Microproces

sor and
Microproces
Q1. What is microprocessor? What are the fundamental blocks of the
sor
microprocessor?
Developmen
Ans.
Microprocessor is a program controlled semiconductor device (IC) which
fetches,
decode and execute instructions. In the world of personal computers the terms
t System
microprocessors and CPUs are used interchangeably.

Along with CPU a microprocessor chip contains certain set of registers (called the
memory unit) along with the bus interfaces.

The basic units or blocks of a microprocessor are ALU, CU, Registers, Bus Interface
and Interfacing ports.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): ALU performs all arithmetic and logic operations
on data. These operations may include addition, subtraction, increment, decrement
etc. and logical operations like and, or, xor etc.
Control Unit (CU): Thing CU basically performs two tasks(i) Instruction Interpretation: It reads instruction from memory using PC, recognizes
instruction types, get necessary operands and routes them to appropriate functional
units. Then necessary signals are issued to perform desired operations.

(ii) Instruction Sequencing: It determines the address of next instruction to be

executed and also controls the timing of executing instructions. It maintains the
synchronization in operation of different parts in the microprocessor.

Array of registers: There are several general purpose registers to store data or address
for processing. Some special purpose registers are also present to facilitate processing
of specific addresses and data.

Bus Interface: Buses are used to carry address, data and control signals to and from
the microprocessor. Buses are high speed communication channels.

I/O Interfaces: The microprocessor needs to take input from the outside world through
input devices and display the processed result to the users through output devices.

Q2. Explain the evolution of microprocessor.

Ans. Intel 4004 was first microprocessor based on PMOS technology which came in
1971. It was of 4 bits. The processing speed was also very slow. Soon an enhanced
version of 4004 was introduced by Intel itself. Since then, several other 4 bit
microprocessors have been introduced such as Toshiba's T 3472.
The first 8 bit microprocessor was again introduced by Intel itself in 1973. This was
named 8008 which was followed by improved version 8080 by Intel. Intel also
introduced its 8085 after it. Since that time many other companies came to market
such as Motorola, Zilog, Fairchild, Hitachi etc.
After the 8 bit processors, the 16 bit processors became more popular with their
greater capacity and performance. Motorola's M68000, Intel's 8086 and 80286, and
Zilog's Z8000 were some of the powerful 16 bit processors.
Latest development in this sequence is the 32 bit microprocessors introduced by many
companies. Intel introduced 80386 which is very powerful 32 bit microprocessor. A
number of 64 bit microprocessors have also been developed, such as SUN's SPARC
and ULTRASPARC, Intel-HP's PA8000 series etc. Evolution in the microprocessors
from 1971 till today has been characterized by an improvement in the architecture and
instruction set.

Some of the famous Intel Microprocessors are:

Name
Intel 4004
Intel 8085
Intel 8086
Intel 80286/80386
Intel 80486
Intel Pentium
Intel Pentium II
Intel Pentium III,IV
Intel Itanium

Year
1971
1976
1982
1985
1989
1993
1997
2000
2001

Speed of Operation
750 KHz
3.07 MHz
5-10 MHz
6-12 MHz, 20-33 MHz
25-100 MHz
60-200 MHz
230-400 MHz
1.3GHz, 1.5GHz
2-3 GHz

Bits
4 bit
8 bit
16 bit
16 bit
32 bit
32 bit
32 bit
32 bit
32bit/64bit

Memory
1 Kb
64 Kb
1 Mb
16 Mb
4 Gb
4-6 Gb
4-6 Gb
4-6 Gb
4-12 Gb

Q3. Explain the architecture of a microprocessor.

Ans. The block diagram includes three major logic devices:
1. ALU: (from 1)
2. Several Registers:
*Program Counter: It gives the address of the memory location from where the next
instruction is to be fetched.
*Instruction Register: Instruction read from the memory is loaded into the I.R. It is
then send to the instruction decoder, which decodes the instruction and gives decoded
signal as an input to the control unit.
*A Register (Accumulator): It holds one of the operands required for operation by the
ALU and after performing operation the result is also stored in Accumulator.
*Status Register: It is used to store the result of certain conditions such as if result is
zero, if result is negative etc.
3. CU: (from 1)

Q4. Give the four operations commonly performed by the MPU

(Microprocessing Unit).
Ans. The following operations are performed by the MPU:
a. Memory Read- Reads data or instructions from the memory.
b. Memory Write- Writes data or instructions into memory.
c. I/O Read- Accepts data from input devices.
d. I/O Write- Sends data to output devices.
All these operations are part of the communication process between the MPU and
peripheral devices.

Q5. Explain classification of memory.

Ans. The memory module consists of two sections: an internal memory section for
storage of active data and instructions and an external memory section for long term
storage. The internal memory is also called primary memory or main memory as it
can be directly accessed by the microprocessor with a random access.
Due to this such memories are able to respond fast enough to synchronize with the
execution speed of the microprocessor. On the other hand external memory devices
cannot be directly accessed by the microprocessor. These devices are also called
secondary device or secondary memory.

Main memory: The main memory is also called the semiconductor memory. They are
classified as:

(i) ROM (Read Only Memory) - We cannot write data in this memory. It is nonvolatile memory i.e. it can hold data even if power is turned off. Generally ROM is
used to store the information that doesn't change. There are 4 types of ROMs:

a> Masked ROM - A diode ROM consists of only diodes and a decoder. Nowadays
ROMs use MOS technology instead of diode. Here, diodes and pull up resistors are
replaced by MOS transistors. In IC a thin metallized layer connects the gates of some
transistors to row select lines depending on data to be stored in ROM. Once the
pattern or mask is decided it is possible to make thousands of such ROMs. Such
ROMs are called Mask-Programmed ROMs. Masked ROMs are used in
microprocessor based toys, TV games, home computers etc.

b> PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) - It has diode in every bit position
therefore the output is initially all 0s. Each diode however has a fusible link in series
in series with it. By addressing bit and applying proper current pulse at the
corresponding o/p, we can blow out the fuse, storing logic 1 at that bit position. For
blowing the fuse it is necessary to pass around 20 to 50 mA of current for period 5 to

20 microseconds. The blowing of fuse according to the truth table is called

programming of ROM. The PROMs are one time programmable. Once programmed,
the information stored is permanent.

c> EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM) - EPROM uses MOS circuitry. They
stores 1s and 0s as a packet of charge in a buried layer of the IC chip. We can erase
the stored data in the EPROMs by exposing the chip to ultraviolet light through its
quartz window for 15 to 20 minutes. It is not possible to erase selective information,
when erased the entire information is lost. The chip can be reprogrammed. It is ideally
suitable for product development, experimental projects and college labs. When
erased each cell in the EPROM contains 1. Data is introduced by selectively
programming 0s into the desired bit locations.

d> EEPROM (Electrically EPROM) - EEPROM also uses MOS circuitry very similar
to that of EPROM. Data is stored as charge or no charge on an insulated layer or an
insulated floating gate in the device. The insulating layer is made very thin. Therefore,
a voltage as low as 20 to 25 V can be used to move charges across the thin barrier in
either direction for programming or erasing. It allows selective erasing at the register
level rather than erasing all the information since the information can be changed by
using electrical signals. It also has a special chip erase mode by which entire chip can
be erased in 10 milliseconds. However, EEPROMs are most expensive and the least
dense ROMs.

(ii)RAM (Random Access Memory) - Unlike ROM, we can read from or write into
the RAM, so it is often called read/write memory. The data that are to be processed by
the computer change frequently. These data must be stored in type of memory from
which they can be read by the microprocessor, modified through processing and
written back for storage. For this reason they are stored in RAM instead of ROM. But
it is a volatile memory, i.e. it cannot hold data when power is turned off.
There are two types of RAMs-

a> Static RAM - Memories that consists of circuits capable of retaining their state as
long as power is applied are known as static memories. These are Random Access

Memories and hence combinly called Static RAM memories. Memory cells are
organized in the form of an array, in which each cell is capable of storing one bit of
information.

b> Dynamic RAM - Dynamic RAM stores the data as a charge on the capacitor. A
DRAM contains thousands of such memory cells. Since only a single MOSFET and
capacitor are needed, the dynamic RAM contains more memory cells as compared to
static RAM per unit area. The disadvantage of dynamic RAM is that it needs
refreshing of on the capacitor after every few milliseconds.

Q6. Differentiate between SRAM and DRAM.

Ans.
Static Ram
1. SRAM contains less memory cells per
unit area.
2. It has less access time hence faster
memories.
3. SRAM consists of no. of flip-flops.
Each flip flop stores one bit.
4. Refreshing circuitry is not required.

5. Cost is more.

Dynamic Ram
1. DRAM contains more memory cells as
compared to SRAM per unit area.
2. Its access time is greater than static
RAM.
3. DRAM stores the data as a charge on
the capacitor. It consists of MOSFET and
the capacitor for each cell.
4. Refreshing circuitry is required to
maintain the charge on the capacitors
after every few milliseconds.
5. Cost is less.

Q7. Explain register. What are shift registers and their types?
Ans. Register- A group of flip-flops can be used to store a word, which is called
register. A flip-flop can store 1-bit information. So an n-bit register has a group of n
flip-flops and is capable of storing any binary information/number containing n-bits.

Shift Register- The binary information in a register can be moved from stage to stage
within the register or into or out of the register upon application of clock pulses. This
type of movement or shifting is essential for certain arithmetic and logic operations
used in microprocessors. This gives rise to a group of registers called 'shift registers'.
The basic types of shift registers in terms of data movement are as follows:
1. Serial Input Serial Output

Data bits are shifted by 1 position per clock cycle.

2. Serial Input Parallel Output

Data can be loaded into register by shift right serial operation in 4 clock cycles. It is
then made available simultaneously at the output.
3. Parallel Input Serial Output

All inputs can be loaded simultaneously. However, output is available on serial output
bit by bit.
4. Parallel Input Parallel Output

All input can be loaded simultaneously and register data is also available at the output
simultaneously.

Q8. Explain Cache memory.

Ans. In a computer system, the program which is to be executed is loaded in the main
memory (DRAM). Processor then fetches the code and data from the main memory to
execute the program. The DRAMs which form the main memory are slower devices.
So it is necessary to insert wait states in memory read/write cycles. This reduces the
speed of execution. To speed up the process, high speed memories such as SRAMs
must be used. But considering the cost and space required for SRAMs, it is not
desirable to use SRAMs to form the main memory. But considering the fact that most
of the microprocessor programs work with only small sections of code and data at a
particular time. In the memory system, small section of SRAM is added along with
main memory, referred to as cache memory. The program which is to be executed is
loaded in the main memory, but the part of program (code) and data that work at a
particular time is usually accessed from the cache memory. This is accomplished by
loading the active part of code and data from main memory to cache memory.
When the data required for execution is found in the cache it is called cache hit
otherwise a cache miss.
The percentage of accesses where the processor finds the code or data word it needs
in the cache memory is called the hit rate. Hit rate should be greater than 90%.

Q9. Explain magnetic memories.

Ans. Magnetic memories are nonvolatile memory. They store information
permanently. They are slower than semiconductor memory. The commonly used
magnetic memories are of three types: hard disks, floppy disks and magnetic tapes.
These devices are bulky storage devices. They are used to store information at a lower
cost compared to semiconductor devices. These are not static devices. They are
rotated while reading or writing information.

Hard Disk Memory: It is a magnetic memory and most common secondary storage
device. Nowadays we are having removable hard disks. It consists of stack of
magnetic disks. A magnetic disk is a thin, circular metal plate. It is coated with a thin
magnetic film, usually on both sides. Digital information is stored on the magnetic
disk by magnetizing the magnetic surface in a particular direction. The disks are
mounted on a rotary drive so that the magnetized surface moves in close proximity to
magnetizing coil or head.

Floppy Disk Memory: Floppy disks are smaller, simpler and cheaper disk units that
consist of flexible, removable, plastic diskettes coated with magnetic material. The
diskette is enclosed in a plastic jacket, which has an opening where the head makes
contact with the diskette.
Nowadays floppy disks are not in use because of arrival of flash drives that are much
faster and have greater capacity than the floppy disks.
Magnetic Tapes: It is one of the most popular storage medium for large data that are
sequentially accessed and processed. The tape is formed by depositing magnetic film
on a very thin plastic tape. Like audio tape, computer tape can be erased and reused
indefinitely. Old data on a tape are automatically erased as new data are recorded in
the same area.
Q10. Explain the concept of virtual memory.
Ans. In most modern computers, the physical main memory is not as large as the
address space spanned by an address issued by the processor. Here, the virtual
memory technique is used to extend the apparent size of the physical memory. It uses
secondary storage such as disks, to extend the apparent size of the physical memory.
When a program does not completely fit into the main memory, it is divided into
segments. The segments which are currently being executed are kept in the main
memory and remaining segments are stored in the secondary storage devices, such as
a magnetic disk. If an executing program needs a segment which is not currently in

the main memory, the required segment is copied from the secondary storage device.
When a new segment of a program is to be copied into a main memory, it must
replace another segment already in the memory. The addresses that processor issues to
access either instruction or data are called virtual addresses. These addresses are
translated into physical addresses by a combination of hardware and software
components.
The memory management unit controls the virtual memory system. It translates
virtual addresses into physical addresses. A simple method for translating virtual
addresses into physical addresses is to assume that all programs and data are
composed of fixed length unit called pages.
Address Translation: In virtual memory, the address is broken into a virtual page no.
and a page offset. The physical page no. constitutes the upper portion of the physical
address, while the page offset, which is not changed, constitutes the lower portion.
The page table is used to keep the information about the main memory location of
each page. To obtain the address of the corresponding entry in the page table the
virtual page number is added with the contents of page table base register, in which
the starting address of the page table is stored. The entry in the page table gives the
physical page no., in which offset is added to get the physical address of the main
memory.

If the page required by the processor is not in the main memory, the page fault
occours and the required page is loaded into the main memory from the secondary
storage memory by special routine called page fault routine. This technique of getting
the desired page in the main memory is called demand paging.

To avoid access time a small portion of the page table is accommodated in the
memory management unit. This portion is called Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB).
Q11. What is bus? What are its types?
Ans. A microprocessor communicates with memory and I/O devices with a common
communication path called bus. A bus is basically a collection of wires which transmit
binary nos., 1 bit per wire. There are three types of busses:
1. Address Bus: The address bus consists of 16, 20, 24, or 32 parallel signal lines. On
these lines the CPU sends out the address of the memory location that is to be written
to or read from. The number of memory locations that the CPU can address is
determined by the number of address lines. If the CPU has N address lines, then it can
directly address 2^N memory locations.
2. Data Bus: The data bus consists of 8, 16, or 32 parallel signal lines. The
microprocessor has to fetch (read) the data from memory or input device for
processing and after processing, it has to store (write) the data to memory or output
device. Hence data bus is bidirectional.
3. Control Bus: The control bus consists of 4 to 10 parallel signal lines. The CPU
sends out signals on the control bus to enable the outputs of addressed memory
devices or port devices. Typical control bus signals are Memory Read, Memory Write,
I/O Read, and l/O Write.

Q12. What are I/O ports? What are programmable and non-programmable
ports?
Ans. An input device is connected to the microprocessor through an input port. An
input device unloads data into the port. An input port is a place for unloading data.

The microprocessor reads from the input port. Thus data are transferred from the input
device to the accumulator via input port. Similarly an output device is connected to
the microprocessor through an output port. The microprocessor unloads data into an
output port. As the output port is connected to the output device, data are transferred
to the output device.

An I/O port may be programmable or non-programmable. A non-programmable port

behaves as an input port if it has been designed and connected in input mode.
Similarly, a port connected in output mode acts as an output port.
But a programmable I/O port can be programmed to act either as an input port or
output port; the electrical connections remain the same.

Q13. What are I/O interfacing techniques?

Ans. The microprocessor partitions memory from I/O by having instructions that
specifically access memory and others that specifically access I/O. When these
instructions are decoded by the microprocessor, an appropriate control signal is
generated to activate either memory or I/O operation.
Input/output devices can be interfaced with microprocessor systems in two ways:
1. I/O mapped I/O: In I/O mapped interfacing the devices are viewed as distinct I/O
devices and are addressed accordingly. All the available address lines of a
microprocessor may not be used for interfacing the devices. The processor 8086 has
20 address lines. The I/O mapped scheme may use at the most 16 address lines or
even 8 address lines for address decoding. The 8086 has four special instructions IN,
INS, OUT, OUTS to transfer data through the input/output ports in I/O mapped I/O
system.

2. Memory mapped I/O: In this scheme the devices are viewed as memory locations
and are addressed likewise. All the available address lines are used for address
decoding.

Q14. What are various schemes of data transfer from CPU/memory to I/O
devices and vice versa?
Ans. In I/O data transfer, the system requires the transfer of data between I/O devices
and microprocessor using I/O interface. It uses various techniques to perform I/O
operations.
These are:
1. Program Controlled I/O or Programmed I/O or Polled I/O
The I/O operation will cause a data transfer between an I/O device and memory or
between an I/O device and the processor. If in any computer system I/O operations are
completely controlled by the processor then that system is said to be using
Programmed I/O. It is the responsibility of the processor to periodically check the
status of the I/O system until it finds that the operation is complete.
The processor has to check each I/O device in sequence an in effect ask each one if it
needs communication with the processor, this is called polling. The polling decreases
the system throughput.
2. Interrupt Driven I/O
In this scheme external asynchronous input is used to tell the processor that I/O device
needs its service and hence processor does not have to check whether I/O device
needs its service or not. The processor is allowed to execute its instructions in
sequence and only stop to service I/O device when it is told to do so by the device
itself. This increases system throughput. When the I/O device becomes ready to
transfer data, it sends a signal to microprocessor through interrupt line. On receiving
an interrupt the microprocessor completes the current instruction at hand and then
attends the I/O device. It saves the contents of the program counter on the stack first
and then takes up the subroutine. After completing the data transfer the
microprocessor returns back to the main program it was executing before the interrupt
occoured.

3. DMA (Direct Memory Access) Transfer or Hardware Controlled I/O

In DMA data transfer scheme CPU does not participate. Data are directly transferred
from an I/O device to the memory or vice-versa. DMA data transfer scheme is a faster
scheme as compared to Programmed I/O and Interrupt Driven I/O. An I/O device
which wants to send data using DMA technique sends the HOLD signal to the CPU.
On receiving a HOLD signal from an I/O device the CPU gives up the control of the
buses as soon as the current machine cycle is completed. The CPU sends the HOLD
acknowledgement signal to the I/O device to indicate that it has received the HOLD
request and it has released the buses. The I/O device takes over the control of the
buses and directly transfers data to the memory or reads data from the memory.
a. Burst mode of DMA transfer: A scheme of DMA data transfer, in which the I/O
device withdraws the DMA request only after all the data bytes have been transferred
is called burst mode of data transfer. This technique is employed by magnetic disk
drives because in magnetic disks the transfer cannot be stopped or slowed down
without loss of data.
b. Cycle Stealing Technique: In this method after transferring one byte or several
bytes the I/O device withdraws DMA request. In this technique a long block of data is
transferred by a sequence of DMA cycles. This method reduces interference in CPU
activities.

Q15. What is tri- state logic? Why tri state logic is needed in microprocessor
system?
Ans. In tri-state logic, three logic levels are used and they are High, Low, and High
impedance state. The High and Low are normal logic levels and high impedance state
is electrical open circuit condition.
In microprocessor system all devices are connected to a common (System) bus. But
communication takes place between the master (microprocessor) and one slave
(peripheral) at any time instant. During this time instant, all other devices should be
isolated from the bus. Therefore, normally all the slaves (peripherals) will remain in
high impedance state (in electrical isolation) the master will select a slave by sending
address and chip select signal. When the slave is selected, it comes to normal logic
and it communicates with master.

Q16. What are the functions of the following signals in a microprocessor:

A)Reset B)Interrupt C)Ready D)Hold. ?
Ans.
A) Reset: when reset is activated all internal operations are suspended and the
program counter is cleared.
B) Interrupt: the Microprocessor can be interrupted from normal execution and asked
to execute other instructions called "service routine" (emergency), Microprocessor
resumes its operation after that.
C) Ready: If the signal in the pin Ready is low Microprocessor enters into wait state,
this signal is used to synchronize slower peripherals with Microprocessor. It is used
by microprocessor to sense whether the peripheral device is ready to transfer the data
or not.
D) Hold: when hold pin activated by external signal Microprocessor relinquishes
control buses and allows the external peripheral to use the. For example: Hold signal
is used in direct memory access data transfer.