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Ans.
Advantages:
WiMax
(802.16a)
Wi-Fi
(802.11b)
Wi-Fi
(802.11a/g)
Primary
Application
Broadband Wireless
Access
Wireless LAN
Wireless LAN
Frequency Band
Licensed/Unlicensed
2 G to 11 GHz
Channel
Bandwidth
Adjustable
1.25 M to 20 MHz
25 MHz
20 MHz
Half/Full Duplex
Full
Half
Half
Radio Technology
OFDM
(256-channels)
Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum
OFDM
(64-channels)
Bandwidth
Efficiency
<=5 bps/Hz
<=0.44 bps/Hz
<=2.7 bps/Hz
Modulation
BPSK, QPSK,
16-, 64-, 256-QAM
QPSK
BPSK, QPSK,
16-, 64-QAM
FEC
Convolutional Code
Reed-Solomon
None
Convolutional Code
Encryption
Mandatory- 3DES
Optional- AES
Optional- RC4
(AES in 802.11i)
Optional- RC4
(AES in 802.11i)
Mobility
Mobile WiMax
(802.16e)
In development
In development
Mesh
Yes
Vendor
Proprietary
Vendor Proprietary
Access Protocol
Request/Grant
CSMA/CA
CSMA/CA
Private Key
pr = {d, n} = {3, 33}
Encryption:
C = Me mod n = 57 mod 33 = 14
Decription:
M = Cd mod n = 143 mod 33 = 5
Q2 (a) Explain HIPPI Protocol. What are its limitations and Characteristics?
Ans. The High-Performance Peripheral Interface (HIPPI) protocol was designed to facilitate highspeed communications between very high-performance computers (such as supercomputers), and
thereby to attempt to meet their I/O requirements.
HIPPI is a very high-speed data transfer protocol, with the following properties, features, and
Limitations:
When node is transmitting, a large fraction of the signal energy leaks into the receiver path.
The transmitted and received power levels can differ by orders of magnitude
The leakage signal typically has much higher power than the received signal -> Impossible
to detect a received signal, while transmitting data
As collision cannot be detected by the sender, all proposed protocols attempt to minimize the
probability of collision -> Focus on collision avoidance.
2. Time varying channel
Reflection occurs when a propagating wave impinges upon an object that has very large dimensions
than the wavelength of the radio wave e.g. reflection occurs from the surface of the earth and from
buildings and walls.
Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and the receiver is obstructed by a
Surface with sharp edges
Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave travels consists of objects with
dimensions smaller than the wavelength of the wave
The received signal by a node is a superposition of time-shifted and attenuated versions of the
transmitted signals ->The received signal varies with time
The time varying signals (time varying channel) phenomenon -> also known as multipath propagation
The rate of variation of channel is determined by the coherence time of the channel
Coherence time is defined as time within which the received signal strength changes by 3 dB
When a nodes received signal strength drops below a certain threshold the node is said to be in
fade
Handshaking is widely used strategy to ensure the link quality is good enough for data communication
A successful handshake between a sender and a receiver (small message) indicates a good
communication link
3. Burst channel errors
As a consequence of time varying channel and varying signals strengths ->errors are introduced in the
transmission (Very likely)
For wireline networks the bit error rate (BER) is typically i.e. the probability of packet error is small
For wireline networks the errors are due to random noise
For wireless networks the BER is as high as 10^-3
For wireless networks the errors are due to node being in fade as a result errors occur in a long burst
Packet loss due to burst errors - mitigation techniques
Smaller packets
Forward Error Correcting Codes
Retransmissions
Ans. Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB) is a Data-link layer communication protocol for Metropolitan
Area Networks (MANs), specified in the IEEE 802.6 standard and designed for use in MANs. DQDB is
designed for data as well as voice and video transmission and is based on cell switching technology (similar
to ATM). DQDB, which permits multiple systems to interconnect using two unidirectional logical buses, is
an open standard that is designed for compatibility with carrier transmission standards such as SMDS.
For a MAN to be effective it requires a system that can function across long, city-wide distances of several
miles, have a low susceptibility to error, adapt to the number of nodes attached and have variable bandwidth
distribution. Using DQDB, networks can be thirty miles long and function in the range of 34 Mbps to 155
Mbps. The data rate fluctuates due to many hosts sharing a dual bus, as well as to the location of a single host
in relation to the frame generator, but there are schemes to compensate for this problem making DQDB
function reliably and fairly for all hosts.
The DQDB is composed of two bus lines with stations attached to both and a frame generator at the end of
each bus. The buses run in parallel in such a fashion as to allow the frames generated to travel across the
stations in opposite directions. Below is a picture of the basic DQDB architecture.
DQDB Architecture
(b) List the various types of Timers and Time Registers used in FIDDI.
Ans. Time Registers
FDDI defines three time registers to control circulation of the token and distribute link access opportunities
among the nodes equitably. Values are set when the ring is initialized and do not vary in the course of
operation. The registers are called synchronous allocation (SA), target token rotation time (TTRT), and
absolute maximum time (AMT).
1. Synchronous Allocation (SA) The SA register indicates the length of time allowed each station for
sending synchronous data. This value is different for each station and is negotiated during
initialization of the ring.
2. Target Token Rotation Time (TTRT) The TTRT register indicates the average time required for a
token to circulate around the ring exactly once (the elapsed time between a token's arrival at a given
station and its next arrival at the same station). Because it is an average, the actual time of any
rotation may be greater or less than this value.
3. Absolute Maximum Time (AMT) The AMT register holds a value equal to twice the TTRT. A token
may not take longer than this time to make one rotation of the ring. If it does, some station or stations
are monopolizing the network and the ring must be reinitialized.
Timers
Each station contains a set of timers that enable it to compare actual timings with the values contained in the
registers. Timers can be set and" reset, and the_ values decremented or incremented at a rate set by the
system clock. The two timers used by FDDI are called the token rotation timer (TRT) and token holding
timer (THT).
1. Token Rotation Timer (TRT) The TRT runs continuously and measures the actual time taken by the
token to complete a cycle. In our implementation, we use an incrementing TRT for simplicity,
although some implementations may use a decremenlin1 timer.
2. Token Holding Timer (THT) The THT begins running as soon as the token is received. Its function is
to show how much time remains for sending asynchronous frames once the synchronous frames have
been sent. In our implementation, we use a decrementing THT for simplicity, although some
implementations may use an incrementing one. In addition, we allow the value of THT to become
negative (to make the concept easier to understand) although a real timer may stay at zero.
Q4 (a) Differentiate between Statefull and Stateless address assignment Protocols of IPv6.
Stateful
1:1 translation
1:N translation
router#configure terminal
router(config)#ipv6 unicast-routing
router(config)#interface interface
Enter OSPFv3 router configuration modeNote: This router(config-if)#ipv6 router ospf process-id
is a global configuration mode command
B. Connection hijacking
The connection-hijacking attack is shown in Figure. A, B and C are IPv6 addresses. The Internet nodes A
and B are honest and communicating with each other. An attacker at the address C sends a false binding
update to B, claiming to be a mobile with the home address A. If B, acting in the role of a correspondent,
believes the binding update and creates a binding, it will redirect to C all packets that are intended for A.
Thus, the attacker can intercept packets sent by B to A. The attacker can also spoof data packets from A by
inserting a false home-address option into them. This way, it can hijack existing connections between A
and B, and open new ones pretending to be A. The attacker can also redirect the packets to a random or
non-existent care-of address in order to disrupt the communication between the honest nodes. It has to
send a new binding update every few minutes to refresh the binding cache entry at the correspondent.
C. Denial of Service
It is an attempt to make a computer resource unavailable to its intended users. Although the means to carry
out, motives for, and targets of a Denial of Service attack may vary, it generally consists of the concerted
efforts of a person, or multiple people to prevent an Internet site or service from functioning efficiently or
at all, temporarily or indefinitely. By sending spoofed BUs, an attacker could also send large amounts of
unwanted traffic to overwhelm the resources of a single node or that of a network. The attacker could first
find a site with streaming video or another heavy data stream and establish a connection with it. Then it
could send a BU to the corresponding node, saying to redirect subsequent data traffic to the attackers new
location, that of an arbitrary node. This arbitrary node would be then bombed with a large amount of
unnecessary traffic. Similarly, the attacker could also use spoofed BUs to redirect several streams of
data to random addresses with the network prefix of a particular target network, thereby congesting an
entire network with unwanted data
D. Eavesdropping
Eavesdropping is type of a theft of information attack. It may be passive or active. A passive
eavesdropping attack happens when an attacker start to listen to the traffic and get useful information by
gathering the session data that is transferred between mobile device and its home agent. In case of wireless
network an intruder is able to receive packets transmitted by radio signals. In case of active eavesdropping
the attacker makes independent connections with the victims and relays messages between them, making
them believe that they are talking directly to each other over a private connection, when in fact the entire
conversation is controlled by the attacker. The attacker must be able to intercept all messages going
between the two victims and inject new ones, which is straightforward in many circumstances.
Q7
Explain S / MIME.
Although AH authenticates as much of the IP datagram as possible, the values of certain fields in the IP
header cannot be predicted by the receiver. AH does not protect these fields, known as mutable fields.
However, AH always protects the payload of the IP packet.