CELL STRUCTURE

Microscopy

Cells are small enough to be seen by the human eyes. We need a microscope
to see the cells. Different types of microscopes exist. The one we use in our
laboratory is a light microscope since it uses light radiation as the source of
illumination to enable cellular structures to be seen. The microscope is limited by
their magnification and resolution.

Magnification refers to the number of times a specimen is increased in size.

Microscope use lenses to do this. The more powerful the lenses the greater is
the magnification. Light microscope has a magnification of x1500 while electron
microscope can magnify by x250 000 times or more. Magnification, however, will
not necessarily give more details. To be able to see more details a microscope
must have a good resolution.

Resolution is the capacity to distinguish between two separate points. The

general rule is that resolution is about one half of the wavelength of the radiation
being used to view the specimen. Visible light has a wavelength of 400nm-
700nm. Therefore, the resolution of light microscope is 200 nm whilst electron
microscope has a resolution of 0.5 nm. Thus any cellular structures smaller than
200 nm (in light microscope), cannot be discriminated as separate.

Measurement of cell size

In practical, you will be called upon to determine the actual size cellular
structures. For this we need an eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer.
Previously, stage micrometer had a scale of 1mm line. Now, the 1cm scale line is
available and used often. Whichever you use, the principles are the same.
The stage micrometer is divided into 100 small divisions of dimension of 100 µm
each. To measure the size of a specimen we need first to calibrate the eyepiece
graticule.

Calibration

• Place the stage micrometer slide on the stage of the microscope and focus
on the 1cm line using your lowest power objective (x10)
• Line up the eyepiece graticule with the stage cm line and move the slide to
bring the scales parallel to each other.
• Identify two points where both scales coincide with each other.
• Count the number of eyepiece divisions and stage micrometer divisions in
between the two coinciding points.

Say, you get 15 eyepiece divisions and 3 stage micrometer divisions. This
implies that, 15 divisions are equivalent to 3 x 100 µm. Therefore, we calculate
for one eyepiece division, which is equal to 300/15 = 20µm.

Once you know what one eyepiece division represents, you can remove your
stage micrometer and place your specimen to be viewed. You just have to count
the number of divisions each structure in the specimen is giving you. Say, a
structure has a diameter given by ½ a division, so the diameter of that structure
would be 10 µm (20/2 µm). Try these examples…

Ex.1 Calibration under low power

Suppose 40 divisions of the eyepiece scale fit into 1 mm of the stage micrometer.
What is the value of one eyepiece division? You should get 25 µm.
Ex 2. Calibration under high power
Suppose that 23 units of the eyepiece graticule fit into the 0.1mm scale of the
stage micrometer. What is the value of one eyepiece division? You should arrive
at 4.35 µm.
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Organisms whose cells normally contain a nucleus are called eukaryotes; those
(generally smaller) organisms whose cells lack a nucleus and have no
membrane-bound organelles are known as prokaryotes.

Differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Features Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Typical
bacteria Protoctista, fungi, plants, animals
organisms

Typical size ~ 10-100 μm (sperm cells) apart

~ 1-10 μm
from the tail, are smaller)

Type of nucleus Nuclear body real nucleus with nuclear envelope

No nucleus

DNA linear molecules (chromosomes)

circular (ccc DNA)
with histone proteins

Ribosomes 70S 80S

Cytoplasmatic highly structured by membranes

very few structures
structure and a cytoskeleton

Cell movement Flagellae/cilia made of flagellin flagellae and cilia made of tubulin

Mitochondria none 1 - 100 (though RBC’s have none)

Chloroplasts in algae and plants

none

single cells, colonies, higher

Organization usually single cells
multicellular organisms with
specialized cells

Cell division Binary fission Mitosis (normal cell replication)

(simple division) Meiosis (gamete production)
CELL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS
Cell membrane

The cell membrane is barrier separating every cell from its external environment.
It is partially permeable, that is, it controls what passes into and out of the cell.

Cytoplasm

Everything within the cell membrane which is not the nucleus is known as the
cytoplasm. It is the jelly-like mixture in which the other organelles are suspended.
Organelles carry out specific functions within the cell. In eukaryotic cells, most
organelles are surrounded by a membrane, but in Prokaryotic cells there are no
membrane-bound organelles.

Nucleus

The nucleus is normally the largest organelle within a eukaryotic cell. The
nucleus contains the chromosomes, which contain both linear DNA and proteins,
known as histones. The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane called the
nuclear envelope, which has many nuclear pores. Most nuclei contain at least
one nucleolus. The nucleoli are where ribosomes are synthesised.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria are found scattered throughout the cytosol, and are relatively large
organelles. Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration, in which energy
from organic compounds is transferred to ATP. For this reason they are
sometimes referred to as the ‘powerhouse’ of the cell. ATP is the molecule that
most cells use as their main energy ‘currency’. Mitochondria are more numerous
in cells that have a high energy requirement - our muscle cells contain a large
number of mitochondria, as do liver, heart and sperm cells. Mitochondria are
surrounded by two membranes, indicating that they were once free-living
organisms that have become mutualistic and then a part of almost every
eukaryotic cell. The inner membrane has many long folds, known as cristae,
which greatly increase the surface area of the inner membrane, providing more
space for ATP synthesis to occur. Mitochondria have their own DNA, and new
mitochondria arise only when existing ones grow and divide.

Ribosomes

Unlike most other organelles, ribosomes are not surrounded by a membrane.

Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis in a cell. They are the most common
organelles in almost all cells. Some are free in the cytoplasm (Prokaryotes);
others line the membranes of rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER). They
exist in two sizes: 70s are found in all Prokaryotes, chloroplasts and
mitochondria, suggesting that they have evolved from ancestral Prokaryotic
organisms and 80s is found in all eukaryotic cells – attached to the rough ER.
Groups of 80s ribosomes, working together, are known as a polysome.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

The ER is a system of membranous tubules and sacs. The primary function of

the ER is to act as an internal transport system, allowing molecules to move from
one part of the cell to another. The quantity of ER inside a cell fluctuates,
depending on the cell's activity. Cells with a lot include secretory cells and liver
cells. The rough ER is studded with 80s ribosomes and is the site of protein
synthesis. The smooth ER is where polypeptides are converted into functional
proteins and where proteins are prepared for secretion. It is also the site of lipid
and steroid synthesis. Both types of ER transport materials throughout the cell.

Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus is the processing, packaging and secreting organelle of the
cell, so it is much more common in glandular cells. The Golgi apparatus is a
system of membranes, made of flattened sac-like structures called cisternae. It
works closely with the ER, to modify proteins for export by the cell.

Lysosomes

Lysosomes are small spherical organelles that enclose hydrolytic enzymes within
a single membrane. Lysosomes are the site of protein digestion – thus allowing
enzymes to be re-cycled when they are no longer required. They are also the site
of food digestion in the cell, and of bacterial digestion in phagocytes. Lysosomes
are formed from the Golgi apparatus that break off.

Cytoskeleton

Just as our body depends on our skeleton to maintain its shape and size, so a
cell needs structures to maintain its shape and size. In animal cells, which have
no cell wall, an internal framework called the cytoskeleton maintains the shape of
the cell, and helps the cell to move. The cytoskeleton consists of two structures:
a) microfilaments and b) microtubules. Microtubules have three functions: a) to
maintain the shape of the cell; b). to serve as tracks for organelles to move along
within the cell and c). they form the centriole.

Centriole

‘This consists of two bundles of microtubules at right-angles to each other. At the

start of mitosis and meiosis, the centriole divides, and one half moves to each
end of the cell, forming the spindle.
PLANT CELL STRUCTURES
Most of the organelles and other parts of the cell are common to all eukaryotic
cells. Cells from different organisms have an even greater difference in structure.
Plant cells have three additional structures not found in animal cells:

Cellulose cell wall

One of the most important features of all plants is presence of a cellulose cell
wall. The cell wall is freely permeable (porous), and so has no direct effect on
the movement of molecules into or out of the cell. The rigidity of cell walls helps
both to support and protect the plant. Plant cell walls are of two types: a). Primary
(cellulose) cell wall - While a plant cell is being formed, a middle lamella made of
pectin, is formed and the cellulose cell wall develops between the middle lamella
and the cell membrane. As the cell expands in length, more cellulose is added,
enlarging the cell wall. When the cell reaches full size, a secondary cell wall may
form. b). Secondary (lignified) cell wall - The secondary cell wall is formed only in
woody tissue (mainly xylem). The secondary cell wall is stronger and waterproof
and once a secondary cell wall forms, a cell can grow no more – it is dead!

Vacuoles

The most prominent structure in plant cells is the large vacuole. The vacuole is a
large membrane-bound sac that fills up much of most plant cells. The vacuole
serves as a storage area, and may contain stored organic molecules as well as
inorganic ions. The vacuole is also used to store waste. Since plants have no
kidney, they convert waste to an insoluble form and then store it in their vacuole.
The vacuoles of some plants contain poisons (eg tannins) that discourage
animals from eating their tissues. Whilst the cells of other organisms may also
contain vacuoles, they are much smaller and are usually involved in food
digestion.
Chloroplasts (and other plastids)

A characteristic feature of plant cells is the presence of plastids that make or

store food. The most common of these (some leaf cells only!) are chloroplasts –
the site of photosynthesis. Each chloroplast encloses a system of flattened,
membranous sacs called thylakoids, which contain chlorophyll. The thylakoids
are arranged in stacks called grana. The space between the grana is filled with
cytoplasm-like stroma. Chloroplasts contain DNA and 70S ribosomes.

DRAWING SKILLS
What makes a good drawing?

The key to a good biological drawing is not to be artistic. It is more important to

have good observational skills. You are aiming to produce an accurate record of
the features you have observed on a particular specimen. The final drawing
should be neat, simple line drawing of the specimen without shading and other
enhancements. Do not be tempted to include features that you cannot observe.
You may have seen these features in a text book diagram, but they may not be
present or visible in a real specimen, so only draw what you can actually see and
not what you think should be there. Often, the best way is to draw the specimen
with all your biology books closed so that you are not tempted to check details in
a book or to copy from it.

TYPES OF DRAWING

There are three types of drawing that you could be asked to produce:

 A drawing of a whole specimen

 A low-power plan of a specimen and
 A high-power plan of a few cells of a microscopic specimen
Low power plans are usually drawn using the lowest magnification such as X40
or x100. The aim is to produce an outline of the areas of different tissues that you
can see. You should not add any details of the cells. Don’t be worried if your
drawing consists of just a few lines. Make sure all the parts are in proportion and
add a scale. You can use an eyepiece graticule to help you get the proportions
right.
High-power drawings, as the name suggests, are prepared using the highest
magnification of the microscope, for example X400. Once you have focused on
the specimen, choose three or four cells that look typical of the tissue you have
to draw. These cells have to be drawn in detail, so look carefully at their shape,
the presence of cell walls or membranes and content. As always, the cells have
to be in proportion to each other. You may not be able to see all the chloroplasts
in a palisade cell, so just outline one or two that you can see. Also the nucleus
may not be visible.

LABELLING YOUR DRAWING

Some drawing assessments are based on just actual drawing and not on the
labels. If you do have to label your drawing, make sure you draw straight label
lines. The labels should be written away from the actual drawing so that they do
not obscure any of the detail. Sometimes very brief labels are sufficient.
However, you may be asked to annotate your drawing. Annotations are short
explanatory comments on points of biological significance. These comments
should be concise and relevant. You don’t want to cover the paper in
annotations.
A biological drawing of a transverse section (TS) through a dicotyledonous leaf (A plan
diagram)

High power drawing of epidermal and palisade cells

PHOTOMICROGRAPHS

Cell Membrane
Nucleus
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Lysosomes
Centriole
Mitochondrion

Cell wall
Chloroplasts
Ultrastructure of animal cell

Ultrastructure of plant cell