Quantitativedeterminationofdisplacementratesoffaults(2)
Usingthethrowt,theformertrianglemaybecombinedwithasecondtrianglearranged
verticallytothebeddingofdisplacedrocks,whichusesanapparenthorizontalrateof
displacementsh (strikeseparation).Thestrikeseparationsh canbemeasuredalongalineof
strikebetweenthesameplaneofadisplacedlayer.

Quantitativedeterminationofdisplacementratesoffaults(3)
usingtrigonometricfunctions

tan(bedding)=t/sh;t=sh *tan(bedding)

sin(fault)=t/w;t=w*sin(fault);w=t/sin(fault)
cos(fault)=s/w;s=w*cos(fault);w=s/cos (fault)
tan(fault)=t/s;t=s*tan(fault);s=t/tan(fault)

Exercise:Quantitativedeterminationofdisplacementratesoffaults
Calculatedisplacementratesandcompletethesketchesofmaps,assumingpureverticaldisplacement
Scale1:10000

Joints
Jointsarefractureswithout
visibleormeasurable
displacementinrocks

Definitions:
Jointtrace:intersectionlinebetweenajointplaneandanyotherplane.
Jointset:isasetof(moreorless)parallelorientatedandgeneticallyrelatedjoints.
Jointzone:section,inwhichajointsetofspecificorientationareconcentrated
(comparedtoitssurroundings).
Jointsystem:theentiretyofthejointsetsofdifferentorientationsinaregion,
whichmaybeconsideredasgeneticallyrelatedtothesamestressconditions.Those
jointsetsmaybesymmetricallyorientated,forexampleorthogonallyorientated
jointsorconjugatesetsofjoints.
Jointpattern:theentiretyofalljointsofareregion,whichmaybecomprisedof
severaljointsystemswithgeneticallyandtemporarydifferentorigin.

Systematicjoints
Joints,whicharegeometricallyregular(parallel,orthogonal)(jointsystems)intheir
arrangementarecalledsystematicjoints.

NonsystematicJoints
Lessregularjointsarecalled
nonsystematicjoints.
Theyarenormallyofaminorscaleandof
irregular,randomorientations.
Nonsystematicjointsmaybeoriginated
bylocalvariationsofrheological
parameters.
Theycanhardlybepredicted.

Joints

Manyjointsystemsexhibitregionallyconsistentpatternsoforientations,whichare
observedtopersisteventhroughoutthestratigraphicsection.
Insedimentaryrocksasystematicperpendicularorientationofjointstothebeddingplanes
iscommonlyobserved,frequentlyshowinganorthogonalarrangement oftwosetsofjoints.
Thissocalledfundamentaljointsystemseemstobegeneratedalreadyduringearly
diagenesis.Sometimes,theorientationofthesystemcorrespondstotheaxisofthebasin.
Therefore,thearrangementofjointsinsedimentsfrequentlyshowsrelationstotheshape
ofthesedimentarybasin.

Joints
Mostobservationsonjointsimply,thattheyhavebeenformedundertensilestressconditions.
Nevertheless,compressiveregimenisthecommonstateofstressintheearthscrust(load!),
therefore,effectivestress,controlledbyfluidpressure,playsanimportantroleinjoint
formation.
Thespacingofjointsinsedimentarylayersiscontrolledbytheelasticbehaviorandthicknessof
thebeds.Therefore,spacingdiffersinmanysequencesfromlayertolayer.
TheelasticbehaviorofrocksisdescribedbytheYoungmodulus,whichisameasureoftheir
stiffnessanddescribestherelationbetweentensilestressandstrain.

Fissures,tensiongashes
Fissuresareopenstructures,combined
withextensionalstressconditions.They
arearrangedintypicalorientationstothe
appliedstressfieldandthecorresponding
majorstructures(faults).

Mineralfibers(gypsum,calcite,quartz)in
fissurescrystallizeparalleltotheminorstress
axis3
Photo:RODRIGUES etal.(2009):J.Geol.Soc.;166:.695709

Representationofstructuraldata
Structural datasets normally involve the following features:
they represent the 3-dimensional orientation of planes or lineations,
they include normally a large number (several tens or hundreds) of samples,
they include different types of structural elements (bedding, faults, joints),
whose geometrical relations are known and must be verified.
Please note: Directional data, expressed by strike and dip, can not be
treated statistically as two independent values, but are 3-D vectorial data !
For statistical analysis of gravity centers of orientation and their variation,
special complex methods of vector analysis are required.
These large and complex directional datasets must be interpreted and
represented in a 3-dimensional system.
Two methods are in use:
Rose diagrams and
stereographic projection (Schmidt Net)

Rosediagrams
Inrosediagrams(only)thetrendofstructuralelementsisusedfortheconstructionofa
directionalhistogramshowingthefrequencyofdataofcertaindirectionalclasses,represented
ina360 or180 circle(rose).
Itisfrequentlyusedforsteeplydippingjointsetsorotherdatainwhichthedipangleisnot
important.

Rosediagrams:Example
Data:

Orientations of 64 joints

10/48 E
12/68 E
01/81 W
06/60E
12/49 E
12/83 E
03/84 W
07/66E

94/80 S
109/88 N
06/78 E
91/81 S
93/80 S
111/88 N
10/78 E
94/81 S

63/74 NW
163/67 NE
62/85 NW
64/75/NW
69/74 NW
161/67 NE
65/85 NW
59/75/NW

154/68 SW
17/81 ESE
149/70SW
155/69/SW
151/68 SW
20/81 ESE
151/70SW
148/69/SW

14/68 ESE
90/80 S
16/77 E
15/68 ESE
13/68 ESE
89/80 S
19/77 E
13/68 ESE

07/56 E
12/66 E
04/68 E
08/77W
06/56 E
15/66 E
02/68 E
11/77W

149/70SW
94/73 S
150/75SW
148/76SW
147/70SW
91/73 S
152/75SW
146/76SW

59/80NW
13/83 E
80/59N
60/60 SE
61/80NW
09/83 E
79/59N
66/66 SE

Rosediagrams:Differenttypes

Rosediagrams:Resultsoftheexample

Rosediagrams:Resultsoftheexample
bung Kluftrosen.pln

Datasets: 63

Interval: 10
max = 33.33%
270

90

Interval: 10

180

max = 26.98%

90

Analysis of the example data using TectonicsFP

Applicationofjointdiagrams

Stereographicprojection(SchmidtNet)
Thesecondmethodofrepresentationofdirectionaldataismuchmoremeaningful,however
moredifficulttounderstand,touseandtointerpret.
Inthiscase,planesorlines,areconsideredtobearrangedwithinina(imaginary)sphere,
passingthroughthecenterofthesphere.

Theintersectionoftheelementwiththespheressurfaceleavesatraceinformofacircle
segment(plane)orapoint(line).
Thepositionofthetraceorthepointoneithertheupperorthelowerhemisphereisprojected
toaplanepassingthroughthecenterofthesphere.

Polar(normal)or azimuthal Projektion

The projection may be polar (a) or
azimuthal (b).
Polar projection is applied as the so called
polar net.
Longitudes are represented as straight
lines; latitudes as circles with differing radii.

For the Schmidt net azimuthal projection is

used.
Latitudes and longitudes are +/- curvilinear
segments of a circle; equator and N-S-axis
are represented as straight lines.

TypesofProjection
Spherical surfaces may be projected as:
equal angle (Wulf net, Mercator),
equal length or
equal area (Schmidt net).

Equal angle projection is used for the correct

representation of angular relations, for example
the angles between crystal planes in
crystallography.

The Schmidt net projection is of equal area type.

Equal area relations are needed for a statistical
analysis of the population density of representing
point on the surface of a sphere.
Equal angle relations are represented without
distortion along great circles.

Stereographicprojection(SchmidtNet)

Model

top:polar(normal)projection
bottom:azimuthalprojection

Projection

equalareaprojection

Net

SchmidtNet

SchmidtNet
20

10

N
greatcircles(meridians)

30

NW

40

NE

Equator

SE

SW

smallcircles
S

PreparationoftheNet:
N
Fixapinfromthebacksidethrough
thecenterofthenet
Fixatransparencylayer

Orientatelayersparallel

Markcenter(cross)

Markoutercircle
MarkNPosition

Transparency Layer

Representationofaplane(70/20NW)as
greatcircle
Preparethetransparencylayer
Rotatethelayerwith70 counterclockwise

Count20 onequatorfromoutside
tocenter
Markthecorrespondinggreatcircle

Rotatethelayerbacktoorigin

Representation of lineations
Example: (70/20NE)
Preparethetransparencylayer
Rotatethelayerwith70 counterclockwise

Count20 alongNScenterlinefrom
Ntocentertocenter
Markthecorrespondingpoint

Rotatethelayerbacktoorigin

Exercise:Determinationofahighpermeabilitypathwaybytwointersectingfaults

Inthepetroleumprospectionfield1highflowrateshavebeendetectedintheverticaldrillhole DH1atadepthof1000m,obviouslycontrolled
bytheintersectionoftwonormalfaultzones.
Theirorientationsare:
Fault1:125/35
Fault2:156/55
1)Locatethepossiblecorridor,inwhichthisintersectionzonecouldcrosstheprospectoffield2andselectapossibledrillinglocation.
2)Atwhichdepththefavorableflowratesaretobeexpected?

Point counting: Statistical evaluation of structural data

One of the most typical applications of stereographical projection of structural data is

their statistical evaluation.
The scope of these procedures is the determination of the center(s) of gravity of a cloud
of poles.
The mathematical calculation of those parameters is complex. Orientational data in a 3D space are vectors; their evaluation requires methods of vector analysis.
Actually, some of those operations can be performed using special tectonic programs.
A manual analysis is quite simple but time consuming.
It is performed using a so called counting net (see next slides).

AnalysisofSchmidtnetdata

AnalysisofSchmidtnetdata

AnalysisofSchmidtnetdata

10

10

0 0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
2

3
3

0
0

Klassierung:
1
Punkt
2 - 3 Punkte
4 - 5 Punkte
5-10 Punkte

AnalysisofSchmidtnetdata:ExampleTectonicsFP

bung Kluftrosen.pln

Max. value: 15.6%

Datasets: 63

at : 101 / 69

Contours at:
1.00 3.00 6.00 9.00 12.0

RepresentationofFaultsusingStereographicProjection.
.usingtheANGELIER method

Example:reversefault
plane:200/80
striation:270/60

StressandtheDeformationofRocks
Stress isameasureoftheintensityandorientationoftheforcesperunitareaonadeformable
bodyonwhichinternalforcesact.
Deformationorstrainisthereactionofrockstostressandisdescribedbytherelationbetween
aninitialandfinalplacementofasolidexposedtostress.
Inacoordinatesystem,thestateofstressofasinglepointinasolidcanbeexpressedbythree
principlestressaxis,whichareorientatednormaltoeachother:
1 =inthedirectionofthemajorstress,
2 =inthedirectionoftheintermediatestress,
3 =inthedirectionoftheminorstress,

StateofStressonaPlane
Thestateofstressonasinglepointonaplanewithinthesolidcanbedescribedby
anormalstresscomponentn and
two(perpendicular)shearstresscomponents1 and2

Themaximumshearstressactsonaplane,thatbisectstheanglebetweenmaximumand
minimumprinciplestress:
max =(1 3);
Thecorrespondingmaximumnormalstressequalsto:
n max =(1+3);
Onplanesperpendiculartooneofthethreeprinciplestressaxis,theshearstresscomponents
arezero.

ANDERSONS TheoremofFaulting.
states,thatonahorizontalearthssurface,thereisnoshearstress,whichcouldcausemass
displacement.Asaconsequence,oneoftheprincipalstressaxesmustbearrangednormalto
theearthssurface,thetwootheraxeshavetobeparalleltothesurface.Thisconceptleadsto
threeprinciplestateofstresssituationsintheearthcrust:

Case1:

1vertical:dilatation,
normalfaults

Case2:

3vertical:compression,
reverse,thrustfaults

Case3:

2vertical:compression,
strikeslipfaults

Stress:DefinitionsandUnits
TheunitforstressisPa(Pascal)=N/m
Compressivestressesareconsideredtobepositive!
1bar=105 Pa
10bar=1MPa (megaPascal)=106 Pa
Pressureat5kmoceandepth:500bar=50MPa
100MPa =1Kb(Kilobar)=1000bar
Pressureat30kmdepthofthecrust:approx.10kbar=1Gpa =109 Pa
1atm (atmosphere)=1,0133x105 Pa
1kg/cm2 =0,9807bar
Thestresstensormaybedecomposedintotwocomponents:
MeanStress..
isthemeanvalueofthestressstate:
m =(1+2 + 3)/3;
andrepresentstheisotropicpartofthestress
DeviatoricStress.
isthedifferencebetweenaprinciplestressandthemeanstress:
i=i m;
whichisresponsibleforalmostallcompressivedeformationalfeatures.

Stress:DefinitionsandUnits
Lithostaticpressure..
(orLoad)actsnormaltotheearthssurfaceandiscontrolledbytheloadoftherockpile,which
isdepth(inm)bydensity(atanaverageof2,5g/cm)bygravitationalconstantof9,82msec.
Lithostaticpressureisalsoexpressedasverticalstressv
Example:
Rockpileof5000m,density:2,5g/cm
500000cmx2,5g/cm=1250000g/cm=1250kg/cm
1250kg/cmx0,9807=1225bar=1,225Kb
1,225KB=122,5MPa
HydrostaticPressure..
(confining,geostatic,fluidpressure)isthehydrostaticpressureofawatercolumninaspecific
depthduetotheforceofgravity:
pfluid =depth[m]x0,1[g/cm](1000mx0,1=100bar=10MPa)
Hydrostaticpressurehasthesamemagnitudeinthreedirections(confining).Internalporefluid
pressurereducestheeffectivestrengthactingonthesolid.
EffectiveStress.
isthedifferencebetweenmeanstressandfluidpressure:

*
m

1* 2* 3*
3

( 1 2 3 3Pfluid )
3

TheMohrDiagram
TheMohrdiagramisaveryimportanttoolforrepresenting,analyzingand,aboveall,
understandingthestateofstress,actingonaplaneofanyorientationinastressedsolid
material(givenbytheprincipalstressaxes1,2,3).
WewillconsiderMohrdiagramoperationsintwodimensionsonly.

Example:Aplaneinahomogeneouslystressedcube.Itsnormal
includesanangle (=shearangletheta)with1.
Thestateofstressactingonthegivensurface,definedbythe
shearangle,canbydividedintotwocomponents:
Thenormalstressn isactingnormaltotheplane
Theshearstress isactingparalleltotheplane,resultingina
sheardisplacementalongtheplane

Trigonometricrelationsdeductedfromthediagram
1A=

A
( ncos+ sin)
cos

3B =

B
( n sin + cos)
sin

solved for n:

n 1 cos 2 3 sin 2

solved for :

( 1 3 ) sin cos

converted into:

n (

1 3
2

)(

1 3

1 3
2

) cos 2;

) sin 2;

PlottingtheMohrDiagram
TheMohrdiagramrepresentsthestateofstressofamaterialusingn asxaxisand asyaxis.
Thestressonasinglepointonaplaneplotsasapoint(n ,).
Compressivestressplotsontheright,tensilestressontheleftsideofthediagram.
Thestatesofstressofallpossibleplanesofagivenstressfieldarearrangedonacirclewithacenterofthemeanstress and
aradiusofthedeviatoricstress.
1 and3 plotonthecircleintersectionwiththexaxis.
Theshearangle(2)isrepresentedbytheangleofalinebetweenthecenterandtherepresentingpointofaplane.
Planesperpendicularto1 and3 (with=90)havenoshearstress.
Maximumshearstressoccursat=45.
Thelargerthedifferencebetween1 and3 (deviatoricstress)thelargeristheshearstressonagivenplane.

TheMohrDiagram:Exercises
1) Theprinciplestresses1 and3 aregivenwith80Mpaand45Mparespectively.
1 isorientatedhorizontallyinEWdirection,3 vertically.Whatisthestateofstress(n, )
onafractureplanestrikingNSanddippingwith30 totheE?
Solution:=60,2=120
max=17,5Mpaat =45
nmax =62,5MPa
n =53,75MPa
=15,15MPa
2) Thestateofstressismeasuredin2slotsofamine.Thefirstdips32Eandhasanormal
compressivestressn of57Mpaandashearstress of12Mpadowndip.Theseconddips
84Eandhasanormalcompressivestressnof40Mpaandashearstress of3Mpa.What
isthestateofprinciplestressesandtheirorientationinthisregion?
Solution: Constructthetworepresentingstresspoints,
Bisectorlineinterferingthexaxisresultsinthecenter ofthecircle:
1=66,5MPa,3=40MPa

TheMohrEnvelope:GatheringExperimentalData
Piston

Triaxial testingapparatus
(fromSUPPE 1985:152)

Resultofatriaxial testofacylindricalshale
sample(Inst.ofGeology,TUClausthal)

common
confining
pressure c

TheMohrEnvelope:ResultofanExperiment

Mohrdiagramofthefractureexperimentataconfining
pressureof50Mpa.
Thediagramrepresentsthreedifferentstatesof
deformation.Therockprobefailedataloada of750
(800load 50confiningpressure)Mpa (fromSUPPE 1985:152).

longitudinalstrain: l

(l 0 l )
l0

Stressstraindiagramofthe
tests(fromSUPPE 1985:152).
Thenearlylineartrendisa
resultoftheelasticbehavior
ofthesample.

TheMohrEnvelope

Mohrdiagramfordiabase sampleswithincreasingconfiningpressuresatroomtemperature.
Eachcirclerepresentsthestateofstressatfailureatadifferentmeanstress.
Therockstrengthincreaseswithmeanstress,dependingondifferentconfiningpressures.
Thelocusofstressstates,thatboundsthefieldsofstableandunstablestresses,iscalledthe
Mohrenvelope(fromSUPPE 1985:153)

TheMohrEnvelope

ThreefieldsoffracturedevelopmentarerepresentedintheMohrenvelope.
Thetensilefieldisrepresentedbyafixedtensilestrength T0.Onlyonedirectionofpossible
fractures,perpendiculartothedirectionofmaximumtensilestress,exist.Typicalvaluesof
tensilestrengthare5to20Mpa.

TheMohrEnvelope

ThetransitionaltensilefieldislocatedbetweenT0 and1 >|5T0|andischaracterizedbya

rapidnonlinearincreaseinmeanstrengthwithincreasingconfiningpressure.Mohrcircles
aretangenttotheenvelopeattwopoint;twoconjugateddirectionsoffracturesmayexist.
Mostjointsareformedinthetensiledomain.

TheMohrEnvelope

TheCoulombfracturebehaviorrepresentsthelinearincreaseofshearstrength
correspondingtoincreasingconfiningpressure,characterizedbyaslopeoftan.
Theangleiscalledangleofinternalfriction.
Itstangentiscalledcoefficientofinternalfriction,whichisamatterconstant.
Athighconfiningpressureandincreasingtemperatures,strengthincreaseonlyslowlyat
ductilebehavior.

TheMohrEnvelope:Exercise
2)Ina6000mdeepdrillhole,thefollowingparametershavebeendetermined:
Averagedensityoftherocks:2,7g/cm
Densityoffluids:1,1g/cm
Directionofh (usingbreakouts):150/00
h =0,5v
H =0,8v
Jointset1:330/60
Jointset2:60/60
Problems:
a) Calculatetheprinciplestresses
b) ConstructtheMohrdiagramrepresentingthestateofstressatthebottomofthedrillhole.
c) Determinemeanstressanddifferentialstress
d) Determinemeanstressandeffectivestress
e) Drawasketchofthestateofstress,itsorientationandthesituationofthejointinthe
borehole
f) Bytriaxialtestingexperiments,theMohrenvelopeoftherocksintheboreholehavebeen
determined.Willthejointsfailornotbythegivenparameters.
g) Ifthejointwillnotfail,howcouldwetriggerthefracturegeneration?

Solution:
v =1 =159MPa
H=0,8V =2 =127MPa
h =0,5V =3 =79,5MPa
Center=(1+ 3)/2=119,25MPa
pfluid =66MPa
=38,06MPa
max=40,5MPa
Meanstress:121,8MPa
EffectiveStress:55,8MPa

TheMohrDiagram:Consequences
Onthebaseofexperimentaldataofthestateofstressandstraininrocksestimationstothe
followingproblemsmaybefound:
Themagnitudesofn and atthemomentoffailureoftherocksarerelatedtoeachother.The
relationisdescribedbyBYERLEEs law:
Withincreasingnormalstressincreasescriticalshearstress:
crit =0,6 n to0,85 n inregionsofmoderatestress.
Thereare3possibilitiesintheearthscrust:
thereisnoshearstressT
1. 1 =2 =3 :
2. 1 >2 >3:
therearetwoplanesofmaximumshearstress
intersectingparallelto2 .Shearstressesachievetheir
maximumsymmetricallyto1 and3 withashearangleof45,
resultingin(potentially)conjugatedfractures.
3. 1 =2 or2 =3:
resultsinaninfinitenumberofplanesofmaximumshearstress

TheMohrDiagram
Whatkindofinformationcanbederivedfromit?
Determinationofdifferentialstresses(1 3)
DeterminationoftensilestrengthT0 ofrocks
Determinationoftheangleofinternalfriction,whichiscontrolledbythegradientofthe
Mohrenvelope(mostly30)
Determinationofthecoefficientofinternalfriction =tan(mostly0,55 0,85,inclays0,3
0,4)
Estimationoftheinfluenceoffluidpressurepfluid anditsrelationtolithostaticpressurev,
whichismoreorless0,4inrespecttothedensitiesof1,0g/cmofwaterand2,7g/cmof
rocksinopensystemsintheuppercrust.
Estimationaboutthepossiblestrainregimeandbehaviorofrocks(tensile,compressive,
ductile)
Estimationaboutpossibleorientationsoffracturesinrocksaccordingtoanexistingorpre
existingstateofstress
Reconstructionofapreexistingorientationofstateofstressandthepositionofstressaxis
usingaexistingfracturesystem
Simulationofconditions,underwhichtheformationoffracturescouldbesupported
(hydrofracking)orimpeded,i.e.bycontrollingfluidpressure.

TheOriginofJoints(fromSUPPE 1985)
IntheMohrdiagramtheprincipledomainofjointgeneratingconditionsisthetensileor
transitionaltensileregimen.Tensilefracturesformperpendiculartothedirectionofthe
maximumtensilestress(between5and20Mpa).
Transitionaltensilebehaviorisexhibitedabovetheleasttensilestrength.

(1* 3* ) 4 2T0

Theequationforjointformationis:

whichisthelimitofthemaximumdeviatoricstressforatensile
effectivenormalstresstangentbytheshapeoftheMohr
envelope.
Forjointformation,themaximum
deviatoricstressequals:

( 1* 3* ) 4T0

Fortruetensilejoints,themaximum
effectivestressislimitedto3times
thetensilestrength

1* 3T0

Problem:Verticalstressisduetothegravitationalloadcompressive.Therefore,the
requirementsfordeepformationofjointsare:
smalldeviatoricstressesand
highfluidpressurerations

TheDepthofJointFormation(fromS

UPPE 1985)

Usingtheaboveequationandtheequationforlithostaticpressure,maximumdepthof
formationofjointcanbecalculatedas:
with:
=meanrockdensity
3T0
z
g=gravitationalconstant
g (1 )
=fluidpressureratio

Forrockswithnormaltensilestrengthbetween2to10MPa,theformationofjointsis
limitedto1or2kmofdepth,assuminglowfluidpressures(lowsalinities).

TheSpacingofJoints(from SUPPE 1985)

Jointsperpendiculartobeddingisanimportantstructuralfeatureinsediments.
Jointspacingiscontrolledby:
rocktype:jointsaremuchmorecloselyspacedincoalthaninsandstones
thicknessofthebeds:jointsaremorenumerousinthinbedsthanininterlayeredthickbeds
ofthesamerocktype.
somejointsmaybelimitedtosinglebeds,otherspassthroughmanybeds.
Considerapileofsedimentaryrocks,eachwiththicknessesd1,d2dn.andeachwithdifferent
elasticconstantsE1,E2 En.anddifferenttensilestrengthT1,T2Tn,whereEistheYoungsmodule:

Thebedshaveundergonecompactionandareinthesamestate E E .......E
1 1
2 2
n n
ofstress.Thehorizontalstressandstraininalayeristhen:
Ifthesebedsareuniformlystretchedbyastrainx ,thenewhorizontalstress,generatedineach
ofthenlayerswillbedifferent:
1 E 1 1 x
2 E 2

and soon.

Asaconsequence,uniformstrainwillgeneratebedparallelnormalstress,whichwillbe
differentineachlayerofcontrastingelasticproperties.

TheSpacingofJoints(fromSUPPE 1985)
Inthefieldweobserve,thatthespacingofjointscorrespondstothelayerthickness.
ThesocalledGRIFFITH theory,states,thatthestressreleasearoundanewformedjointaffects
onlyaradiusofaboutonecracklength.
Inconsequence,stressreleaseaffectsonlyashortdistancearoundthenewformedcrack,the
restofthebedwillremaininanearfailuretensilestresscondition.Smallincreasesofstrainwill
formnewjoints,sothatalayerwillbejointedin(moreorless)uniformdistancesequaltoits
thickness.
Furthermore,stressreleaseinonedirectionmayinfluencethemagnitudesof 2 and3.
Asaconsequence,theorientationofthenewformedjointschangeorthogonally.