Earth's History in Geologic Time

Earths History in Geologic Time
Group 2B
Dan Cyre, Robert Daub, Beth Lang
Introduction
This unit addresses two essential understandings:
1) Geologic time is not uniform.
2) Earths history is preserved in rock.
In an effort to develop the essential understanding, this unit asks students to answer one
essential question:
How is the Earth different today than in the past?
Through the process of scientific inquiry and use of the modeling approach, the
students will develop an understanding of how geological time is used to understand
Earths past.
Standards
GR5-7 4.2.1 understands that earth processes observed today (including movement
of lithospheric plates and changes in atmospheric conditions) are similar to those
that occurred in the past; earth history is also influenced by occasional catastrophes,
such as the impact of a comet or asteroid
GR8-12 4.2.1 understands geological time is used to understand the earths past
Background Knowledge Needed

There are certain science concepts that will be reinforced during this unit. In order to
understand how Earths history is stored in rock, students should have a working
knowledge of the three classes of rock: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. They
should also have an understanding of how fossils form. A unit on plate tectonics and
continental drift will have been taught prior to the teaching of this unit. Some
knowledge of Earths atmosphere and the carbon dioxide oxygen cycle will also be
required.
Physical Science with Mathematical Modeling Workshop 2006

A NCLB-ITQ Professional Development Funded Program
Sequence
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
Pretest
EssentialQuestionWhiteboardDiscussion
GeologicTimeScaleActivity
FossilsActivity
FossilsWorksheet
IntroductiontoRelativeandAbsoluteDating
RelativeDatingWorksheet
UnitReview
Posttest
Suggested Time Line (for 50 minute class periods)

Day1:Pretest,WhiteboardEssentialQuestion,GeologicTimeScaleActivity
Research
Day2:ConstructatimelinefortheGeologicTimeScale,WhiteboardDiscussion,
EarthCalendar
Day3:FossilInquirysamples,InteractiveFossilMuseum,FossilsWorksheet
Day4:FossilsWhiteboardDiscussion,IntroduceRelativeandAbsoluteDating,
RelativeDatingWorksheet
Day5:RelativeDatingWhiteboardDiscussion,UnitReview
Day6:Posttest
UnitOverviewPowerPoint

Name
Date

Pre-Post Test
1) Magma that forces its way into rock and hardens is called a(n)
a) extrusion
b) unconformity
c) fault
d) intrusion
2) A petrified fossil forms when
a) minerals seep into the empty space of a mold.
b) minerals replace all or part of an organism.
c) an organism becomes trapped in amber.
d) the weight of sediment squeezes everything
away except carbon.
3) The earliest forms of life appeared during
a) the Paleozoic Era.
b) the Cenozoic Era.
c) Precambrian Time.
d) the Mesozoic Era.
4) On the Geologic Time Scale, eras are divided into
a) epochs.
b) indexes.
c) periods.
d) relative dates.
5) Fossils provide evidence for all of the following
except for:
a) changes in the Earths surface
b) how Earth originally formed.
c) how environments on Earth have changed over
time.
d) how groups of organisms have changed over
Pd
time.
6) A part of the Mesozoic Era, named for the Jura Mountains in France, is
a) Cenozoic Era
b) Carboniferous Period
c) Paleozoic Era
d) Jurassic Period
7) Most fossils form when organisms die and are buried in

a) sediment
b) faults
c) unconformities
d) ice
8) The Mesozoic Era is often called the
a) Age of Mammals
b) Age of Fish
c) Age of Reptiles
d) Age of Amphibians
9) Scientists use radioactive dating to
a) determine the absolute ages of rocks.
b) discover the source of index fossils.
c) determine the relative ages of extrusions.
d) find trace fossils in igneous rock.
FILL IN THE LINE TO CORRECTLY COMPLETE EACH STATEMENT.
10) A scientist who studies fossils is called a(n) _______________.
11) The process by which all living things have changed over long periods of time is called
_____________.
12)The ____________ of a radioactive element is the time it takes for half of the
radioactive atoms to decay.
13) Fossils are almost always found in ___________rock.
14) Plants and animals first reached land during the _____________Era.
15) An animal with a backbone is called a(n)_____________.
16) According to the law of superposition, the_________ layer is at the bottom. Each higher
layer is_________ than the layers below it.
17) The ________ _____ is the number of years since the rock has formed.
18) The __________ _______ is the age of a rock compared to the ages of other rocks.
19) Is the following statement true or false? The deeper one travels into the Grand Canyon,
the younger the rocks become. ___________
20) What is an unconformity?

Name
KEY
Date

Pre-Post Test
1)Magma that forces its way into rock and hardens is called a(n)
a)extrusion
b)unconformity
c)fault
d)intrusion
away except carbon.
a) epochs.
b) indexes.
c) periods.
d) relative dates.
except for:
d) changes in the Earths surface
e) how Earth originally formed.
f) how environments on Earth have changed over
time.
Pd
time.
a) Cenozoic Era
c) Paleozoic Era
d) Jurassic Period

a) sediment
b) faults
c) unconformities
d) ice
a) Age of Mammals
b) Age of Fish
c) Age of Reptiles
10) A scientist who studies fossils is called a(n) __paleontologist_________.
_evolution______.
12)The _half-life____ of a radioactive element is the time it takes for half of the radioactive
atoms to decay.
13) Fossils are almost always found in _sedimentary__rock.
14) Plants and animals first reached land during the __Paleozoic_______Era.
15) An animal with a backbone is called a(n)_vertebrate_____.
16) According to the law of superposition, the_older___ layer is at the bottom. Each higher
layer is_younger__ than the layers below it.
17) The _absolute_ _age__ is the number of years since the rock has formed.
18) The _relative____ __age___ is the age of a rock compared to the ages of other rocks.
the younger the rocks become. __false_____
20) What is an unconformity? An unconformity is a gap in the geologic record. It
shows where some rock layers have been lost to erosion.


Inquiry Activity Bell Work
Essential Question:
How is Earth different today than in the past?
Teacher Notes:
Have the essential question on the board when the students come in.
Have the students brainstorm with their lab partner(s).
Have the students prepare a whiteboard presentation to answer the question.
Lead a whiteboard discussion in response to the essential question: How is
Earth different today than in the past?


Inquiry Activity Geologic Time Scale
Essential Understanding:
Geologic time is not uniform.
Essential Question:
How is Earth different today than in the past?
Materials:
GeologicTimeScalehandout
Addingmachinetape
Painterstape
Markingpens
Computerwithinternetaccess
EarthCalendarhandout
Whiteboardsandmarkers
Metersticks
Procedure:
1.Informthestudentsthattheyaregoingtoworkinsmallgroupstocreateatimeline
ofEarthshistory.
2.GiveeachstudentacopyoftheGeologicTimeScale.Thecharacteristicsofeach
timeperiodareleftblank.
3.InstructthestudenttousetheinternetwebsitesprovidedtoresearchtheEras,
Periods,andEpochs.Suggestedwebsites:
http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/visualization/collections/geotime.html
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/explorations/tours/geotime/gtpage9c.html
Asthestudentsexplorethesuggestedwebsites,instructthemtocompletethe
GeologicTimeScalebyrecordingcharacteristicsforeachblockoftime.
4.GiveeachstudentacopyoftheWhatisamillionreadingselection.Readand
discusstheselection.
10
5.Remindthestudentsthateachlabgroupwillconstructatimelinetorepresentthe
GeologicTimeScale.Eachgroupwillneedaddingmachinetapeandmarkers,to
constructthetimeline.
6.Beforethestudentsbegin,reachaconsensusastoanappropriatescaletouse.A
scaleof1mm=500,000yrswillresultinatimelinethatis9.2minlength.
7.Havethestudentscutoffapieceofaddingmachinetapetheappropriatelengthto
represent4.6billionyears,theageofEarth.
8.Havethestudentsmeasure,markandlabeleachblockofgeologictime,beginning
4.6billionyearsago.
9. Havethestudentslistcharacteristicsforeachblockoftime,ontheirtimelines.
10.Next,havethestudentsusepainterstapetoattachtheirtimelinestothewall.
11.Assignspecificblocksofgeologictimetoeachgroupforawhiteboard
presentation.Studentsshouldprepareawhiteboardpresentationthathighlights
themajorgeologicalandbiologicaleventsthatoccurredduringtheirassigned
portionofthetimeline.
12.Conductawhiteboarddiscussion.
DiscussionTopics:
1. Geologictimeisnotuniform.
2. Geologicalandbiologicaleventsareusedtoseparatetheblocksoftime.Atthe
boundariesofeachblockoftimeyouwillfindmajorchangesinfloraandfaunaor
majorgeologicevents.
3. LifefirstappearedduringPrecambriantime.Fossilsofbacteriahavebeenfoundin
Precambrianrocks.Theseearlylifeformsaddedoxygentotheatmosphereand
pavedthewayformorecomplexformsoflifetoevolve.
4. Erasaredividedintoperiods,whicharefurtherdividedintoepochs.
11
5. TheJurassicPeriodwasnamedaftertheJuraMountains,inFrance.Dinosaur
fossilswerefirststudiedintheJuraMountains.
6. TheMesozoicEraissometimescalledtheAgeofReptiles,becauseofthe
prevalenceofdinosaursduringthattime.
7. PlantsandanimalsfirstappearedonlandduringthePaleozoicEra.
8. ThefirstvertebratesappearedduringtheOrdovicianPeriod.Vertebratesare
animalswithabackbone.
Extension:
GivethestudentsacopyoftheEarthCalendarhandout.
Inthehandout,majoreventinEarthhistoryarelistedwithagesinmillionsofyears
beforepresent.Theseagesarerelatedtoacorrespondingcalendardate.Thecalendar
dateisdeterminedbysettingmidnight,January1,tocorrespondwiththeformationof
Earth.Midnight,December31,correspondswiththepresent.
ThepurposeofthisextensionistodisplayGeologicTimeintermsthestudentsare
familiarwith.Theycanrelatetoacalendaryearmucheasierthan4.6billionyears.
Assessment:
Theextensionactivitydescribedabovemaybeusedasaformativeassessmenttool,also.
InsteadofgivingthestudentsacopyoftheEarthCalendar,askthestudentstoapplytheir
knowledgeofEarthshistorytoconstructaoneyearcalendarthatcorrespondstothe
GeologicTimeScale.

12
Web Sites: Geologic Time

Scale
Time Scale Link 1
Time Scale Link 2
PowerPoint Link

13
Era
Period
Quaternary
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Epoch
Holocene
Paleozoic
Characteristics from geologic and fossil

evidence
0.011
Pleistocene
1.8
Pliocene
5.3
Miocene
23.8
Oligocene
33.7
Eocene
54.8
Paleocene
Mesozoic
Began
(millions
of years)
65
Cretaceous
144
Jurassic
206
Triassic
248
Permian
290
Carboniferous
Pennsylvanian
323
Carboniferous
Mississippian
354
Devonian
417
Silurian
443
Ordovician
490
Cambrian
540
Precambrian time
4600
Adapted from Modern Earth Science, 2002, Holt, Rinehart and Winston
14
Era
Period
Quaternary
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Epoch
Mesozoic
Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Carboniferous
Pennsylvanian
Carboniferous
Mississippian
Paleozoic
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
Characteristics from geologic and fossil

evidence
0.011
End of last ice age; complex human societies

develop
Pleistocene
1.8
Woolly mammoths, rhinos, and early humans

appear
Pliocene
5.3
Large carnivores (bears, dogs, cats) appear
Miocene
23.8
Grazing herds abundant; raccoons, wolves appear
Oligocene
33.7
Deer, pigs, horses, camels, cats and dogs appear
Eocene
54.8
Early horses, flying squirrels, bats, and whales

appear
Holocene
Paleocene
Cretaceous
Began
(million
s of
years)
65
144
Age of mammals begins; lemuroids appear

First flowering plants appear; mass extinctions
(including all dinosaurs) mark end of Mesozoic
period
206
Dinosaurs are dominant life form; flying reptiles and

first birds appear.
248
Dinosaurs first appear; ammonites common;

cycads and conifers abundant; first mammals
appear
290
Pangaea comes together; mass extinctions mark

the end of the Paleozoic era.
323
Giant cockroaches and dragonflies common; coal

deposits form; first reptiles appear
354
Amphibians flourish; sea stars common in ocean;

forests and swamps cover most of the land
417
Age of fishes; first amphibians appear; giant

horsetails, ferns and cone-bearing plants develop
443
Echinoderms appear; eurypterids abundant; first

land plants and animals appear
490
Brachiopods increase; trilobites decline; gaptolites

flourish; first vertebrates (fishes) appear
540
Advanced forms of marine life and first

invertebrates appear; trilobites and brachiopods
common
Formation of the earth; continental shields appear;
fossils are rare; stromalites are most common
Precambrian time
4600
Adapted from Modern Earth Science, 2002, Holt, Rinehart and Winston

15
What is a Million?
You hear people use the number "one million" all of the time: "The jackpot is worth over a
million dollars! " "About a million people live in Phoenix (or San Francisco, or Dallas, or
Detroit, or Baltimore)." "I've told you a million times to make your bed!" "Who wants to be a
millionaire?"
You hear "a million" so often that you may think you know how big a million is. But do you
really? Have you really been told a million times to make your bed? Have you met
everyone in San Francisco? Have you ever tried to count a million dollars one at a time?
For that matter, have you ever just tried to count to a million? Ten thousand? Or even one
thousand? Counting at a rate of one number every second, it takes about 15 minutes to
count to one thousand.
How long would it take to count to a million? Well, counting once per second (easy at the
start, but tough when you reach the hundred thousand mark), eight hours per day, seven
days per week (no weekends off), it would take you a little over a month to count to one
million!
http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/msese/earthsysflr/geo_activity2.html

16

17

Inquiry Activity - Earths History is Preserved in Rocks
Fossil Examination
Earths history is preserved in rock.
Essential Question:
What can rocks tell us about earths history?
Materials:
Fossil samples
Computer with internet access
Fossils reading selection
Fossils worksheet
Whiteboards and markers
Part I:
Procedure:
1. Have the students examine fossil samples.
2. As the students examine the fossil samples, lead a class discussion as to
the type of organisms that the fossils represent and the conditions under
which the fossils may have formed.
3. Have the students do further inquiry using the following web site:
http://fossils.valdosta.edu/home_time.html
This is an interactive fossil museum.
4. As the students explore the interactive museum, have them look at the
18
correlation of fossils and geologic features around the world. Have the
students infer what those correlations tell us about Earths history.
Part 2:
Procedure:
1. Have the students take turns reading the Fossil selection aloud.
2. As the students read, conduct class discussions of the science concepts,
as they come up. Some of the key topics to look for are: how most
fossils form, in what type of rock does most fossils form, types of fossils,
evolution, extinct, and paleontologists.
3. Have the students complete the Fossils worksheet.
4. Assign groups of worksheet questions to each lab group. Instruct
students to prepare a whiteboard presentation for their questions.
5. Conduct a whiteboard discussion.

19
Name
Date
Pd
Earths History in Geologic Time:

Fossils Worksheet
Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of living things. Fossils provide evidence of
how life has changed over time. Most fossils form when living things die and are buried by
sediments. The sediments slowly harden into rock and preserve the shapes of the
organisms. Scientists who study fossils are called paleontologists. They usually find fossils in
sedimentary rock, the type of rock that is made of hardened sediment.
Most fossils form from animals or plants that once lived in or near quiet water such as
swamps, lakes, or shallow seas. When an organism dies, generally only its hard parts leave fossils.
Fossils found in rock include petrified fossils, molds and casts, carbon films, and trace
fossils. Other fossils form when the remains of organisms are preserved in substances such
as tar, amber, or ice.
Petrified fossils are fossils in which minerals replace all or part of an organism. The most
common fossils are molds and casts. A mold is a hollow area in sediment in the shape of an
organism or part of an organism. A mold forms when the hard part of an organism, such as a
shell, is buried in sediment. Later, water carrying dissolved minerals may seep into the empty
space of a mold. If the water deposits the minerals there, the result is a cast, a copy of the shape
of the organism. Another type of fossil is a carbon film, an extremely thin coating of carbon on
rock. Trace fossils provide evidence of the activities of ancient organisms. Fossil footprints,
trails, and burrows are examples of trace fossils. Some processes preserve the remains of
organisms with little or no change. Organisms can be preserved in tar, amber, or ice.
Paleontologists use the fossils they collect to determine what past life forms were like.
Together, all the information that paleontologists have gathered about past life is called the fossil
record. The fossil record provides evidence about the history of life on Earth. The fossil
record also shows that groups of organisms have changed over time. It also reveals that
fossils occur in a particular order, showing that life on Earth has evolved, or changed. Thus, the
fossil record provides evidence to support the theory of evolution. A scientific theory is a welltested concept that explains a wide range of observations. Evolution is the gradual change in
living things over long periods of time. The fossil record shows that millions of types of
organisms have evolved. Some have become extinct. A type of organism is extinct if it no longer
exists and will never again exist.
Fossils provide evidence of Earths climate in the past. Paleontologists also use fossils to
learn about past environments and changes in Earths surface.

20
Fill in the blanks in the table below.

Type of Fossil
1. Petrified fossil
2.
3.
4. Carbon film
5. Trace fossils
6.
Description
Fossils in which __________________ replace all or part of an
organism
A hollow area in sediment in the shape of an organism
A copy of the shape of an organism
An extremely thin coating of ___________________ on rock
Evidence of the ________________ of ancient organisms
Remains of organisms in tar, amber, or ice
7. Describe how a mold is related to a cast.
8. What can a paleontologist tell from fossil footprints of a dinosaur?
9. What does the fossil record reveal about the evolution of life on Earth?
Fill in the blank to complete each statement.

10. The process by which all the different kinds of living things have changed over long periods of
time is called ______________________.
11. The type of rock that is made of hardened sediment is called ___________________.
12. A type of organism is __________________ if it no longer exists and will never again live on
Earth.
13. A(n) ______________________ is a scientist who studies fossils.
14. The preserved remains or traces of living things are called ____________________.
15. A well-tested concept the explains a wide range of observations is called a(n)
__________________________.
From Science Explorer Earth Science, 2001

21
Name
KEY
Date
Pd
Earths History in Geologic Time:

Fossils Worksheet
Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of living things. Fossils provide evidence of
how life has changed over time. Most fossils form when living things die and are buried by
sediments. The sediments slowly harden into rock and preserve the shapes of the
organisms. Scientists who study fossils are called paleontologists. They usually find fossils in
sedimentary rock, the type of rock that is made of hardened sediment.
Most fossils form from animals or plants that once lived in or near quiet water such as
swamps, lakes, or shallow seas. When an organism dies, generally only its hard parts leave fossils.
Fossils found in rock include petrified fossils, molds and casts, carbon films, and trace
fossils. Other fossils form when the remains of organisms are preserved in substances such
as tar, amber, or ice.
Petrified fossils are fossils in which minerals replace all or part of an organism. The most
common fossils are molds and casts. A mold is a hollow area in sediment in the shape of an
organism or part of an organism. A mold forms when the hard part of an organism, such as a
shell, is buried in sediment. Later, water carrying dissolved minerals may seep into the empty
space of a mold. If the water deposits the minerals there, the result is a cast, a copy of the shape
of the organism. Another type of fossil is a carbon film, an extremely thin coating of carbon on
rock. Trace fossils provide evidence of the activities of ancient organisms. Fossil footprints,
trails, and burrows are examples of trace fossils. Some processes preserve the remains of
organisms with little or no change. Organisms can be preserved in tar, amber, or ice.
Paleontologists use the fossils they collect to determine what past life forms were like.
Together, all the information that paleontologists have gathered about past life is called the fossil
record. The fossil record provides evidence about the history of life on Earth. The fossil
record also shows that groups of organisms have changed over time. It also reveals that
fossils occur in a particular order, showing that life on Earth has evolved, or changed. Thus, the
fossil record provides evidence to support the theory of evolution. A scientific theory is a welltested concept that explains a wide range of observations. Evolution is the gradual change in
living things over long periods of time. The fossil record shows that millions of types of
organisms have evolved. Some have become extinct. A type of organism is extinct if it no longer
exists and will never again exist.
Fossils provide evidence of Earths climate in the past. Paleontologists also use fossils to
learn about past environments and changes in Earths surface.

22
Fill in the blanks in the table below.

Type of Fossil
1. Petrified fossil
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
mold
cast
Carbon film
Trace fossils
Preserved
remains
Description
Fossils in which __minerals___________ replace all or part of an
organism
A hollow area in sediment in the shape of an organism
A copy of the shape of an organism
An extremely thin coating of ___carbon____________ on rock
Evidence of the _activities__________ of ancient organisms
Remains of organisms in tar, amber, or ice
7. Describe how a mold is related to a cast.

A mold is an empty space in rock in the shape of an organism or part of an organism. If water
carrying dissolved minerals and sediment seeps into the mold and deposits those minerals and
sediments there, the result is a cast in the shape of the organism.
8. What can a paleontologist tell from fossil footprints of a dinosaur?
Fossil footprints can provide clues about the dinosaurs size and behavior.
9. What does the fossil record reveal about the evolution of life on Earth?
The fossil record provides evidence that many different organisms have existed at different times.
The fossil record also shows that groups of organisms have changed over time.
Fill in the blank to complete each statement.
10. The process by which all the different kinds of living things have changed over long periods of
time is called ___evolution_______________.
11. The type of rock that is made of hardened sediment is called _sedimentary rock____.
12. A type of organism is ____extinct____________ if it no longer exists and will never again live on
Earth.
13. A(n) __paleontologist_______________ is a scientist who studies fossils.
14. The preserved remains or traces of living things are called __fossils_____________.
15. A well-tested concept the explains a wide range of observations is called a(n) ___scientific
theory_________________.

23

Earths History is Preserved in Rocks
Relative and Absolute Dating Activities
Earths history is preserved in rock.
Essential Question:
What can rocks tell us about earths history?
Materials:
How Old is That Rock? - handout
Relative Dating Reading selection handout
Relative Dating Worksheet
Whiteboards and markers
Procedure:
1. Have the students take turns reading the How Old is That Rock?
handout.
2. Check for student understanding. Ask the students to give examples of
relative age and absolute age.
3. Have the students take turns reading the Relative Dating selection.
4. As the students read, conduct class discussions of the science concepts,
as they come up. Some of the key topics to look for are: relative age,
absolute age, law of superposition, extrusion, intrusion, fault, unconformity,
and index fossil.
5. Have the students complete the Relative Dating worksheet.
24
6. Assign groups of worksheet questions to each lab group. Instruct students

to prepare a whiteboard presentation for their questions.
7. Conduct a whiteboard discussion.

25
How Old is That Rock?

How can you tell the age of a rock or to which geologic time period it belongs? One way is
to look at any fossils the rock may contain. If any of the fossils are unique to one of the
geologic time periods, then the rock was formed during that particular time period. Another
way is to use the "What's on top?" rule. When you find layers of rocks in a cliff or hillside,
younger rocks are on top of older rocks.
But these two methods only give the relative age of rocks--which are younger and which
are older. How do we find out how old a rock is in years? Or how do we know how long ago
a particular group of fossilized creatures lived?
The age of a rock in years is called its absolute age. Geologists find absolute ages by
measuring the amount of certain radioactive elements in the rock. When rocks are formed,
small amounts of radioactive elements usually get included. As time passes, the "parent"
radioactive elements change at a regular rate into non-radioactive "daughter" elements.
Thus, the older a rock is, the larger the number of daughter elements and the smaller the
number of parent elements are found in the rock. The time it takes for a radioactive
element to change one-half of its radioactive parents into non radioactive daughters is
called the half life of the element.
http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/msese/earthsysflr/ages.html

26
Name
Date
Pd
Earths History in Geologic Time: Finding the Relative

Age of Rocks
The sediment that forms sedimentary rocks is deposited in flat layers. Over years, the
sediment becomes deeply buried, hardens, and changes into sedimentary rock. At the same time,
remains of organisms in the sediment may become fossils. These rock layers provide a record of
Earths geologic history.
The relative age of a rock is its age compared to the ages of other rocks. The absolute
age of a rock is the number of years since the rock formed. It can be difficult to determine the
absolute age of a rock. Geologists use the law of superposition to determine the relative ages of
sedimentary rock layers. According to the law of superposition, in horizontal sedimentary
rock layers the oldest is at the bottom. Each higher layer is younger than the layer below it.
There are other clues to the relative ages of rocks. Geologists find some of these clues by
studying extrusions and intrusions of igneous rock and faults. Igneous rock forms when magma
or lava har5dens. Lava that hardens on the surface is called an extrusion. The rock layers below
an extrusion are always older than the extrusion. Beneath the surface, magma may push into
bodies of rock. There, the magma cools and hardens into a mass of igneous rock called an
intrusion. An intrusion is always younger than the rock layers around and beneath it.
More clues come from the study of faults. A fault is a break in Earths crust. A fault is
always younger than the rock it cuts through. The surface where new rock layers meet a much
older rock surface beneath them is called an unconformity. An unconformity is a gap in the
geologic record. An unconformity shows where some rock layers have been lost because of
erosion.
To date rock layers, geologists first give a relative age to a layer of rock at one location
and then give the same age to matching layers at other locations. Certain fossils, called index
fossils, help geologists match rock layers. To be useful as an index fossil, a fossil must be widely
distributed and represent a type of organism that existed only briefly. Index fossils are useful
because they tell the relative ages of the rock layers in which they occur. Geologists use
particular types of organisms, such as trilobites, as index fossils. Trilobites were a group of hardshelled animals that evolved in shallow seas more than 500 million years ago. They later became
extinct. Trilobite fossils have been found in many different places.

27
Use the figure above to answer questions 1-4.

1. What is the youngest rock layer on the figure? Explain.
2. Is the extrusion older or younger than rock layer B? Explain.
3. Is the fault older or younger than rock layer A? Explain.
4. How could a geologist use the fossil in rock layer B to date a rock layer in another location?
Match each term with its definition by writing the letter of the correct definition on the line beside
the term.
__________ 5. fault
a. the number of years since a rock formed
__________ 6. extrusion
b. a break or crack along which rocks move
__________ 7. unconformity
c. the way to determine relative ages of rocks
__________ 8. relative age
d. a hardened layer of magma
__________ 9. law of superposition e. the age of a rock compared with the age of other
rocks
__________10. intrusion
f. fossils used to determine the relative ages of rock
layers
__________11. absolute age
g. a place where an eroded surface is in contact
with a newer rock layer
__________12. index fossil
h. a hardened layer of lava

28
Name
KEY
Date
Pd
Earths History in Geologic Time: Finding the Relative

Age of Rocks
The sediment that forms sedimentary rocks is deposited in flat layers. Over years, the
sediment becomes deeply buried, hardens, and changes into sedimentary rock. At the same time,
remains of organisms in the sediment may become fossils. These rock layers provide a record of
Earths geologic history.
The relative age of a rock is its age compared to the ages of other rocks. The absolute
age of a rock is the number of years since the rock formed. It can be difficult to determine the
absolute age of a rock. Geologists use the law of superposition to determine the relative ages of
sedimentary rock layers. According to the law of superposition, in horizontal sedimentary
rock layers the oldest is at the bottom. Each higher layer is younger than the layer below it.
There are other clues to the relative ages of rocks. Geologists find some of these clues by
studying extrusions and intrusions of igneous rock and faults. Igneous rock forms when magma
or lava har5dens. Lava that hardens on the surface is called an extrusion. The rock layers below
an extrusion are always older than the extrusion. Beneath the surface, magma may push into
bodies of rock. There, the magma cools and hardens into a mass of igneous rock called an
intrusion. An intrusion is always younger than the rock layers around and beneath it.
More clues come from the study of faults. A fault is a break in Earths crust. A fault is
always younger than the rock it cuts through. The surface where new rock layers meet a much
older rock surface beneath them is called an unconformity. An unconformity is a gap in the
geologic record. An unconformity shows where some rock layers have been lost because of
erosion.
To date rock layers, geologists first give a relative age to a layer of rock at one location
and then give the same age to matching layers at other locations. Certain fossils, called index
fossils, help geologists match rock layers. To be useful as an index fossil, a fossil must be widely
distributed and represent a type of organism that existed only briefly. Index fossils are useful
because they tell the relative ages of the rock layers in which they occur. Geologists use
particular types of organisms, such as trilobites, as index fossils. Trilobites were a group of hardshelled animals that evolved in shallow seas more than 500 million years ago. They later became
extinct. Trilobite fossils have been found in many different places.

29
Use the figure above to answer questions 1-4.

1. What is the youngest rock layer on the figure? Explain.
Rock Layer CThe law of superposition says the youngest rock is on top.
2. Is the extrusion older or younger than rock layer B? Explain.
YoungerExtrusions are always younger than the rock layers below them.
3. Is the fault older or younger than rock layer A? Explain.
YoungerA fault is always younger than the rock it cuts through.
4. How could a geologist use the fossil in rock layer B to date a rock layer in another location?
The fossil might be able to be used as an index fossil. Geologists can use index fossils to match
up rock layers at locations that are far apart.
Match each term with its definition by writing the letter of the correct definition on the line beside
the term.
_____b____ 5. fault
a. the number of years since a rock formed
_____h____ 6. extrusion
b. a break or crack along which rocks move
_____g____ 7. unconformity
c. the way to determine relative ages of rocks
_____e____ 8. relative age
d. a hardened layer of magma
_____c____ 9. law of superposition e. the age of a rock compared with the age of other
rocks
_____d____10. intrusion
f. fossils used to determine the relative ages of rock
layers
____a_____11. absolute age
g. a place where an eroded surface is in contact
with a newer rock layer
____f_____12. index fossil
h. a hardened layer of lava

30

31

32
Name
Date
Earths History in Geologic Time Review
(designed to be used with a Classroom Performance System)

1. What is an unconformity?
a. shows where some rock layers have been lost because of erosion
b. shows where some rock layers have been lost because of extrusion
c. break in the Earths crust
d. lava that hardens on the Earths surface
2. Which of the following is a true statement based on the law of superposition?
a. The youngest layer of rock is at the bottom.
b. The higher the layer of rock, the older it is.
c. The lower the layer of rock, the younger it is.
d. The oldest layer of rock is at the bottom.
3. Which of the following is NOT an example of a vertebrate?
a. plant
b. fish
c. human
d. bird
4. During what era did land plants and animals emerge?
a. Precambrian
b. Paleozoic
c. Mesozoic
d. Cenozoic
5. What is evolution?
a. when minerals seep into the empty spaces of a mold
b. determining the absolute age of rocks
c. process by which all living things have changed over time
d. determining the relative ages of rocks using extrusions
6. A scientist who studies fossils is called
a. geologist
33
Pd
b. biologist
c. paleontologist
d. therapist
7. What does radioactive dating show you?
a. the relative age of rocks
b. the absolute age of rocks
c. the average age of rocks
d. the scientific age of rocks
8. The Jurassic Period in the Mesozoic Era is named after the
a. Mesa Mountains in New Jersey
b. Jura Mountains in France
c. Jurassic Mountains in Italy
d. Mesa Mountains in France
9. On the Geologic Time Scale, periods are the smaller segments of
a. epochs
b. eras
c. periods
d. eons
10. What forms when minerals replace all or part of an organism?
a. petrified fossil
b. organism
c. cast
d. mold
TRUE/FALSE
11. Fossils show changes in the Earths surface.
12. Fossils show how environments have changed over time.
13. By studying fossils, paleontologists can see how organisms have changed over time.
14. The half-life of a radioactive element is the time it takes for the element to grow twice
its size.
34
15. Fossils are usually found in igneous rock.

16. The absolute age of a rock is the number of years since the rock has formed.
17. The relative age of a rock is the number of years since the rock has formed.
18. The four eras on the Geologic Time Scale are Cenozoic, Mesozoic, Paleozoic, and
Centerzoic.
19. Magma that hardens on the surface is called an extrusion.
20. Index fossils are useful because they tell the relative ages of the rock layers in which
they occur.

35
Name
Date
Earths History in Geologic Time Review
(designed to be used with a Classroom Performance System)

1. What is an unconformity?
a. shows where some rock layers have been lost because of erosion
b. shows where some rock layers have been lost because of extrusion
c. break in the Earths crust
d. lava that hardens on the Earths surface
2. Which of the following is a true statement based on the law of superposition?
a. The youngest layer of rock is at the bottom.
b. The higher the layer of rock, the older it is.
c. The lower the layer of rock, the younger it is.
d. The oldest layer of rock is at the bottom.
3. Which of the following is NOT an example of a vertebrate?
a. plant
b. fish
c. human
d. bird
4. During what era did land plants and animals emerge?
a. Precambrian
b. Paleozoic
c. Mesozoic
d. Cenozoic
5. What is evolution?
a. when minerals seep into the empty spaces of a mold
b. determining the absolute age of rocks
c. process by which all living things have changed over time
d. determining the relative ages of rocks using extrusions
6. A scientist who studies fossils is called
a. geologist
36
Pd
b. biologist
c. paleontologist
d. therapist
7. What does radioactive dating show you?
a. the relative age of rocks
b. the absolute age of rocks
c. the average age of rocks
d. the scientific age of rocks
8. The Jurassic Period in the Mesozoic Era is named after the
a. Mesa Mountains in New Jersey
b. Jura Mountains in France
c. Jurassic Mountains in Italy
d. Mesa Mountains in France
9. On the Geologic Time Scale, periods are the smaller segments of
a. epochs
b. eras
c. periods
d. eons
10. What forms when minerals replace all or part of an organism?
a. petrified fossil
b. organism
c. cast
d. mold
TRUE/FALSE
11. Fossils show changes in the Earths surface. true
12. Fossils show how environments have changed over time. true
13. By studying fossils, paleontologists can see how organisms have changed over time.
true
14. The half-life of a radioactive element is the time it takes for the element to grow twice
its size. false
37
15. Fossils are usually found in igneous rock. false

16. The absolute age of a rock is the number of years since the rock has formed. true
17. The relative age of a rock is the number of years since the rock has formed. false
18. The four eras on the Geologic Time Scale are Cenozoic, Mesozoic, Paleozoic, and
Centerzoic. false
19. Magma that hardens on the surface is called an extrusion. false
20. Index fossils are useful because they tell the relative ages of the rock layers in which
they occur. true

38
Name
Date

Pre-Post Test
a) extrusion
b) unconformity
c) fault
d) intrusion
away except carbon.
a) epochs.
b) indexes.
c) periods.
d) relative dates.
except for:
g) changes in the Earths surface
h) how Earth originally formed.
i) how environments on Earth have changed over
time.
39
Pd
time.
a) Cenozoic Era
c) Paleozoic Era
d) Jurassic Period

a) sediment
b) faults
c) unconformities
d) ice
a) Age of Mammals
b) Age of Fish
c) Age of Reptiles
10) A scientist who studies fossils is called a(n) _______________.
_____________.
12)The ____________ of a radioactive element is the time it takes for half of the
radioactive atoms to decay.
13) Fossils are almost always found in ___________rock.
40
14) Plants and animals first reached land during the _____________Era.
15) An animal with a backbone is called a(n)_____________.
16) According to the law of superposition, the_________ layer is at the bottom. Each higher
layer is_________ than the layers below it.
17) The ________ _____ is the number of years since the rock has formed.
18) The __________ _______ is the age of a rock compared to the ages of other rocks.
the younger the rocks become. ___________
20) What is an unconformity?

41
Name
KEY
Date

Pre-Post Test
a) extrusion
b) unconformity
c) fault
d) intrusion

away except carbon.
a) epochs.
b) indexes.
c) periods.
d) relative dates.
except for:
a. changes in the Earths surface
b. how Earth originally formed.
c. how environments on Earth have changed over

42
Pd
time.
time.
a) Cenozoic Era
c) Paleozoic Era
d) Jurassic Period

a) sediment
b) faults
c) unconformities
d) ice
a) Age of Mammals
b) Age of Fish
c) Age of Reptiles
10) A scientist who studies fossils is called a(n) __paleontologist_________.
_evolution______.
12)The _half-life____ of a radioactive element is the time it takes for half of the radioactive
atoms to decay.
43
13) Fossils are almost always found in _sedimentary__rock.

14) Plants and animals first reached land during the __Paleozoic_______Era.
15) An animal with a backbone is called a(n)_vertebrate_____.
16) According to the law of superposition, the_older___ layer is at the bottom. Each higher
layer is_younger__ than the layers below it.
17) The _absolute_ _age__ is the number of years since the rock has formed.
18) The _relative____ __age___ is the age of a rock compared to the ages of other rocks.
the younger the rocks become. __false_____
20) What is an unconformity? An unconformity is a gap in the geologic record. It
shows where some rock layers have been lost to erosion.

44

Earth's History in Geologic Time

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Physical Science with Mathematical Modeling Workshop 2006

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Physical Science with Mathematical Modeling Workshop 2006