Aircraft pressurization system

Cabin pressurization provides a comfortable environment for passengers and crew while
allowing the aircraft to fly at higher altitudes. Flying at high altitudes is more fuel efficient and it
allows the aircraft to fly above most undesirable weather conditions. If an aircraft is to be
pressurized, the pressurized section (pressure vessel) must be strong enough to withstand
operational stresses. In general, the maximum altitude at which an aircraft can fly is limited by
the maximum allowable cabin differential pressure (pressure difference between ambient air and
the air inside the pressure vessel).
Turbine-engine aircraft usually utilize engine bleed air for pressurization. In these systems, high
pressure air is bled from the turbine-engines compressor. This also causes a reduction in
engine power but it is not as significant of a loss. Some aircraft use independent cabin
compressors for pressurization which are used to eliminate the problem of air contamination
Independent cabin compressors are driven by either:
1. The engine accessory section
2. Turbine-engine bleed air
These compressors may use one of two types of pumps:
1. Roots-type positive displacement pumps
2. Centrifugal cabin compressors

Components of pressurization system:

1. Cabin pressure regulator: The cabin pressure regulator controls cabin pressure to a
selected value in the isobaric range and limits cabin pressure to a preset differential value
in the differential range. When the airplane reaches the altitude at which the difference
between the pressure inside and outside the cabin is equal to the highest differential
pressure for which the fuselage structure is designed, a further increase in airplane altitude
will result in a corresponding increase in cabin altitude. Differential control is used to
prevent the maximum differential pressure, for which the fuselage was designed, from
being exceeded. This differential pressure is determined by the structural strength of the

cabin and often by the relationship of the cabin size to the probable areas of rupture, such
as window areas and doors.

2. Heat exchanger: It is used to cool the hot pressurized air to a usable temperature.

3. Outflow valve: The outflow valve regulates the amount of pressurized air that is allowed
to exit the cabin. Hence is provides a constant inflow of air to the pressurized area.

4. Cabin pressure safety valve: The cabin air pressure safety valve is a combination pressure
relief, vacuum relief, and dump valve. The pressure relief valve prevents cabin pressure
from exceeding a predetermined differential pressure above ambient pressure. The
vacuum relief prevents the cabin pressure from going below that of the ambient pressure
by allowing external air to enter the cabin when cabin pressure goes below the ambient
pressure. Dump valve is used to release all cabin pressure when aircraft lands. It is often
controlled by landing gear squat switch. When this switch is positioned to ram, a solenoid
valve opens, causing the valve to dump cabin air to atmosphere.

Other than the above components an aircraft pressurization system is incorporated with a cabin
differential pressure gauge which indicates the difference between inside and outside pressure.
This gauge should be monitored to assure that the cabin does not exceed the maximum allowable
differential pressure. A cabin altimeter is also provided as a check on the performance of the
system. Sometimes these two instruments combined with each other. Another instrument is also
incorporated which indicates the cabin rate of climb or descent.

In order to pressurize the cabin, air is bled from the compressor directly. Hot air is passed
through the heat exchanger where it is cool down to a temperature usable for cabin
pressurization. The cool air is then channeled to a paper filter and thence to cabin pressure
regulator. The regulator senses the pressure differential and controls the pressure inside the
cabin. Excess air is bled directly to the cabin. Numerous safety devices are built into the system
to ensure proper operation. The cabin safety valve is set to 0.34 bar. The amount of pressure
differential is governed by outflow valve. This system ensures a constant differential pressure of

220 Torrr or 0.31 bar. Usually pressurizatiion system is so desiggned that the cabin preessure
remains the same ass ambient prressure up to
t 6000 ft, after which cabin presssure decreasses in
direct rattio with altitu
ude maintainning the aforre mentionedd cabin presssure differenntial (0.31 baar).

Figure: Aircraft pressurization system

s
poweered with gaas turbine enggine

Aircraft fuel system

The fuel system for gas turbine engine delivers a uniform flow of clean fuel at proper pressure
and in the necessary quantity required for operation of engine to the engine fuel metering system.
Despite widely varying atmospheric conditions, the fuel supply must be adequate and continuous
to meet the demands of the engine during flight.

The primary requirements of the fuel system are

To control accurate and stable engine speed for steady-state operations and to provide
transient control to achieve rapid power changes. This system pumps, filters, and meters fuel
in response to power-available spindle (PAS) position, load-demand spindle (LDS) position,
sensed engine variables, and torque motor input from the electrical control unit.

To position the compressor variable stator vanes throughout the engine operating range to
achieve the required airflow and stall margin performance by the compressor.

To provide a schedule for starting bleed valve.

To provide automatic start schedules from sea level to 20,000 feet altitude.

To protect the engine against destructive gas generator and power turbine overspeed.

These requirements must be met over the full engine operating envelope and environment.

Components of an aircraft fuel system

1. Fuel pumps : Main fuel pumps deliver a continuous supply of fuel at the proper pressure
during operation of the aircraft engine. These engine-driven fuel pumps must be able to
deliver the maximum flow needed at high pressure to obtain satisfactory nozzle spray and
accurate fuel regulation. These fuel pumps may be divided into two distinct system
categories constant displacement and variable displacement. Gear-type constant
displacement pumps have approximately straight-line flow characteristics, whereas fuel
requirements fluctuate with flight or ambient air conditions. With variable displacement
pumps the pump displacement is changed to meet varying fuel flow requirements; that is,

the amount of fuel discharged from the pump. Hence the unit controls the amount of
applicable fuel automatically and accurately regulates the pump pressure and delivery to
the engine. Other than the main fuel pump a boost pump is also incorporated as added
reliability to the fuel system.

2. Fuel filters: All gas turbine engines have several fuel filters at various points along the
system. It is common practice to install at least one filter before the fuel pump and one on
the high-pressure side of the pump. In most cases the filter will incorporate a relief valve
set to open at a specified pressure differential to provide a bypass for fuel when filter
contamination becomes excessive.

3. Pressurizing and drain(dump) valve: The pressurizing and drain valve prevents flow to
the fuel nozzles until sufficient pressure is reached in the main fuel control. Once
pressure is attained, the servo assemblies compute the fuel-flow schedules. It also drains
the fuel manifold at engine shutdown to prevent post-shutdown fires. But it keeps the
upstream portion of the sure and delivery to the engine system primed to permit faster
starts.

4. Fuel heater: Gas turbine engine fuel systems are very susceptible to the formation of ice
in the fuel filters. A fuel heater operates as a heat exchanger to warm the fuel. The heater
can use engine bleed air, an air-to-liquid exchanger, or an engine lubricating oil, a liquidto-liquid exchanger, as a source of heat. A fuel heater protects the engine fuel system
from ice formation.

5. Fuel nozzles: On most gas turbine engines, fuel is introduced into the combustion
chamber through a fuel nozzle. This nozzle creates a highly atomized, accurately shaped
spray of fuel for rapid mixing and combustion with the primary airstream under varying
conditions of fuel and airflow. Most engines use either the single (simplex) or the dual
(duplex) nozzle.

6. Fuel shutoff valves: A fuel shutoff valve is usually installed between the fuel control unit
and the fuel nozzles. It is controlled from the pilot's compartment. When the throttle is
placed in the closed position, this ensures positive shutoff of fuel to the engine.

Figure: Schematic of Gas turbine fuel system

Operation
The gas turbine fuel system is entirely controlled by the Turbine Digital Electronic Control
Unit. Operation of fuel system can be classified as following:

Start-up
When the start-up function is selected on the control and indication panel, ignition
solenoid valve opens which supplies the starting injectors with fuel which is injected into
the combustion chamber through fuel nozzles. Atomized fuel mixes with the air and gets
ignited on contact with the igniters. After two seconds, the fuel shut-off solenoid valve is
energized and a reduced fuel flow passes through the injection manifold and ignites in the

combustion chamber. After five seconds, the ignition solenoid valve and the two igniters
are de-energized. From this point onwards, the fuel gas passes only through the injection
manifold.
Normal operation
Under normal operation, the control unit acts on the metering valve in order to increase or
decrease the flow of gas entering the combustion chamber and adapt the power to the set
value.
Shut down
Any shut-down order given by the pilot, or initiated by any of the safety functions, results
in the closing of the fuel metering valve and the de-energization of the fuel shut-off
solenoid valve, which also closes.

Figure: Gas turbine fuel system

Lubrication system
The lubrication system is required to provide lubrication and cooling for all gears, bearings and
splines. It must also be capable of collecting foreign matter which, if left in a bearing housing or
gearbox, can cause rapid failure. Additionally, the oil must protect the lubricated components
which are manufactured from non-corrosion resistant materials. Additional requirements for a
lubrication system for a turbo-propeller engine are lubrication of heavily loaded propeller
reduction gears and high pressure oil supply to operate propeller pitch control mechanism. All
gas turbine engines are equipped with a self-contained re-circulating lubrication system in which
the oil is distributed around the engine and returned to the oil tank by pumps. The principal
components of a gas turbine lube oil system are as follows:
1. Sump: Sump. Most gas turbines have a self-contained lube oil sump. If additional oil
capacity is required, a separately mounted tank may be supplied.

2. Cooling system: Gas turbine oil may be cooled by water, air, fuel, or oil. In aviation gas
turbines, oil is cooled by passing air over the oil sump or by an oil-to-air heat exchanger.
Regenerative (fuel) cooling can be employed on gas turbines where the cooling
requirements are relatively low.

3. Venting: To prevent excessive oil loss from venting oil vapor overboard, bearing sumps
are usually vented to an air-to-oil separator. The sump air is vented to the exhaust after
passing through the separator and the oil is returned to the main sump.

4. Lube oil filters: Filters are integrally located prior to each critical feed point. A main
lube filter assembly, usually composed of a coarse filter followed by a fine filter, is
supplied with each engine. To prevent continued use of unfiltered oil, routed through the
bypass to the engine when the filters are clogged, most filters and strainers have

differential pressure gages to assist the operator in determining when the elements require
changing, and alarms to warn operators of bypassing flow.

5. Lube oil strainers: Lube oil strainers usually contain a built-in pressure relief valve of a
size sufficient to bypass all the oil around the strainer in the event of clogging so an
uninterrupted oil flow to the engine will be maintained. The bypass line should be
connected to an audible alarm to inform engine operators that strainers are clogged.

Figure: Scavenging oil system as part of re-circulatory lubrication system

There are two basic recirculatory systems, known as the pressure relief valve system and the
full flow system. The major difference between them is in the control of the oil flow to the
bearings.

 In the pressure relief valve system the oil flow to the bearing chambers is controlled by
limiting the pressure in the feed line to a given design value. This is accomplished by the use
of a spring loaded valve which allows oil to be directly returned from the pressure pump
outlet to the oil tank, or pressure pump inlet, when the design value is exceeded. The valve
opens at a pressure which corresponds to the idling speed of the engine, thus giving a
constant feed pressure over normal engine operating speeds. However, increasing engine
speed causes the bearing chamber pressure to rise sharply. This reduces the pressure
difference between the bearing chamber and feed jet, thus decreasing the oil flow rate to the
bearings as engine speed increases. To alleviate this problem, some pressure relief valve
systems use the increasing bearing chamber pressure to augment the relief valve spring load,
This maintains a constant flow rate at the higher engine speeds by increasing the pressure in
the feed line as the bearing chamber pressure increases. Although the pressure relief valve
system operates satisfactorily for engines which have a low bearing chamber pressure, which
does not unduly increase with engine speed, it becomes an undesirable system for engines
which have high chamber pressures.
The full flow system achieves the desired oil flow rates throughout the complete engine
speed range by dispensing with the pressure relief valve and allowing the pressure pump
delivery pressure to supply directly the oil feed jets. The pressure pump size is determined by
the flow required at maximum engine speed. To prevent high oil pressures from damaging
filters or coolers, pressure limiting valves are fitted to by-pass these units. These valves
normally only operate under cold starting conditions or in the event of a blockage. Advance
warning of a blocked filter may be indicated in the cockpit by a differential pressure switch
which senses an increase in the pressure difference between the inlet and outlet of the filter.

Ignition system
Ignitions systems for gas turbine engines are required to operate for starting only. Ignition
systems for a gas turbine engine usually consist of three main components:
1. Exciter box- Exciter box sends the high voltage current to ignition lead
2. Ignition lead- Ignition lead transfers the high voltage current to igniter.
3. Igniter- Igniter is mounted on the engine in such a way that it protrudes into the
combustion chamber. High voltage current generated by the exciter is discharged across
the electrodes of the igniter and ignites the fuel air mixture inside the combustion
chamber.
Usually, gas turbine engines are equipped with two or more igniter plugs. An important
characteristic of a gas turbine engine ignition system is high energy discharge at igniter plug
because it is difficult to ignite the air-fuel mixture under some operating condition like at high
altitude. The high energy discharge is accomplished by means of a storage capacitor in what is
termed as high-energy capacitor discharge system.
Ignition units are rated in joules and these are designed to provide variable output according to
the operation requirements. A high value output such as 12J is necessary to ensure the reliability
of operation of ignition system at high altitude and sometimes at the time of starting.

Figure: Gas turbine ignition system

Starting system
Two separate systems are required to ensure that a gas turbine engine will start satisfactorily.
Firstly, provision must be made for the compressor and turbine to be rotated up to a speed at
which adequate air passes into the combustion system to mix with fuel from the fuel spray
nozzles. Secondly, provision must be made for ignition of the air/fuel mixture in the combustion
system. During engine starting the two systems must operate simultaneously. Starters for gas
turbines engines may be classified as air turbine (pneumatic) starters, electric starters and fuel-air
combustion starters.
Air turbines are the most common starters in large aircrafts because the high pressure air is
usually available and they have the lowest weight and size. Air turbine module comprises of inlet
valve, intake, usually a single stage axial flow turbine and an exhaust. For aircraft engines the
compressed air is supplied to the turbine from either an on-board APU, a ground start cart or by
cross bleed from another engine. The turbine cranks the engine HP (high pressure) spool via
reduction gear, clutch, engine accessory gearbox, a radial shaft and a bevel gear.

Figure: Air turbine starters

Electric starters are preferred for small gas-turbine engines. Major components of an electric
system are batteries and an electric motor driving the HP spool via a clutch, gear box and bevel
gear.

Figure: Major components of an electric starter

A combustor starter unit consists of a small combustion chamber into which high pressure air,
from an aircraft-mounted storage bottle, and fuel, from the engine fuel system, are introduced.
Control valves are provided to regulate the air supply which pressurizes a fuel accumulator to
give sufficient fuel pressure for atomization and also activates the continuous ignition system.
The fuel/air mixture is ignited in the combustion chamber and the resultant gas is directed onto
the turbine of the air starter. An electrical circuit is provided to shut off the air supply which in
turn terminates the fuel and ignition systems on completion of the starting cycle.