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Sedimentaryrock
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Sedimentaryrocksaretypesofrockthatare
formedbythedepositionofmaterialatthe
Earth'ssurfaceandwithinbodiesofwater.
Sedimentationisthecollectivenamefor
processesthatcausemineraland/ororganic
particles(detritus)tosettleandaccumulateor
mineralstoprecipitatefromasolution.Particles
thatformasedimentaryrockbyaccumulating
arecalledsediment.Beforebeingdeposited,
sedimentwasformedbyweatheringanderosion
inasourcearea,andthentransportedtothe
placeofdepositionbywater,wind,ice,mass
movementorglacierswhicharecalledagentsof
denudation.
Thesedimentaryrockcoverofthecontinentsof
theEarth'scrustisextensive,butthetotal
contributionofsedimentaryrocksisestimated
tobeonly8%ofthetotalvolumeofthecrust.[1]
Sedimentaryrocksareonlyathinveneerovera
crustconsistingmainlyofigneousand
metamorphicrocks.Sedimentaryrocksare
depositedinlayersasstrata,formingastructure
calledbedding.Thestudyofsedimentaryrocks
androckstrataprovidesinformationaboutthe
subsurfacethatisusefulforcivilengineering,
forexampleintheconstructionofroads,
houses,tunnels,canalsorotherstructures.
Sedimentaryrocksarealsoimportantsourcesof
naturalresourceslikecoal,fossilfuels,drinking
waterorores.

MiddleTriassicmarginalmarinesequenceofsiltstones
(below)andlimestones(above),VirginFormation,
southwesternUtah,USA

SedimentaryrocksonMars,investigatedbyNASA's
CuriosityMarsrover

Thestudyofthesequenceofsedimentaryrockstrataisthemainsourceforscientificknowledgeaboutthe
Earth'shistory,includingpalaeogeography,paleoclimatologyandthehistoryoflife.Thescientific
disciplinethatstudiesthepropertiesandoriginofsedimentaryrocksiscalledsedimentology.
Sedimentologyispartofbothgeologyandphysicalgeographyandoverlapspartlywithotherdisciplinesin
theEarthsciences,suchaspedology,geomorphology,geochemistryandstructuralgeology.

Contents
1Geneticclassification
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1.1Clasticsedimentaryrocks
1.1.1Conglomeratesandbreccias
1.1.2Sandstones
1.1.3Mudrocks
1.2Biochemicalsedimentaryrocks
1.3Chemicalsedimentaryrocks
1.4"Other"sedimentaryrocks
2Compositionalclassificationschemes
3Depositionanddiagenesis
3.1Sedimenttransportanddeposition
3.2Diagenesis
4Properties
4.1Color
4.2Texture
4.3Mineralogy
4.4Fossils
4.5Primarysedimentarystructures
4.6Secondarysedimentarystructures
5Sedimentaryenvironments
5.1Sedimentaryfacies
6Sedimentarybasins
6.1Influenceofastronomicalcycles
7Sedimentationrates
8Stratigraphy
9Seealso
10References
10.1Bibliography
11Externallinks

Geneticclassification
Basedontheprocessesresponsiblefortheirformation,sedimentaryrockscanbesubdividedintofour
groups:clasticsedimentaryrocks,biochemical(orbiogenic)sedimentaryrocks,chemicalsedimentary
rocksandafourthcategoryfor"other"sedimentaryrocksformedbyimpacts,volcanism,andotherminor
processes.

Clasticsedimentaryrocks
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Clasticsedimentaryrocksarecomposedofsilicatemineralsand
rockfragmentsthatweretransportedbymovingfluids(asbedload,
suspendedload,orbysedimentgravityflows)andweredeposited
whenthesefluidscametorest.Clasticrocksarecomposedlargely
ofquartz,feldspar,rock(lithic)fragments,clayminerals,andmica
numerousothermineralsmaybepresentasaccessoriesandmaybe
importantlocally.
Clasticsediment,andthusclasticsedimentaryrocks,aresubdivided
accordingtothedominantparticlesize(diameter).Mostgeologists
usetheUddenWentworthgrainsizescaleanddivide
ClaystonedepositedinGlacialLake
unconsolidatedsedimentintothreefractions:gravel(>2mm
Missoula,Montana,UnitedStates.
diameter),sand(1/16to2mmdiameter),andmud(clayis
Notetheveryfineandflatbedding,
<1/256mmandsiltisbetween1/16and1/256mm).The
commonfordistallacustrine
classificationofclasticsedimentaryrocksparallelsthisscheme
deposition.
conglomeratesandbrecciasaremademostlyofgravel,sandstones
aremademostlyofsand,andmudrocksaremademostlyofmud.
Thistripartitesubdivisionismirroredbythebroadcategoriesofrudites,arenites,andlutites,respectively,
inolderliterature.
Subdivisionofthesethreebroadcategoriesisbasedondifferencesinclastshape(conglomeratesand
breccias),composition(sandstones),grainsizeand/ortexture(mudrocks).
Conglomeratesandbreccias
Conglomeratesaredominantlycomposedofroundedgravelandbrecciasarecomposedofdominantly
angulargravel.
Sandstones
Sandstoneclassificationschemesvarywidely,butmostgeologistshaveadoptedtheDottscheme,[2]which
usestherelativeabundanceofquartz,feldspar,andlithicframeworkgrainsandtheabundanceofmuddy
matrixbetweentheselargergrains.
Compositionofframeworkgrains
Therelativeabundanceofsandsizedframeworkgrainsdeterminesthefirstwordinasandstone
name.Fornamingpurposes,theabundanceofframeworkgrainsisnormalizedtoquartz,feldspar,
andlithicfragmentsformedfromotherrocks.Thesearethethreemostabundantcomponentsof
sandstonesallothermineralsareconsideredaccessoriesandnotusedinthenamingoftherock,
regardlessofabundance.
Quartzsandstoneshave>90%quartzgrains
Feldspathicsandstoneshave<90%quartzgrainsandmorefeldspargrainsthanlithic
grains
Lithicsandstoneshave<90%quartzgrainsandmorelithicgrainsthanfeldspargrains
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Abundanceofmuddymatrixbetweensandgrains
Whensandsizedparticlesaredeposited,thespacebetweenthesandgrainseitherremainsopen
orisfilledwithmud(siltand/orclaysizedparticle).
"Clean"sandstoneswithopenporespace(thatmaylaterbefilledwithcement)arecalled
arenites
Muddysandstoneswithabundant(>10%)muddymatrixarecalledwackes.
Sixsandstonenamesarepossibleusingdescriptorsforgraincomposition(quartz,feldspathic,andlithic)
andamountofmatrix(wackeorarenite).Forexample,aquartzarenitewouldbecomposedofmostly
(>90%)quartzgrainsandhavelittle/noclayeymatrixbetweenthegrains,alithicwackewouldhave
abundantlithicgrains(<90%quartz,remainderwouldhavemorelithicsthanfeldspar)andabundantmuddy
matrix,etc.
AlthoughtheDottclassificationscheme[2]iswidelyusedbysedimentologists,commonnameslike
greywacke,arkose,andquartzsandstonearestillwidelyusedbynonspecialistsandinpopularliterature.
Mudrocks
Mudrocksaresedimentaryrockscomposedofatleast50%siltand
claysizedparticles.Theserelativelyfinegrainedparticlesare
commonlytransportedassuspendedparticlesbyturbulentflowin
waterorair,anddepositedastheflowcalmsandtheparticlessettle
outofsuspension.
Mostauthorspresentlyusetheterm"mudrock"torefertoallrocks
composeddominantlyofmud.[3][4][5][6]Mudrockscanbedivided
intosiltstones(composeddominantlyofsiltsizedparticles),
mudstones(subequalmixtureofsiltandclaysizedparticles),and
claystones(composedmostlyofclaysizedparticles).[3][4]Most
authorsuse"shale"asatermforafissilemudrock(regardlessof
grainsize)althoughsomeolderliteratureusestheterm"shale"asa
synonymformudrock.

LowerAntelopeCanyonwascarved
outofthesurroundingsandstoneby
bothmechanicalweatheringand
chemicalweathering.Wind,sand,and
waterfromflashfloodingarethe
primaryweatheringagents.

Biochemicalsedimentaryrocks
Biochemicalsedimentaryrocksarecreatedwhenorganismsusematerialsdissolvedinairorwatertobuild
theirtissue.Examplesinclude:
Mosttypesoflimestoneareformedfromthecalcareousskeletonsoforganismssuchascorals,
mollusks,andforaminifera.
Coalwhichformsasplantsremovecarbonfromtheatmosphereandcombinewithotherelementsto
buildtheirtissue.
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Depositsofchertformedfromtheaccumulationofsiliceousskeletonsfrommicroscopicorganisms
suchasradiolariaanddiatoms.

Chemicalsedimentaryrocks
Chemicalsedimentaryrockformswhenmineralconstituentsinsolutionbecomesupersaturatedand
inorganicallyprecipitate.Commonchemicalsedimentaryrocksincludeooliticlimestoneandrocks
composedofevaporitemineralssuchashalite(rocksalt),sylvite,bariteandgypsum.

"Other"sedimentaryrocks
Thisfourthmiscellaneouscategoryincludesrocksformedby
Pyroclasticflows,impactbreccias,volcanicbreccias,andother
relativelyuncommonprocesses.

Compositionalclassificationschemes
Alternatively,sedimentaryrockscanbesubdividedinto
compositionalgroupsbasedontheirmineralogy:

OutcropofOrdovicianoilshale
(kukersite),northernEstonia

Siliciclasticsedimentaryrocks,asdescribedabove,are
dominantlycomposedofsilicateminerals.Thesedimentthatmakesuptheserockswastransportedas
bedload,suspendedload,orbysedimentgravityflows.Siliciclasticsedimentaryrocksare
subdividedintoconglomeratesandbreccias,sandstone,andmudrocks.
Carbonatesedimentaryrocksarecomposedofcalcite(rhombohedralCaCO3),aragonite

(orthorhombicCaCO3),dolomite(CaMg(CO3)2),andothercarbonatemineralsbasedontheCO3
ion.Commonexamplesincludelimestoneanddolostone.

Evaporitesedimentaryrocksarecomposedofmineralsformedfromtheevaporationofwater.The
2

mostcommonevaporitemineralsarecarbonates(calciteandothersbasedonCO3 ),chlorides(halite

andothersbuiltonCl ),andsulfates(gypsumandothersbuiltonSO4 ).Evaporiterockscommonly

includeabundanthalite(rocksalt),gypsum,andanhydrite.
Organicrichsedimentaryrockshavesignificantamountsoforganicmaterial,generallyinexcess
of3%totalorganiccarbon.Commonexamplesincludecoal,oilshaleaswellassourcerocksforoil
andnaturalgas.
Siliceoussedimentaryrocksarealmostentirelycomposedofsilica(SiO2),typicallyaschert,opal,
chalcedonyorothermicrocrystallineforms.
Ironrichsedimentaryrocksarecomposedof>15%ironthemostcommonformsarebandediron
formationsandironstones[4]
Phosphaticsedimentaryrocksarecomposedofphosphatemineralsandcontainmorethan6.5%
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phosphorusexamplesincludedepositsofphosphatenodules,bonebeds,andphosphaticmudrocks[5]

Depositionanddiagenesis
Sedimenttransportanddeposition
Sedimentaryrocksareformedwhensedimentisdepositedoutofair,
ice,wind,gravity,orwaterflowscarryingtheparticlesin
suspension.Thissedimentisoftenformedwhenweatheringand
erosionbreakdownarockintoloosematerialinasourcearea.The
materialisthentransportedfromthesourceareatothedeposition
area.Thetypeofsedimenttransporteddependsonthegeologyof
thehinterland(thesourceareaofthesediment).However,some
sedimentaryrocks,likeevaporites,arecomposedofmaterialthat
formedattheplaceofdeposition.Thenatureofasedimentaryrock,
therefore,notonlydependsonsedimentsupply,butalsoonthe
sedimentarydepositionalenvironmentinwhichitformed.

Diagenesis
Thetermdiagenesisisusedtodescribeallthechemical,physical,
andbiologicalchanges,includingcementation,undergonebya
sedimentafteritsinitialdeposition,exclusiveofsurfaceweathering.
Someoftheseprocessescausethesedimenttoconsolidate:a
compact,solidsubstanceformsoutofloosematerial.Young
sedimentaryrocks,especiallythoseofQuaternaryage(themost
recentperiodofthegeologictimescale)areoftenstill
unconsolidated.Assedimentdepositionbuildsup,theoverburden
(orlithostatic)pressurerises,andaprocessknownaslithification
takesplace.
Sedimentaryrocksareoftensaturatedwithseawaterorgroundwater,
inwhichmineralscandissolveorfromwhichmineralscan
precipitate.Precipitatingmineralsreducetheporespaceinarock,a
processcalledcementation.Duetothedecreaseinporespace,the
originalconnatefluidsareexpelled.Theprecipitatedmineralsform
acementandmaketherockmorecompactandcompetent.Inthis
way,looseclastsinasedimentaryrockcanbecome"glued"
together.

Crossbeddingandscourinafine
sandstonetheLoganFormation
(Mississippian)ofJacksonCounty,
Ohio

Pressuresolutionatworkinaclastic
rock.Whilematerialdissolvesat
placeswheregrainsareincontact,
materialcrystallizesfromthesolution
(ascement)inopenporespaces.This
meansthereisanetflowofmaterial
fromareasunderhighstresstothose
underlowstress.Asaresult,therock
becomesmorecompactandharder.
Loosesandcanbecomesandstonein
thisway.

Whensedimentationcontinues,anolderrocklayerbecomesburied
deeperasaresult.Thelithostaticpressureintherockincreasesduetotheweightoftheoverlyingsediment.
Thiscausescompaction,aprocessinwhichgrainsmechanicallyreorganize.Compactionis,forexample,an
importantdiageneticprocessinclay,whichcaninitiallyconsistof60%water.Duringcompaction,this
interstitialwaterispressedoutofporespaces.Compactioncanalsobetheresultofdissolutionofgrainsby

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pressuresolution.Thedissolvedmaterialprecipitatesagaininopenporespaces,whichmeansthereisanet
flowofmaterialintothepores.However,insomecasesacertainmineraldissolvesanddoesnotprecipitate
again.Thisprocess,calledleaching,increasesporespaceintherock.
Somebiochemicalprocesses,liketheactivityofbacteria,canaffectmineralsinarockandaretherefore
seenaspartofdiagenesis.Fungiandplants(bytheirroots)andvariousotherorganismsthatlivebeneath
thesurfacecanalsoinfluencediagenesis.
Burialofrocksduetoongoingsedimentationleadstoincreasedpressureandtemperature,whichstimulates
certainchemicalreactions.Anexampleisthereactionsbywhichorganicmaterialbecomesligniteorcoal.
Whentemperatureandpressureincreasestillfurther,therealmofdiagenesismakeswayfor
metamorphism,theprocessthatformsmetamorphicrock.

Properties
Color
Thecolorofasedimentaryrockisoftenmostlydeterminedbyiron,
anelementwithtwomajoroxides:iron(II)oxideandiron(III)oxide.
Iron(II)oxideonlyformsunderanoxiccircumstancesandgivesthe
rockagreyorgreenishcolour.Iron(III)oxideisoftenintheformof
themineralhematiteandgivestherockareddishtobrownish
colour.Inaridcontinentalclimatesrocksareindirectcontactwith
theatmosphere,andoxidationisanimportantprocess,givingthe
rockaredororangecolour.Thicksequencesofredsedimentary
rocksformedinaridclimatesarecalledredbeds.However,ared
colourdoesnotnecessarilymeantherockformedinacontinental
environmentoraridclimate.[7]

Apieceofabandedironformation,a
typeofrockthatconsistsof
alternatinglayerswithiron(III)oxide
(red)andiron(II)oxide(grey).BIFs
weremostlyformedduringthe
Precambrian,whentheatmosphere
wasnotyetrichinoxygen.Moories
Group,BarbertonGreenstoneBelt,
SouthAfrica

Thepresenceoforganicmaterialcancolourarockblackorgrey.
Organicmaterialisinnatureformedfromdeadorganisms,mostly
plants.Normally,suchmaterialeventuallydecaysbyoxidationor
bacterialactivity.Underanoxiccircumstances,however,organic
materialcannotdecayandbecomesadarksediment,richinorganicmaterial.Thiscan,forexample,occur
atthebottomofdeepseasandlakes.Thereislittlewatercurrentinsuchenvironments,sooxygenfrom
surfacewaterisnotbroughtdown,andthedepositedsedimentisnormallyafinedarkclay.Darkrocksrich
inorganicmaterialarethereforeoftenshales.[7][8]

Texture
Thesize,formandorientationofclastsormineralsinarockiscalleditstexture.Thetextureisasmall
scalepropertyofarock,butdeterminedmanyofitslargescaleproperties,suchasthedensity,porosityor
permeability.[9]
Clasticrockshavea'clastictexture',whichmeanstheyconsistofclasts.The3Dorientationoftheseclasts
iscalledthefabricoftherock.Betweentheclasts,therockcanbecomposedofamatrixoracement(the
lattercanconsistofcrystalsofoneormoreprecipitatedminerals).Thesizeandformofclastscanbeused
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todeterminethevelocityanddirectionofcurrentinthesedimentary
environmentwheretherockwasformedfine,calcareousmudonly
settlesinquietwaterwhilegravelandlargerclastsareonly
depositedbyrapidlymovingwater.[10][11]Thegrainsizeofarockis
usuallyexpressedwiththeWentworthscale,thoughalternative
scalesaresometimesused.Thegrainsizecanbeexpressedasa
diameteroravolume,andisalwaysanaveragevaluearockis
Diagramshowingwellsorted(left)
composedofclastswithdifferentsizes.Thestatisticaldistribution
andpoorlysorted(right)grains
ofgrainsizesisdifferentfordifferentrocktypesandisdescribedin
apropertycalledthesortingoftherock.Whenallclastsaremoreor
lessofthesamesize,therockiscalled'wellsorted',andwhenthereisalargespreadingrainsize,therock
iscalled'poorlysorted'.[12][13]
Theformofclastscanreflecttheoriginoftherock.
Coquina,arockcomposedofclastsofbrokenshells,canonlyform
inenergeticwater.Theformofaclastcanbedescribedbyusing
fourparameters:[14][15]
Surfacetexturedescribestheamountofsmallscalereliefof
thesurfaceofagrainthatistoosmalltoinfluencethegeneral

Diagramshowingtheroundingand
sphericityofgrains

shape.
roundingdescribesthegeneralsmoothnessoftheshapeofagrain.
'Sphericity'describesthedegreetowhichthegrainapproachesasphere.
'Grainform'describesthethreedimensionalshapeofthegrain.
Chemicalsedimentaryrockshaveanonclastictexture,consistingentirelyofcrystals.Todescribesucha
texture,onlytheaveragesizeofthecrystalsandthefabricarenecessary.

Mineralogy
Mostsedimentaryrockscontaineitherquartz(especiallysiliciclasticrocks)orcalcite(especiallycarbonate
rocks).Incontrasttoigneousandmetamorphicrocks,asedimentaryrockusuallycontainsveryfew
differentmajorminerals.However,theoriginofthemineralsinasedimentaryrockisoftenmorecomplex
thaninanigneousrock.Mineralsinasedimentaryrockcanhaveformedbyprecipitationduring
sedimentationorbydiagenesis.Inthesecondcase,themineralprecipitatecanhavegrownoveranolder
generationofcement.[16]Acomplexdiagenetichistorycanbestudiedbyopticalmineralogy,usinga
petrographicmicroscope.
Carbonaterocksdominantlyconsistofcarbonatemineralslikecalcite,aragoniteordolomite.Bothcement
andclasts(includingfossilsandooids)ofacarbonaterockcanconsistofcarbonateminerals.The
mineralogyofaclasticrockisdeterminedbythesuppliedmaterialfromthesourcearea,themannerof
transporttotheplaceofdepositionandthestabilityofaparticularmineral.Thestabilityofthemajorrock
formingminerals(theirresistancetoweathering)isexpressedbyBowen'sreactionseries.Inthisseries,
quartzisthemoststable,followedbyfeldspar,micas,andotherlessstablemineralsthatareonlypresent
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whenlittleweatheringhasoccurred.[17]Theamountofweatheringdependsmainlyonthedistancetothe
sourcearea,thelocalclimateandthetimeittookforthesedimenttobetransportedthere.Inmost
sedimentaryrocks,mica,feldsparandlessstablemineralshavereactedtoclaymineralslikekaolinite,illite
orsmectite.

Fossils
Amongthethreemajortypesofrock,fossilsaremostcommonly
foundinsedimentaryrock.Unlikemostigneousandmetamorphic
rocks,sedimentaryrocksformattemperaturesandpressuresthatdo
notdestroyfossilremnants.Oftenthesefossilsmayonlybevisible
whenstudiedunderamicroscope(microfossils)orwithaloupe.
Deadorganismsinnatureareusuallyquicklyremovedby
scavengers,bacteria,rottinganderosion,butsedimentationcan
contributetoexceptionalcircumstanceswherethesenatural
processesareunabletowork,causingfossilisation.Thechanceof
fossilisationishigherwhenthesedimentationrateishigh(sothata
carcassisquicklyburied),inanoxicenvironments(wherelittle
bacterialactivityoccurs)orwhentheorganismhadaparticularly
hardskeleton.Larger,wellpreservedfossilsarerelativelyrare.

Fossilrichlayersinasedimentary
rock,AoNuevoStateReserve,
California

Fossilscanbeboththedirectremainsorimprintsoforganismsand
theirskeletons.Mostcommonlypreservedaretheharderpartsof
organismssuchasbones,shells,andthewoodytissueofplants.Soft
tissuehasamuchsmallerchanceofbeingpreservedandfossilized,
andsofttissueofanimalsolderthan40millionyearsisveryrare.[18]
Imprintsoforganismsmadewhilestillalivearecalledtracefossils.
Examplesareburrows,footprints,etc.
Beingpartofasedimentaryormetamorphicrock,fossilsundergo
Burrowsinaturbidite,madeby
thesamediageneticprocessesasrock.Ashellconsistingofcalcite
crustaceans,SanVincenteFormation
can,forexample,dissolvewhileacementofsilicathenfillsthe
(earlyEocene)oftheAinsaBasin,
cavity.Inthesameway,precipitatingmineralscanfillcavities
southernforelandofthePyrenees
formerlyoccupiedbybloodvessels,vasculartissueorothersoft
tissues.Thispreservestheformoftheorganismbutchangesthe
chemicalcomposition,aprocesscalledpermineralization.[19][20]Themostcommonmineralsin
permineralizationcementsarecarbonates(especiallycalcite),formsofamorphoussilica(chalcedony,flint,
chert)andpyrite.Inthecaseofsilicacements,theprocessiscalledlithification.
Athighpressureandtemperature,theorganicmaterialofadeadorganismundergoeschemicalreactionsin
whichvolatileslikewaterandcarbondioxideareexpulsed.Thefossil,intheend,consistsofathinlayerof
purecarbonoritsmineralizedform,graphite.Thisformoffossilisationiscalledcarbonisation.Itis
particularlyimportantforplantfossils.[21]Thesameprocessisresponsiblefortheformationoffossilfuels
likeligniteorcoal.

Primarysedimentarystructures
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Structuresinsedimentaryrockscanbedividedinto'primary'
structures(formedduringdeposition)and'secondary'structures
(formedafterdeposition).Unliketextures,structuresarealways
largescalefeaturesthatcaneasilybestudiedinthefield.
Sedimentarystructurescanindicatesomethingaboutthe
sedimentaryenvironmentorcanservetotellwhichsideoriginally
facedupwheretectonicshavetiltedoroverturnedsedimentary
layers.
Sedimentaryrocksarelaiddowninlayerscalledbedsorstrata.A
bedisdefinedasalayerofrockthathasauniformlithologyand
texture.Bedsformbythedepositionoflayersofsedimentontopof
eachother.Thesequenceofbedsthatcharacterizessedimentary
rocksiscalledbedding.[22][23]Singlebedscanbeacoupleof
centimetrestoseveralmetersthick.Finer,lesspronouncedlayers
arecalledlaminae,andthestructureitformsinarockiscalled
lamination.Laminaeareusuallylessthanafewcentimetres
thick.[24]Thoughbeddingandlaminationareoftenoriginally
horizontalinnature,thisisnotalwaysthecase.Insome
environments,bedsaredepositedata(usuallysmall)angle.
Sometimesmultiplesetsoflayerswithdifferentorientationsexistin
thesamerock,astructurecalledcrossbedding.[25]Crossbedding
formswhensmallscaleerosionoccursduringdeposition,cuttingoff
partofthebeds.Newerbedsthenformatanangletoolderones.

Crossbeddinginafluviatile
sandstone,MiddleOldRedSandstone
(Devonian)onBressay,Shetland
Islands

Aflutecast,atypeofsolemarking,
fromtheBookCliffsofUtah

Theoppositeofcrossbeddingisparallellamination,whereall
sedimentarylayeringisparallel.[26]Withlaminations,differences
aregenerallycausedbycyclicchangesinthesedimentsupply,
caused,forexample,byseasonalchangesinrainfall,temperatureor
biochemicalactivity.Laminaethatrepresentseasonalchanges
(similartotreerings)arecalledvarves.Anysedimentaryrock
composedofmillimeterorfinerscalelayerscanbenamedwiththe
generaltermlaminite.Somerockshavenolaminationatalltheir
structuralcharacteriscalledmassivebedding.
Gradedbeddingisastructurewherebedswithasmallergrainsize
occurontopofbedswithlargergrains.Thisstructureformswhen
fastflowingwaterstopsflowing.Larger,heavierclastsin
suspensionsettlefirst,thensmallerclasts.Thoughgradedbedding
canforminmanydifferentenvironments,itischaracteristicfor
turbiditycurrents.[27]

Ripplemarksformedbyacurrentin
asandstonethatwaslatertilted
(Haberge,Bavaria)

Thebedform(thesurfaceofaparticularbed)canbeindicativefora
particularsedimentaryenvironment,too.Examplesofbedforms
includedunesandripplemarks.Solemarkings,suchastoolmarks
andflutecasts,aregrovesdugintoasedimentarylayerthatarepreserved.Theseareoftenelongated
structuresandcanbeusedtoestablishthedirectionoftheflowduringdeposition.[28][29]
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Ripplemarksalsoforminflowingwater.Therearetwotypes:asymmetricwaveripplesandsymmetric
currentripples.Environmentswherethecurrentisinonedirection,suchasrivers,produceasymmetric
ripples.Thelongerflankofsuchripplesisorientedoppositetothedirectionofthecurrent.[30][31][32]Wave
ripplesoccurinenvironmentswherecurrentsoccurinalldirections,suchastidalflats.
Mudcracksareabedformcausedbythedehydrationofsedimentthatoccasionallycomesabovethewater
surface.Suchstructuresarecommonlyfoundattidalflatsorpointbarsalongrivers.

Secondarysedimentarystructures
Secondarysedimentarystructuresarestructuresinsedimentary
rockswhichformedafterdeposition.Suchstructuresformby
chemical,physicalandbiologicalprocessesinsidethesediment.
Theycanbeindicatorsforcircumstancesafterdeposition.Somecan
beusedaswayupcriteria.
Organicpresenceinasedimentcanleavemoretracesthanjust
fossils.Preservedtracksandburrowsareexamplesoftracefossils
(alsocalledichnofossils).[33]Sometracefossilssuchaspawprints
ofdinosaursorearlyhumanscancapturehumanimagination,but
Halitecrystalmoldindolomite,
suchtracesarerelativelyrare.Mosttracefossilsareburrowsof
PaadlaFormation(Silurian),
molluscsorarthropods.Thisburrowingiscalledbioturbationby
Saaremaa,Estonia
sedimentologists.Itcanbeavaluableindicatorofthebiologicaland
ecologicalenvironmentafterthesedimentwasdeposited.Onthe
otherhand,theburrowingactivityoforganismscandestroyother(primary)structuresinthesediment,
makingareconstructionmoredifficult.
Secondarystructurescanalsohavebeenformedbydiagenesisorthe
formationofasoil(pedogenesis)whenasedimentisexposedabove
thewaterlevel.Anexampleofadiageneticstructurecommonin
carbonaterocksisastylolite.[34]Stylolitesareirregularplanes
wherematerialwasdissolvedintotheporefluidsintherock.The
resultofprecipitationofacertainchemicalspeciescanbecolouring
andstainingoftherock,ortheformationofconcretions.
Concretionsareroughlyconcentricbodieswithadifferent
compositionfromthehostrock.Theirformationcanbetheresultof
Chertconcretionsinchalk,Middle
localizedprecipitationduetosmalldifferencesincompositionor
LefkaraFormation(upperPaleocene
porosityofthehostrock,suchasaroundfossils,insideburrowsor
tomiddleEocene),Cyprus
aroundplantroots.[35]Incarbonaterockssuchaslimestoneorchalk,
chertorflintconcretionsarecommon,whileterrestrialsandstones
canhaveironconcretions.Calciteconcretionsinclayarecalledseptarianconcretions.
Afterdeposition,physicalprocessescandeformthesediment,formingathirdclassofsecondarystructures.
Densitycontrastsbetweendifferentsedimentarylayers,suchasbetweensandandclay,canresultinflame
structuresorloadcasts,formedbyinverteddiapirism.[36]Thediapirismcausesthedenserupperlayerto
sinkintotheotherlayer.Sometimes,densitycontrastcanresultorgrowwhenoneofthelithologies
dehydrates.Claycanbeeasilycompressedasaresultofdehydration,whilesandretainsthesamevolume
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andbecomesrelativelylessdense.Ontheotherhand,whentheporefluidpressureinasandlayersurpasses
acriticalpoint,thesandcanflowthroughoverlyingclaylayers,formingdiscordantbodiesofsedimentary
rockcalledsedimentarydykes(thesameprocesscanformmudvolcanoesonthesurface).
Asedimentarydykecanalsobeformedinacoldclimatewherethesoilispermanentlyfrozenduringa
largepartoftheyear.Frostweatheringcanformcracksinthesoilthatfillwithrubblefromabove.Such
structurescanbeusedasclimateindicatorsaswellaswayupstructures.[37]
Densitycontrastscanalsocausesmallscalefaulting,evenwhilesedimentationgoeson(synsedimentary
faulting).[38]Suchfaultingcanalsooccurwhenlargemassesofnonlithifiedsedimentaredepositedona
slope,suchasatthefrontsideofadeltaorthecontinentalslope.Instabilitiesinsuchsedimentscanresultin
slumping.Theresultingstructuresintherockaresynsedimentaryfoldsandfaults,whichcanbedifficultto
distinguishfromfoldsandfaultsformedbytectonicforcesinlithifiedrocks.

Sedimentaryenvironments
Thesettinginwhichasedimentaryrockformsiscalledthesedimentaryenvironment.Everyenvironment
hasacharacteristiccombinationofgeologicprocessesandcircumstances.Thetypeofsedimentthatis
depositedisnotonlydependentonthesedimentthatistransportedtoaplace,butalsoontheenvironment
itself.[39]
Amarineenvironmentmeanstherockwasformedinaseaorocean.Often,adistinctionismadebetween
deepandshallowmarineenvironments.Deepmarineusuallyreferstoenvironmentsmorethan200m
belowthewatersurface.Shallowmarineenvironmentsexistadjacenttocoastlinesandcanextendouttothe
boundariesofthecontinentalshelf.Thewaterinsuchenvironmentshasagenerallyhigherenergythanthat
indeepenvironments,becauseofwaveactivity.Thismeanscoarsersedimentparticlescanbetransported
andthedepositedsedimentcanbecoarserthanindeepenvironments.Whentheavailablesedimentis
transportedfromthecontinent,analternationofsand,clayandsiltisdeposited.Whenthecontinentisfar
away,theamountofsuchsedimentbroughtinmaybesmall,andbiochemicalprocessesdominatethetype
ofrockthatforms.Especiallyinwarmclimates,shallowmarineenvironmentsfaroffshoremainlysee
depositionofcarbonaterocks.Theshallow,warmwaterisanidealhabitatformanysmallorganismsthat
buildcarbonateskeletons.Whentheseorganismsdietheirskeletonssinktothebottom,formingathick
layerofcalcareousmudthatmaylithifyintolimestone.Warmshallowmarineenvironmentsalsoareideal
environmentsforcoralreefs,wherethesedimentconsistsmainlyofthecalcareousskeletonsoflarger
organisms.[40]
Indeepmarineenvironments,thewatercurrentovertheseabottomissmall.Onlyfineparticlescanbe
transportedtosuchplaces.Typicallysedimentsdepositingontheoceanfloorarefineclayorsmall
skeletonsofmicroorganisms.At4kmdepth,thesolubilityofcarbonatesincreasesdramatically(thedepth
zonewherethishappensiscalledthelysocline).Calcareoussedimentthatsinksbelowthelysocline
dissolve,sonolimestonecanbeformedbelowthisdepth.Skeletonsofmicroorganismsformedofsilica
(suchasradiolarians)stilldepositthough.Anexampleofarockformedoutofsilicaskeletonsisradiolarite.
Whenthebottomoftheseahasasmallinclination,forexampleatthecontinentalslopes,thesedimentary
covercanbecomeunstable,causingturbiditycurrents.Turbiditycurrentsaresuddendisturbancesofthe
normallyquitedeepmarineenvironmentandcancausethegeologicallyspeakinginstantaneousdeposition
oflargeamountsofsediment,suchassandandsilt.Therocksequenceformedbyaturbiditycurrentis
calledaturbidite.[41]
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Thecoastisanenvironmentdominatedbywaveaction.Atthebeach,dominantlycoarsesedimentlikesand
orgravelisdeposited,oftenmingledwithshellfragments.Tidalflatsandshoalsareplacesthatsometimes
dryoutbecauseofthetide.Theyareoftencrosscutbygullies,wherethecurrentisstrongandthegrain
sizeofthedepositedsedimentislarger.Wherealongacoast(eitherthecoastofaseaoralake)riversenter
thebodyofwater,deltascanform.Thesearelargeaccumulationsofsedimenttransportedfromthe
continenttoplacesinfrontofthemouthoftheriver.Deltasaredominantlycomposedofclasticsediment.
Asedimentaryrockformedonthelandhasacontinentalsedimentaryenvironment.Examplesof
continentalenvironmentsarelagoons,lakes,swamps,floodplainsandalluvialfans.Inthequietwaterof
swamps,lakesandlagoons,finesedimentisdeposited,mingledwithorganicmaterialfromdeadplantsand
animals.Inrivers,theenergyofthewaterismuchhigherandthetransportedmaterialconsistsofclastic
sediment.Besidestransportbywater,sedimentcanincontinentalenvironmentsalsobetransportedbywind
orglaciers.Sedimenttransportedbywindiscalledaeolianandisalwaysverywellsorted,whilesediment
transportedbyaglacieriscalledglacialtillandischaracterizedbyverypoorsorting.[42]
Aeoliandepositscanbequitestriking.ThedepositionalenvironmentoftheTouchetFormation,locatedin
theNorthwesternUnitedStates,hadinterveningperiodsofariditywhichresultedinaseriesofrhythmite
layers.Erosionalcrackswerelaterinfilledwithlayersofsoilmaterial,especiallyfromaeolianprocesses.
TheinfilledsectionsformedverticalinclusionsinthehorizontallydepositedlayersoftheTouchet
Formation,andthusprovidedevidenceoftheeventsthatintervenedintimeamongthefortyonelayersthat
weredeposited.[43]

Sedimentaryfacies
Sedimentaryenvironmentsusuallyexistalongsideeachotherincertainnaturalsuccessions.Abeach,where
sandandgravelisdeposited,isusuallyboundedbyadeepermarineenvironmentalittleoffshore,where
finersedimentsaredepositedatthesametime.Behindthebeach,therecanbedunes(wherethedominant
depositioniswellsortedsand)oralagoon(wherefineclayandorganicmaterialisdeposited).Every
sedimentaryenvironmenthasitsowncharacteristicdeposits.Thetypicalrockformedinacertain
environmentiscalleditssedimentaryfacies.Whensedimentarystrataaccumulatethroughtime,the
environmentcanshift,formingachangeinfaciesinthesubsurfaceatonelocation.Ontheotherhand,
whenarocklayerwithacertainageisfollowedlaterally,thelithology(thetypeofrock)andfacies
eventuallychange.[44]
Faciescanbedistinguishedinanumberofways:themostcommonwaysarebythelithology(forexample:
limestone,siltstoneorsandstone)orbyfossilcontent.Coralforexampleonlylivesinwarmandshallow
marineenvironmentsandfossilsofcoralarethustypicalforshallowmarinefacies.Faciesdeterminedby
lithologyarecalledlithofaciesfaciesdeterminedbyfossilsarebiofacies.[45]
Sedimentaryenvironmentscanshifttheirgeographicalpositionsthroughtime.Coastlinescanshiftinthe
directionoftheseawhenthesealeveldrops,whenthesurfacerisesduetotectonicforcesintheEarth's
crustorwhenariverformsalargedelta.Inthesubsurface,suchgeographicshiftsofsedimentary
environmentsofthepastarerecordedinshiftsinsedimentaryfacies.Thismeansthatsedimentaryfacies
canchangeeitherparallelorperpendiculartoanimaginarylayerofrockwithafixedage,aphenomenon
describedbyWalther'sLaw.[46]

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Thesituationinwhichcoastlinesmoveinthedirectionof
thecontinentiscalledtransgression.Inthecaseof
transgression,deepermarinefaciesaredepositedover
shallowerfacies,asuccessioncalledonlap.Regressionis
thesituationinwhichacoastlinemovesinthedirection
ofthesea.Withregression,shallowerfaciesare
depositedontopofdeeperfacies,asituationcalled
offlap.[47]
Thefaciesofallrocksofacertainagecanbeplottedona
maptogiveanoverviewofthepalaeogeography.A
sequenceofmapsfordifferentagescangiveaninsightin
thedevelopmentoftheregionalgeography.

Shiftingsedimentaryfaciesinthecaseof
transgression(above)andregressionofthesea
(below)

Sedimentarybasins
Placeswherelargescalesedimentationtakesplacearecalledsedimentarybasins.Theamountofsediment
thatcanbedepositedinabasindependsonthedepthofthebasin,thesocalledaccommodationspace.
Depth,shapeandsizeofabasindependontectonics,movementswithintheEarth'slithosphere.Wherethe
lithospheremovesupward(tectonicuplift),landeventuallyrisesabovesealevel,sothatanderosion
removesmaterial,andtheareabecomesasourcefornewsediment.Wherethelithospheremoves
downward(tectonicsubsidence),abasinformsandsedimentationcantakeplace.Whenthelithosphere
keepssubsiding,newaccommodationspacekeepsbeingcreated.
Atypeofbasinformedbythemovingapartoftwopiecesofacontinentiscalledariftbasin.Riftbasinsare
elongated,narrowanddeepbasins.Duetodivergentmovement,thelithosphereisstretchedandthinned,so
thatthehotasthenosphererisesandheatstheoverlyingriftbasin.Apartfromcontinentalsediments,rift
basinsnormallyalsohavepartoftheirinfillconsistingofvolcanicdeposits.Whenthebasingrowsdueto
continuedstretchingofthelithosphere,theriftgrowsandtheseacanenter,formingmarinedeposits.
Whenapieceoflithospherethatwasheatedandstretchedcoolsagain,itsdensityrises,causingisostatic
subsidence.Ifthissubsidencecontinueslongenoughthebasiniscalledasagbasin.Examplesofsagbasins
aretheregionsalongpassivecontinentalmargins,butsagbasinscanalsobefoundintheinteriorof
continents.Insagbasins,theextraweightofthenewlydepositedsedimentsisenoughtokeepthe
subsidencegoinginaviciouscircle.Thetotalthicknessofthesedimentaryinfillinasagbasinscanthus
exceed10km.
Athirdtypeofbasinexistsalongconvergentplateboundariesplaceswhereonetectonicplatemoves
underanotherintotheasthenosphere.Thesubductingplatebendsandformsaforearcbasininfrontofthe
overridingplateanelongated,deepasymmetricbasin.Forearcbasinsarefilledwithdeepmarinedeposits
andthicksequencesofturbidites.Suchinfilliscalledflysch.Whentheconvergentmovementofthetwo
platesresultsincontinentalcollision,thebasinbecomesshalloweranddevelopsintoaforelandbasin.At
thesametime,tectonicupliftformsamountainbeltintheoverridingplate,fromwhichlargeamountsof
materialareerodedandtransportedtothebasin.Sucherosionalmaterialofagrowingmountainchainis
calledmolasseandhaseitherashallowmarineoracontinentalfacies.

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Atthesametime,thegrowingweightofthemountainbeltcancauseisostaticsubsidenceintheareaofthe
overridingplateontheothersidetothemountainbelt.Thebasintyperesultingfromthissubsidenceis
calledabackarcbasinandisusuallyfilledbyshallowmarinedepositsandmolasse.[48]

Influenceofastronomicalcycles
Inmanycasesfacieschangesandotherlithologicalfeaturesin
sequencesofsedimentaryrockhaveacyclicnature.Thiscyclic
naturewascausedbycyclicchangesinsedimentsupplyandthe
sedimentaryenvironment.Mostofthesecyclicchangesarecaused
byastronomiccycles.Shortastronomiccyclescanbethedifference
betweenthetidesorthespringtideeverytwoweeks.Onalarger
timescale,cyclicchangesinclimateandsealevelarecausedby
Milankovitchcycles:cyclicchangesintheorientationand/or
positionoftheEarth'srotationalaxisandorbitaroundtheSun.
ThereareanumberofMilankovitchcyclesknown,lastingbetween
10,000and200,000years.[49]

Cyclicalternationofcompetentand
lesscompetentbedsintheBlueLias
atLymeRegis,southernEngland

RelativelysmallchangesintheorientationoftheEarth'saxisorlengthoftheseasonscanbeamajor
influenceontheEarth'sclimate.Anexamplearetheiceagesofthepast2.6millionyears(theQuaternary
period),whichareassumedtohavebeencausedbyastronomiccycles.[50][51]Climatechangecaninfluence
theglobalsealevel(andthustheamountofaccommodationspaceinsedimentarybasins)andsediment
supplyfromacertainregion.Eventually,smallchangesinastronomicparameterscancauselargechanges
insedimentaryenvironmentandsedimentation.

Sedimentationrates
Therateatwhichsedimentisdepositeddiffersdependingonthelocation.Achannelinatidalflatcansee
thedepositionofafewmetresofsedimentinoneday,whileonthedeepoceanflooreachyearonlyafew
millimetresofsedimentaccumulate.Adistinctioncanbemadebetweennormalsedimentationand
sedimentationcausedbycatastrophicprocesses.Thelattercategoryincludesallkindsofsudden
exceptionalprocesseslikemassmovements,rockslidesorflooding.Catastrophicprocessescanseethe
suddendepositionofalargeamountofsedimentatonce.Insomesedimentaryenvironments,mostofthe
totalcolumnofsedimentaryrockwasformedbycatastrophicprocesses,eventhoughtheenvironmentis
usuallyaquietplace.Othersedimentaryenvironmentsaredominatedbynormal,ongoingsedimentation.[52]
Inmanycases,sedimentationoccursslowly.Inadesert,forexample,thewinddepositssiliciclasticmaterial
(sandorsilt)insomespots,orcatastrophicfloodingofawadimaycausesuddendepositsoflargequantities
ofdetritalmaterial,butinmostplaceseolianerosiondominates.Theamountofsedimentaryrockthat
formsisnotonlydependentontheamountofsuppliedmaterial,butalsoonhowwellthematerial
consolidates.Erosionremovesmostdepositedsedimentshortlyafterdeposition.[52]

Stratigraphy

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Thatnewrocklayersareaboveolderrocklayersisstatedintheprincipleofsuperposition.Thereare
usuallysomegapsinthesequencecalledunconformities.
Theserepresentperiodswherenonewsedimentswere
laiddown,orwhenearliersedimentarylayersraised
abovesealevelanderodedaway.
Sedimentaryrockscontainimportantinformationabout
thehistoryoftheEarth.Theycontainfossils,the
preservedremainsofancientplantsandanimals.Coalis
consideredatypeofsedimentaryrock.Thecomposition
ofsedimentsprovidesuswithcluesastotheoriginal
rock.Differencesbetweensuccessivelayersindicate
changestotheenvironmentovertime.Sedimentaryrocks
cancontainfossilsbecause,unlikemostigneousand
metamorphicrocks,theyformattemperaturesand
pressuresthatdonotdestroyfossilremains.

Seealso
Backstripping
Deposition(geology)
Dunhamclassification
Erosion

ThePermianthroughJurassicstratigraphyofthe
ColoradoPlateauareaofsoutheasternUtahthat
makesupmuchofthefamousprominentrock
formationsinprotectedareassuchasCapitolReef
NationalParkandCanyonlandsNationalPark.
Fromtoptobottom:Roundedtandomesofthe
NavajoSandstone,layeredredKayenta
Formation,cliffforming,verticallyjointed,red
WingateSandstone,slopeforming,purplish
ChinleFormation,layered,lighterredMoenkopi
Formation,andwhite,layeredCutlerFormation
sandstone.PicturefromGlenCanyonNational
RecreationArea,Utah.

Growthfault
Listofminerals
Listofrocktypes
Sedimenttransport

References
1. Buchner&Grapes(2011),p.24
2. Dott(1964)
3. Blattetal.(1980),p.782
4. Prothero&Schwab(2004)
5. Boggs(2006)
6. Stow(2005)
7. Levin(1987),p.57
8. Tarbuck&Lutgens(1999),pp.145146
9. Boggs(1987),p.105
10. Tarbuck&Lutgens(1999),pp.156157
11. Levin(1987),p.58
12. Boggs(1987),pp.112115
13. Blattetal.(1980),pp.5558
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SedimentaryrockWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

14. Levin(1987),p.60
15. Blattetal.(1980),pp.7580
16. Folk(1965),p.62
17. Foranoverviewofmajormineralsinsiliciclasticrocksandtheirrelativestabilities,seeFolk(1965),pp.6264.
18. Stanley(1999),pp.6061
19. Levin(1987),p.92
20. Stanley(1999),p.61
21. Levin(1987),pp.9293
22. Tarbuck&Lutgens(1999),pp.160161
23. Pressetal.(2003),p.171
24. Boggs(1987),p.138
25. Fordescriptionsofcrossbedding,seeBlattetal.(1980),p.128,pp.135136Pressetal.(2003),pp.171172.
26. Blattetal.(1980),pp.133135
27. Foranexplanationaboutgradedbedding,seeBoggs(1987),pp.143144Tarbuck&Lutgens(1999),p.161
Pressetal.(2003),p.172.
28. Collinsonetal.(2006),pp.4652
29. Blattetal.(1980),pp.155157
30. Tarbuck&Lutgens(1999),p.162
31. Levin(1987),p.62
32. Blattetal.(1980),pp.136154
33. Forashortdescriptionoftracefossils,seeStanley(1999),p.62Levin(1987),pp.9395andCollinsonetal.
(2006),pp.216232.
34. Collinsonetal.(2006),p.215
35. Forconcretions,seeCollinsonetal.(2006),pp.206215.
36. Collinsonetal.(2006),pp.183185
37. Collinsonetal.(2006),pp.193194
38. Collinsonetal.(2006),pp.202203
39. Foranoverviewofdifferentsedimentaryenvironments,seePressetal.(2003)orEinsele(2000),partII.
40. Foradefinitionofshallowmarineenvironments,seeLevin(2003),p.63.
41. Tarbuck&Lutgens(1999),pp.452453
42. Foranoverviewovercontinentalenvironments,seeLevin(2003),pp.6768.
43. Baker,VictorR.andNummedal,Dag,ed.(1978).TheChanneledScabland:AGuidetotheGeomorphologyof
theColumbiaBasin,Washington(http://fax.libs.uga.edu/J84xNASx1x18xCx36/1f/).Washington,D.C.:
PlanetaryGeologyProgram,OfficeofSpaceScience,NationalAeoronauticsandSpaceAdministration.pp.173
177.ISBN088192590X.
44. Tarbuck&Lutgens(1999),pp.158160
45. Reading(1996),pp.1920
46. Reading(1996),pp.2021
47. Foranoverviewoverfaciesshiftsandtherelationsinthesedimentaryrockrecordbywhichtheycanbe
recognized,seeReading(1996),pp.2233.
48. Foranoverviewofsedimentarybasintypes,seePressetal.(2003),pp.187189Einsele(2000),pp.39.
49. ForashortexplanationofMilankovitchcycles,seeTarbuck&Lutgens(1999),pp.322323Reading(1996),pp.

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49. ForashortexplanationofMilankovitchcycles,seeTarbuck&Lutgens(1999),pp.322323Reading(1996),pp.
1415.
50. Stanley(1999),p.536
51. Andersen&Borns(1994),pp.2932
52. Reading(1996),p.17

Bibliography
Andersen,B.G.&H.W.Borns,Jr.(1994).TheIceAgeWorld.ScandinavianUniversityPress.ISBN8200
376834.
Blatt,H.,G.Middleton&R.Murray(1980).OriginofSedimentaryRocks.PrenticeHall.ISBN0136427103.
Boggs,S.,Jr.(1987).PrinciplesofSedimentologyandStratigraphy(1sted.).Merrill.ISBN0675204879.
Boggs,S.,Jr.(2006).PrinciplesofSedimentologyandStratigraphy(4thed.).UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:Pearson
PrenticeHall.ISBN9780131547285.
Buchner,K&R.Grapes(2011)."Metamorphicrocks".PetrogenesisofMetamorphicRocks
(http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FFcHarai9GEC&pg=PA21).Springer.pp.2156.doi:10.1007/9783540
741695_2(https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2F9783540741695_2).ISBN9783540741688.
Collinson,J.,N.Mountney&D.Thompson(2006).SedimentaryStructures(3rded.).TerraPublishing.
ISBN190354419X.
Dott,R.H.(1964)."Wacke,graywackeandmatrixwhatapproachtoimmaturesandstoneclassification".
JournalofSedimentaryPetrology34(3):625632.doi:10.1306/74D711092B2111D78648000102C1865D
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1306%2F74D711092B2111D78648000102C1865D).
Einsele,G.(2000).SedimentaryBasins,Evolution,Facies,andSedimentBudget(2nded.).Springer.ISBN3
54066193X.
Folk,R.L.(1965).PetrologyofSedimentaryRocks(http://www.lib.utexas.edu/geo/folkready/).Hemphill.
Levin,H.L.(1987).TheEarththroughtime(3rded.).SaundersCollegePublishing.ISBN0030089123.
Press,F.,R.Siever,J.Grotzinger&T.H.Jordan(2003).UnderstandingEarth(4thed.).W.H.Freemanand
Company.ISBN0716796171.
Prothero,D.R.&F.Schwab(2004).SedimentaryGeology(2nded.).W.H.FreemanandCompany.
Reading,H.G.(1996).SedimentaryEnvironments:Processes,FaciesandStratigraphy(3rded.).Blackwell
Science.ISBN0632036273.
Stanley,S.M.(1999).EarthSystemHistory.W.H.FreemanandCompany.ISBN0716728826.
Stow,D.A.V.(2005).SedimentaryRocksintheField.Burlington,MA:AcademicPress.ISBN9781874545
699.
Tarbuck,E.J.&F.K.Lutgens(1999).Earth,anintroductiontoPhysicalGeology(6thed.).PrenticeHall.
ISBN0130112011.

Externallinks
BasicSedimentaryRockClassification
(http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/SedRx/sedclass.html)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_rock

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