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Table of contents
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Document 1 of 1

Effects of career-related continuous learning on competencies

Author: Rowold, Jens; Kauffeld, Simone
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Abstract: Purpose - The present study aims to examine how employees' formal (e.g. off-the-job
training) and informal (e.g. discussion with colleagues) career-related continuous learning (CRCL)
activities affect the development of self-reported work-related competencies.
Design/methodology/approach - Participants were 372 employees working in one of 19 companies
from a wide range of industries in Germany. Findings - Results revealed that informal CRCL
affected professional, method, and social competencies. In addition, employees' participation in
formal CRCL activities that focused on social issues was positively related to social competencies.
Three types of competencies (professional, method, and social) are distinguished in the present
study. Research limitations/implications - Additional influences on competency such as motivation
and commitment should be controlled for in future studies. Also, competencies should be rated by
supervisors. Objective measures of formal CRCL should be assessed. Practical implications Organizations that aim to enchance employees' level of competencies should invest in informal
CRCL and formal CRCL activities that focus on social competencies. The fact that the study was
conducted in a variety of firms supports the idea that the findings could be generalized to other
industrial settings. Originality/value - To the authors' knowledge, this study is the first to
demonstrate positive effects of CRCL on employees' levels of social competencies. In addition, the
value of informal CRCL for the development of competencies was highlighted.

Full text: Introduction

Organizations invest in human resource development activities in order to meet new and
additional requirements due to technological development. Given the increasingly lower half-life
of work-related knowledge, updating employee's knowledge continuously is imperative for
organizations facing global competition ([24] Mayo, 2000). In addition, while prior research
focused on formal development interventions such as off-the job training, a recent trend in the
development literature explores the benefits of informal learning activities such as discussing
work-related issues with colleagues and supervisors. In contrast to the importance of these topics,
virtually no empirical research exists that helps to understand the way employees' formal and
informal continuous development activities affect outcome criteria such as work-related
competencies. Thus, the present study aims at closing these gaps in the literature.
Background of the present study
There are at least two major trends that led to increased demands for employees' continuous
learning and development. First, rapid technological development forces organizations to offer
development programs to their respective employees. It is generally assumed that up-to-date
employees achieve positive consequences for their knowledge, skills and abilities, and, ultimately,
performance. Thus, several waves of technological revolutions such as the introduction of
microchips in the 1970s or the internet in the 1990s were followed by training or other
development programs in most organizations around the globe. The competencies that were
demanded from employees within modern organizations exceeded the competencies that were
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acquired by means of formal education programs. For example, special software programs needed
to successfully perform certain work-related tasks (e.g. SAP) are mostly not the focus of higher
education. Consequently, organizations have to offer special software training to their newly hired
employees. As new - and better - software packages become available and are implemented,
organizations will probably buy training programs necessary for the use of these packages as well.
The second trend that forces organizations to invest in their employees' continuous development
is related to recent organizational restructuring efforts, such as total quality management (TQM),
lean production, etc. ([1] Adler, 1999). Before these efforts can yield a return-on-investment on
the organizational level, employees have to be prepared for the numerous changes that occur in
the process of implementing any of these efforts. Thus, organizations offer competency
development programs for their employees. However, not every employee would be motivated to
attend these programs. Also, the high costs for these programs are a concern for organizational
decision makers.
It is against this background that the present study focused on the outcome of employees'
continuous development activities. More specifically, organizational decision makers and
researchers alike want to know if there is a relationship between continuous learning and
enhanced competencies. Also, is it worth sending employees to formal development programs
such as off-the-job training or are informal development activities equally efficient?
Career-related continuous learning
It has been noted ([19] Kluge and Schilling, 2003) that continuous learning is a relatively abstract
concept. In contrast, recent research clarified and contributed to the construct of career-related
continuous learning (CRCL). [22] London and Smither (1999) defined CRCL by several
characteristics. First, CRCL is an individual-level phenomenon. In contrast, phenomena such as
organizational learning or learning organizations are supposed to operate at organizational levels
([2] Argyris, 1998). Next, with its focus on job or career-related experiences, CRCL is always
related to employees' careers. Moreover, CRCL contributes to career development and prepares
for future changes in the respective career. For example, by attending several training programs,
an employee develops competencies that prepare him/her for additional work assignments and
thus gains a broader and better career perspective. Third, CRCL is self-initiated, discretionary, and
proactive. Employees chose the human resource development activities necessary, their
sequence, and on their own demand. In contrast, many organizations implement mandatory
training programs to their employees. Finally, CRCL is a process sustained over time. Employees
high on CRCL engage in cumulative and integrative learning. By activities such as reading,
discussions with colleagues, voluntary training programs, challenging job assignments, and so on,
employees improve and accumulate competencies that help them to prepare for the future.
Formal versus informal CRCL
It should be noted that two forms of CRCL, formal and informal CRCL, can be distinguished. Formal
CRCL includes development activities such as off-the-job, lecture-based or computer-based
training courses. In order to arrive at a more detailed description of learning and development
activities, three types of employees' formal CRCL activities were distinguished within the present
study. First, professional CRCL focused on task-related knowledge and skills from diverse areas
such as materials, processes, technology, quality management, ecological management, safety

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management. Second, method CRCL includes training contents such as moderation, presentation,
and problem-solving skills. Third, social CRCL focused on communication and team training.
In contrast to formal CRCL, informal CRCL activities mostly take place during regular workassignments and on-the job. For example, informal CRCL includes activities such as reading or
discussing new ideas with colleagues. It is hoped that in contrast to the more abstract concept of
CRCL, the explication of these formal and informal CRCL activities allows a more tangible
understanding of employees' development activities.
CRCL and competencies
Organizational decision makers such as human resource managers are interested in the potential
return on investment that results from various development activities. More specifically, and with
regard to organizational goals, it is often important to understand how the employees'
participation in CRCL affects their respective levels of competencies. Also, employees are
interested in developing their competencies in order to be prepared for changing job requirements
or employers ([14] Gibb, 2001). Competencies consist of knowledge, skills and other behavioral
dispositions necessary to reach desired standards of job performance ([20] Lawler, 1994). They
are developed through formal education and training as well as informal learning and
development activities ([13] Dubin, 1990; [18] Kauffeld, 2006). It has been argued that a
company's ability to develop and use the competencies of its workforce is the key source of
competitiveness ([12] Donovan et al. , 2001; [23] Lucia and Lepsinger, 1999; [32] Shippmann et
al. , 2000).
For a more differentiated description of employees' competencies, the present study distinguished
three types of competencies ([18] Kauffeld, 2006). As an aside, it should be noted that although
several competency taxonomies exist, no definite framework or overall theory for this construct
exists ([11] Delamare Le Diest and Winterton, 2005). Nevertheless, the three types of
competencies described in turn have become widely accepted in, for example, the field of
vocational training ([28] Rothwell et al. , 2000). First, professional competence is regarded as the
sum of organizational-, process-, task- and workplace-specific professional skills and knowledge.
For example, employees have to have expertise about their respective work, tools, and machines.
Second, methods competence describes the ability to make means and resources available as
well as using them to accomplish tasks. Compiling information and applying problem solving
strategies to work-related problems are examples for method competencies. Third, social
competence can be considered as the team members' abilities to communicate and cooperate in
a self-organized way. For example, networking, teamworking, and managing conflicts are aspects
of social competence. In sum, professional, method, and social competence provide a
comprehensive description of work-related competencies. Empirical research demonstrated the
usefulness of these tripartite assessment of competencies ([33] Sonntag and Schfer-Rauser,
1993). In addition, these three types of competencies might be related to the three types of
employees' formal CRCL activities described above. This will be described in the next section.
From a longitudinal perspective, CRCL might foster the development of employees' competencies.
The "new psychological contract" ([3] Atkinson, 2002) between employee and company
emphasizes the self-initiated development of employees' competencies. Thus, by participating in
CRCL, employees might want to enhance their respective levels of competencies in order to be
prepared for new tasks, jobs, of companies.
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Effects of formal CRCL on competencies

In this section, hypothesized relationships between formal CRCL activities and specific types of
competencies are explicated. From an empirical perspective, it was found that employees'
participation in development activities - a concept related to formal CRCL - was related to their
commitment and job satisfaction ([9] Birdi et al. , 1997). However, no research exists that tested
effects of formal CRCL on job-related competencies. Thus, the present study predicted that three
types of formal CRCL were related to their respective counterpart of employees' work-related
competencies.
H1a . Employees' participation in professional CRCL is positively related to subsequent workrelated professional competencies.
H1b . Employees' participation in method CRCL is positively related to subsequent work-related
method competencies.
H1c . Employees' participation in social CRCL is positively related to subsequent work-related
social competencies.
Effects of informal CRCL on competencies
Formal CRCL programs are only one way of improving employees' competencies. During the
1990s, researchers and practitioners alike increasingly focused on workplace-centered
approaches to employee development such as work-related learning projects, self-study, learningby-doing, and reflection-in-action ([25] Poell et al. , 2004; [34] Tannenbaum, 1997). These
approaches regard learning and development as being embedded in everyday work activities. For
example, employees have the possibility to develop their competencies by discussing workrelated issues with their knowledgeable and experienced colleagues and supervisors. These
behaviors have been hypothesized to foster job-related learning ([25] Poell et al. , 2004).
Moreover, with regard to the present study, these behaviors are in line with the definition of
informal CRCL activities ([22] London and Smither, 1999). Despite some theoretical work in this
area, little research exists that investigated the impact of informal CRCL on the development of
employees' competencies. The very nature of informal CRCL activities makes it difficult to assess
whether these activities were related to one specific type of competency. For example, discussing
work-related problems with colleagues might foster social competencies as this discussion is
based on social interaction. However, as the content of this discussion might focus either on
professional or method competencies, assigning this event (i.e. discussion) to any one specific
form of competency might appear arbitrary. Thus, in a more exploratory way, it was proposed that
informal CRCL affected all three types of employees' competencies.
H2 . Informal CRCL is positively related to subsequent work-related professional (H2a ), method
(H2b ), and social (H2c ) competency.
Analysis strategy, covariate, and overall research model
Over a longer period of time, employees might develop their competencies due to both formal
and informal CRCL. That is, both factors take their effect simultaneously and thus, might
contribute to the development of employees' competencies. Consequently, organizations are
interested in the independent effects of formal and informal CRCL on competencies. Likewise,
organizational decision makers want to know whether they should invest in formal CRCL or in
human resource development programs that will consequently enhance levels of informal CRCL
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(e.g. supervisor training). We performed regression analyses in order to account for the
simultaneous impact of both predictors (formal and informal CRCL) on competencies. Finally,
employees' levels of competencies might be influenced by work-related experience. Thus, as a
covariate of work-related competencies, we included organizational tenure into the analyses.
Figure 1 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] summarizes the proposed relationships between
study variables, illustrating the different hypotheses.
Methods
Sample and procedure
A total of 140 companies, who had participated in a management survey on enterprise flexibility
(cf. [8] Bernard, 2000), were invited to take part in the study. Of these, 19 medium-sized
enterprises from the automobile supply industry, the metal, electrical and packaging industry as
well as utilities agreed to do so. Between two and four groups from the production department of
each company participated in the study. It was up to the management to decide which groups to
include. The management of the companies was asked to select groups that were representative
of their company (concerning, for example, production ratios). In order to achieve a reasonable
amount of different CRCL activities per employee, it was decided to include only blue-collar
employees with a work experience of eight years or longer. Another reason was that in the
German system of education, most blue-collar employees first have to have a period of three to
four years of initial training, starting from Age 14 to 16. Nearly all of these trainees were
employed afterwards by the respective company. The time of initial training is seen as part of
tenure. Thus, with regard to the present study, participants with a tenure of eight years had about
four years to engage in CRCL activities. This resulted in a sample size of 393.
After contacting the respective personnel department, meetings were scheduled where the
second author met with five-seven participants, respectively. In these meetings, the study's
objectives (i.e. "understanding learning in organizations") were communicated very broadly. In
contrast, neither the contents nor directions of hypotheses were communicated to the
participants. Also, surveys were administered in these meetings. It was emphasized that
participating in this study was voluntary and anonymity was assured. A total of 372 resulted
(response rate=95 percent); 22 percent of participants were between 21 and 30 years, 43 percent
between 31 and 40 years, and 35 percent were 41 or older. It should be noted that participants
with an age between 21 and 30 were most likely located on the upper end of this time span, as
they also had a tenure of eight years or longer. Altogether, there were 88 percent male and 12
percent female employees.
Measures
Formal CRCL . In accordance with earlier research, a list of possible formal CRCL activities was
created ([8] Bernard, 2000). This list includes common types of development activities, which can
be assigned to one of the three types of formal CRCL activities (i.e. professional, method, or social
CRCL). Examples for professional CRCL activities were management, costing and accounting, and
hard selling trainings; examples for method CRCL were problem solving and creativity skills
trainings; and examples for social CRCL were communication and team building trainings. All of
these trainings were voluntary trainings, sponsored by the respective company.
During the meetings described above, the total amount of hours participated in these three types
of CRCL in the last eight years was obtained from participants. From our personal observation, we
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felt that participants had no problems to remember the amount of CRCL. For example, although
participants had the opportunity to discuss ambiguities concerning details (e.g. amount of hours)
about CRCL in the meetings, this opportunity was seldomly used. Another reason why participants
had no difficulties to recall the amount of hours was their low mean. As an example, the mean
hours for social CRCL was 15.87 hours, meaning that on average, about two days of trainings
which focused on social competencies were participated in.
Informal CRCL . This construct was assessed by a 24-item scale ("learning potential of work")
developed by [26] Richter (2000). This scale was validated by further empirical research ([7]
Bergmann et al. , 2000). In sum, empirical research supports the unidimensionality of this scale
([27] Richter and Wardanjan, 2000). Sample items were "My supervisors and colleagues provide
me with feedback", "During work, I am learning something new time and again", and "Overall, my
work assignments are changing quite often."
Competencies . For the assessment of work-related competencies we relied on a questionnaire
developed by [33] Sonntag and Schfer-Rauser (1993). This questionnaire was originally designed
for implementation in entry-level training and development contexts. Thus, several items that
contained references to entry-level training and development were slightly modified for the
purpose of the present study. For a differentiated description of work-related competencies, the
questionnaire distinguished professional, methodological, and social competencies.
First, professional competence was assessed by 12 items, a typical item being, "I know quite well
how the implements necessary for my job (e.g. tools, machines) work". Second, methods
competence was assessed by 27 items (sample item: "I approach task-related problems
methodically, i.e. step by step."). Third, social competence was assessed by 18 items; a sample
item being: "I have to get over myself to ask somebody for information or help."(reverse scored)).
All items for the assessment of informal CRCL and competencies had a Likert-type scale ranging
from 1 ("I totally agree") to 6 ("I totally disagree"). This unusual scale format was due to the
German system of school grades, which also ranges from 1 ("very good") to 6 ("inadequately"). In
order to adhere to international standards, the items were reverse scored before averaging the
respective items for computation of scales.
Results
Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] presents descriptive statistics for the study variables.
Internal consistency estimates (Cronbach's alpha) were satisfactory. Across all companies,
employees most often participated in professional training activities.
Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were performed to test the hypotheses. The results of
these analyses were summarized in Table II [Figure omitted. See Article Image.]. As can be seen
from Table II [Figure omitted. See Article Image.], the amount of method CRCL predicted
subsequent method competency. This lends support for hypothesis H1b . However, no other type
of formal CRCL was related to the respective other types of competencies. Thus, H1 gained only
limited support from the data. In contrast, H2a , H2b , and H2c were fully supported by the data.
The construct informal CRCL was related to all three types of work-related competency.
Discussion
The main contribution of the present study is that informal CRCL impacted three job-related
competencies, over and above facets of formal CRCL and organizational tenure. Interestingly, in
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contrast to formal off-the-job training, informal continuous learning activities helped employees
most to develop their respective work-related competencies. The results highlight the importance
of informal learning in the working process as often supposed but rarely shown in research (e.g.
[21] Livingstone, 1998).
As for formal CRCL, only method competencies were influenced. One potential explanation for this
result might be that methods training such as creativity training include skills that can be
generalized to a broad spectrum of task-related activities. Thus, methods training might affect
method competencies, even after years. In contrast, professional training might have not affected
subsequent professional competencies because these kinds of training typically focus on narrowdefined knowledge and abilities, which are often obsolete shortly after training due to varying job
requirements. In sum, the results of the present study demonstrate for the first time that formal
CRCL is related to one aspect of work-related competency. Thus, the usefulness and the criterionrelated validity of the concept of formal CRCL that has been hypothesized in theory ([22] London
and Smither, 1999) is demonstrated empirically.
The present study was conducted against the background of the increasing pace of technological
development and many different forms of organizational restructuring processes (e.g. TQM) that
organizations implemented in the last decade or so. Although both trends imply that employees
engage in continuous development, the descriptive statistics in Table I [Figure omitted. See Article
Image.] show considerable interindividual differences in employees' engagement in formal and
informal CRCL activities. This means that despite the two trends described above, not all
employees update their competencies by means of CRCL at the same level. Nevertheless, the
present study displayed that CRCL is one option for organization to foster employees'
competencies. As a conclusion, besides implementing new structures and technologies,
organizations might also rely on offering formal CRCL programs and foster informal CRCL in order
to be prepared for the future.
Due to the utilization of two sources for employees' development and learning (i.e. formal and
informal CRCL), the present study indicates a more realistic assessment of potential influence on
competency development. While in all organizations, training programs (i.e. formal CRCL) are
offered to employees and virtually all jobs and work assignments exhibit some degree of potential
for informal CRCL, the present study tested their relative influence on competencies for the first
time. While the results of the present study demonstrate the importance of both formal and
informal CRCL, the impact of informal CRCL on competencies appear to be more profound.
Implications for practice
Organizations that intend to develop employees' competencies should pay attention to the
informal CRCL. One possibility to foster informal CRCL is to prepare supervisors with tools and
techniques helping them to communicate the importance of informal CRCL. For example,
assigning new types of tasks to employees might foster the respective level of informal CRCL.
From an organizational perspective, methods such as job rotation represent another viable option
to foster informal CRCL. Finally, job analysis methods are one way of analyzing different
preconditions of informal CRCL, as subscales of job analysis instruments assess the degree to
which certain aspects of work (e.g. workplace, job assignments) provide opportunities to learn at
work ([31] Sackett and Laczo, 2003).

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Discussions concerning the "new psychological contract" ([3] Atkinson, 2002; [15] Hall and Mirvis,
1995) emphasize that organizations provide their temporary employees with CRCL activities.
Employees, in turn, participate in these activities to enhance levels of employability. The results of
the present study point to the possibility that from an organizational perspective, offering CRCL
programs might not be sufficient. In addition to formal CRCL programs, interventions that focus on
the transfer process are important ([4] Axtell et al. , 1997; [10] Cheng and Ho, 2001). These
interventions ensure that employees utilize what has been learned and contribute to
organizational goals. As was stated above, organizations might be advised to invest in work
assignments with high levels of learning potential.
With regard to methods competencies, organizations might want to invest in CRCL programs. The
results of the present study demonstrate that in the long run, these CRCL programs yield
enhanced levels of employees' methods competency. Given that organizations intend to prepare
their workforce for future challenges, implementing CRCL programs seems a viable option in the
case for methods competencies. Utility analyses with a strategic focus are useful tools to estimate
the potential benefit of cost-intensive CRCL programs that aim at the development of methods
competencies ([30] Rowold and Mnninghoff, 2005).
Limitations and directions for future research
The present study was based on a multi-organizational sample. Nevertheless, the results might be
country-specific and thus, should be replicated in other countries. As both the dependent and the
independent variables were assessed within the same questionnaire, the results might be
confounded (e.g. inflated correlations between constructs) by mono-method bias. Thus, future
studies should assess formal and informal CRCL and outcome criteria with different methodologies
(e.g. computer-stored data, observations, expert ratings) and sources of data (e.g. supervisory
ratings of employees' levels of competencies).
Additional influences on competency should be controlled for in future studies. For example in
prior research, general mental ability (GMA), work motivation, and commitment have been found
to be related to employees' levels of competencies ([13] Dubin, 1990). Also, in future research
informal CRCL activities could be focused on. The present study relied on a survey instrument,
while additional research methods such as on-site observations and diaries could provide a more
encompassing and thus, more realistic picture of informal CRCL.
In addition to the result-oriented perspective implemented in the present study, a processoriented approach seems a viable option. That is, which process variables in the training and
transfer process enhance employees' learning, development, and, ultimately, level of
competencies (e.g. [6] Bates et al. , 2007; [29] Rowold, 2007)? It has been suggested that trainee
characteristics (e.g. learner readiness, motivation to transfer, self-efficacy), training
characteristics (e.g. perceived content validity, transfer design), and work environment factors
(e.g. peer support, supervisory support, opportunity to use) influence transfer ([5] Baldwin and
Ford, 1988; [16] Holton et al. , 2000; [17] Holton, 1996). By considering these transfer-enhancing
factors it might be possible to describe the process by which employees' engagement in CRCL
yields positive effects on the side of performance and competencies.
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Appendix
About the authors
Jens Rowold, PhD, is Assistant Professor at the department of Psychology, University of Muenster,
where he also received his PhD. His main research interests are training and development,
organizational learning and continuous learning, peer coaching, utility analysis, strategic human
resource management, and individual differences in career exploration, and leadership with a
special focus on transformational leadership, ethical leadership, leadership development,
emotions and leadership, and leadership in non-profit organizations. He has published in peer09 February 2015

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reviewed journals such as Leadership Quarterly and Human Resource Development Quarterly .
Jens Rowold is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: rowold@psy.uni-muenster.de
Simone Kauffeld, PhD, is currently Full Professor at the Department of Psychology, Technical
University of Braunschweig. She received her PhD at the University of Kassel. Her main research
interests are competence diagnosis, development, and management, as well as training and
transfer, teamwork, and team diagnosis and development. She has authored and edited several
books, especially in the field of competencies and teamwork, and published in peer-reviewed
journals such as Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Journal of
Psychology .
AuthorAffiliation
Jens Rowold, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany
Simone Kauffeld, Department of Work, Organizational and Social Psychology, University of
Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
Illustration
Figure 1: Summary of proposed relationships between study variables
Table I: Descriptive statistics, intercorrelations, and internal consistency estimates
Table II: Results of multiple regressions analyses (standardized betas)

Publication title: Personnel Review

Volume: 38
Issue: 1
Pages: 90-101
Publication year: 2009
Publication date: 2009
Year: 2009
Publisher: Emerald Group Publishing, Limited
Place of publication: Farnborough
Country of publication: United Kingdom
Publication subject: Business And Economics--Management
ISSN: 00483486
CODEN: PRRVAQ
Source type: Scholarly Journals
Language of publication: English
Document type: Feature
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00483480910920732
ProQuest document ID: 214806281
Document URL: http://search.proquest.com/docview/214806281?accountid=25704
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Copyright: Copyright Emerald Group Publishing Limited 2009

Last updated: 2014-05-20
Database: ProQuest Psychology Journals

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