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Culture Documents
Political Map: the Kashmir region districts, showing the Pir Panjal range and the Kashmir
Valley or Vale of Kashmir.
Kashmir geographically denoted only the valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal
mountain range. Today, it denotes a larger area that includes the Indian-administered state of
Jammu and Kashmir (which consists of Jammu, the Kashmir Valley, and Ladakh), the Pakistanadministered autonomous territories of Azad Kashmir and GilgitBaltistan, and the Chineseadministered regions of Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
o 2.1 Hinduism and Buddhism in Kashmir
o 2.2 Muslim rule
o 2.3 Sikh rule
o 2.4 Princely state
o 2.5 1947 and 1948
o 2.6 Current status and political divisions
3 Demographics
5 Economy
o 5.1 Transport
7 See also
8 Notes
9 Cited references
10 Further reading
11 External links
Etymology
The word Kashmir is derived from Sanskrit (kmra).[3]
History
General view of Temple and Enclosure of Marttand (the Sun), at Bhawan, ca. 490555; the
colonnade ca. 693729. Surya Mandir at Martand, Jammu & Kashmir, India, photographed by
John Burke, 1868.
Main article: History of Kashmir
Further information: Timeline of the Kashmir conflict and Kashmir conflict
This general view of the unexcavated Buddhist stupa near Baramulla, with two figures standing
on the summit, and another at the base with measuring scales, was taken by John Burke in 1868.
The stupa, which was later excavated, dates to 500 CE.
The Buddhist Mauryan emperor Ashoka is often credited with having founded the old capital of
Kashmir, Shrinagari, now ruins on the outskirts of modern Srinagar. Kashmir was long to be a
stronghold of Buddhism.[4]
As a Buddhist seat of learning, the Sarvstivdan school strongly influenced Kashmir.[5] East and
Central Asian Buddhist monks are recorded as having visited the kingdom. In the late 4th century
CE, the famous Kuchanese monk Kumrajva, born to an Indian noble family, studied
Drghgama and Madhygama in Kashmir under Bandhudatta. He later became a prolific
translator who helped take Buddhism to China. His mother Jva is thought to have retired to
Kashmir. Vimalks a, a Sarvstivdan Buddhist monk, travelled from Kashmir to Kucha and
there instructed Kumrajva in the Vinayapitaka.
In the 10th century CE Moksopaya or Moksopaya Shastra, a philosophical text on salvation for
non-ascetics (moksa-upaya: 'means to release'), was written on the Pradyumna hill in rnagar.[16]
[17]
It has the form of a public sermon and claims human authorship and contains about 30,000
shloka's (making it longer than the Ramayana). The main part of the text forms a dialogue
between Vasistha and Rama, interchanged with numerous short stories and anecdotes to illustrate
the content.[18][19] This text was later (11th to the 14th century CE)[20] expanded and vedanticised,
which resulted in the Yoga Vasistha.[21]
Muslim rule
Further information: Islam in Kashmir
This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (November 2013)
Sikh rule
Raja Lal Singh led the Sikh forces against the British in the First Anglo-Sikh War (184546) and
was defeated in the Battle of Sobraon on 10 February 1846. Under the terms of the Treaty of
Lahore, Lal Singh surrender Kashmir which the British sold to the Dogra ruler of Jamu, Raja
Gulab Singh, an ally of the British, at a nominal price.
In 1819, the Kashmir valley passed from the control of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan, and
four centuries of Muslim rule under the Mughals and the Afghans, to the conquering armies of
the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh of Lahore.[22] As the Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghans,
they initially welcomed the new Sikh rulers.[23] However, the Sikh governors turned out to be
hard taskmasters, and Sikh rule was generally considered oppressive,[24] protected perhaps by the
remoteness of Kashmir from the capital of the Sikh empire in Lahore.[25] The Sikhs enacted a
number of anti-Muslim laws,[25] which included handing out death sentences for cow slaughter,[23]
closing down the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar,[25] and banning the azaan, the public Muslim call to
prayer.[25] Kashmir had also now begun to attract European visitors, several of whom wrote of the
abject poverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs.[23] High
taxes, according to some contemporary accounts, had depopulated large tracts of the countryside,
allowing only one-sixteenth of the cultivable land to be cultivated.[23] However, after a famine in
1832, the Sikhs reduced the land tax to half the produce of the land and also began to offer
interest-free loans to farmers;[25] Kashmir became the second highest revenue earner for the Sikh
empire.[25] During this time Kashmiri shawls became known worldwide, attracting many buyers,
especially in the West.[25]
Earlier, in 1780, after the death of Ranjit Deo[citation needed], the Raja of Jammu, the kingdom of
Jammu (to the south of the Kashmir valley) was also captured by the Sikhs and afterwards, until
1846, became a tributary to Sikh power.[22] Ranjit Deo's grandnephew, Gulab Singh, subsequently
sought service at the court of Ranjit Singh, distinguished himself in later campaigns, especially
the annexation of the Kashmir valley, and, for his services, was appointed governor of Jammu in
1820. With the help of his officer, Zorawar Singh, Gulab Singh soon captured for the Sikhs the
lands of Ladakh and Baltistan to the east and north-east, respectively, of Jammu.[22]
Princely state
Main article: Princely state of Kashmir and Jammu
1909 Map of the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu. The names of regions, important cities,
rivers, and mountains are underlined in red.
In 1845, the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out. According to the Imperial Gazetteer of India,
"Gulab Singh contrived to hold himself aloof till the battle of Sobraon (1846), when he appeared
as a useful mediator and the trusted adviser of Sir Henry Lawrence. Two treaties were concluded.
By the first the State of Lahore (i.e. West Punjab) handed over to the British, as equivalent for
one crore indemnity, the hill countries between the rivers Beas and Indus; by the second the
British made over to Gulab Singh for 7.5 million all the hilly or mountainous country situated to
the east of the Indus and the west of the Ravi (i.e. the Vale of Kashmir)."[22]
Drafted by a treaty and a bill of sale, and constituted between 1820 and 1858, the Princely State
of Kashmir and Jammu (as it was first called) combined disparate regions, religions, and
ethnicities:[26] to the east, Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and its inhabitants
practised Buddhism; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs;
in the heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly Sunni
Muslim, however, there was also a small but influential Hindu minority, the Kashmiri brahmins
or pandits; to the northeast, sparsely populated Baltistan had a population ethnically related to
Ladakh, but which practised Shi'a Islam; to the north, also sparsely populated, Gilgit Agency,
was an area of diverse, mostly Shi'a groups; and, to the west, Punch was Muslim, but of different
ethnicity than the Kashmir valley.[26] After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, in which Kashmir sided
with the British, and the subsequent assumption of direct rule by Great Britain, the princely state
of Kashmir came under the suzerainty of the British Crown.
In the British census of India of 1941, Kashmir registered a Muslim majority population of 77%,
a Hindu population of 20% and a sparse population of Buddhists and Sikhs comprising the
remaining 3%.[27] That same year, Prem Nath Bazaz, a Kashmiri Pandit journalist wrote: "The
poverty of the Muslim masses is appalling. ... Most are landless laborers, working as serfs for
absentee [Hindu] landlords ... Almost the whole brunt of official corruption is borne by the
Muslim masses."[28] For almost a century until the census, a small Hindu elite had ruled over a
vast and impoverished Muslim peasantry.[27][29] Driven into docility by chronic indebtedness to
landords and moneylenders, having no education besides, nor awareness of rights,[27] the Muslim
peasants had no political representation until the 1930s.[29]
The prevailing religions by district in the 1901 Census of the Indian Empire.
Ranbir Singh's grandson Hari Singh, who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the
reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the
subsequent partition of the British Indian Empire into the newly independent Union of India and
the Dominion of Pakistan. According to Burton Stein's History of India,
"Kashmir was neither as large nor as old an independent state as Hyderabad; it had been created
rather off-handedly by the British after the first defeat of the Sikhs in 1846, as a reward to a
former official who had sided with the British. The Himalayan kingdom was connected to India
through a district of the Punjab, but its population was 77 per cent Muslim and it shared a
boundary with Pakistan. Hence, it was anticipated that the maharaja would accede to Pakistan
when the British paramountcy ended on 1415 August. When he hesitated to do this, Pakistan
launched a guerrilla onslaught meant to frighten its ruler into submission. Instead the Maharaja
appealed to Mountbatten[30] for assistance, and the governor-general agreed on the condition that
the ruler accede to India. Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored
irregulars from all but a small section of the state. The United Nations was then invited to
mediate the quarrel. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of Kashmiris must be ascertained,
while India insisted that no referendum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of
irregulars."[31]
In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices. However, since the plebiscite
demanded by the UN was never conducted, relations between India and Pakistan soured,[31] and
eventually led to two more wars over Kashmir in 1965 and 1999. India has control of about half
the area of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, while Pakistan controls a third of
the region, the Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir. According to Encyclopdia Britannica,
"Although there was a clear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947 partition and its
economic, cultural, and geographic contiguity with the Muslim-majority area of the Punjab (in
Pakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated, the political developments during and after the
partition resulted in a division of the region. Pakistan was left with territory that, although
basically Muslim in character, was thinly populated, relatively inaccessible, and economically
underdeveloped. The largest Muslim group, situated in the Valley of Kashmir and estimated to
number more than half the population of the entire region, lay in Indian-administered territory,
with its former outlets via the Jhelum valley route blocked."[32]
The Karakash River (Black Jade River) which flows north from its source near the town of
Sumde in Aksai Chin, to cross the Kunlun Mountains.
Ladakh is a region in the east, between the Kunlun mountain range in the north and the main
Great Himalayas to the south.[33] Main cities are Leh and Kargil. It is under Indian administration
and is part of the state of Jammu and Kashmir. It is one of the most sparsely populated regions in
the area and is mainly inhabited by people of Indo-Aryan and Tibetan descent.[33]
Aksai Chin is a vast high-altitude desert of salt that reaches altitudes up to 5,000 metres
(16,000 ft). Geographically part of the Tibetan Plateau, Aksai Chin is referred to as the Soda
Plain. The region is almost uninhabited, and has no permanent settlements.
Though these regions are in practice administered by their respective claimants, neither India nor
Pakistan has formally recognised the accession of the areas claimed by the other. India claims
those areas, including the area "ceded" to China by Pakistan in the Trans-Karakoram Tract in
1963, are a part of its territory, while Pakistan claims the entire region excluding Aksai Chin and
Trans-Karakoram Tract. The two countries have fought several declared wars over the territory.
The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 established the rough boundaries of today, with Pakistan holding
roughly one-third of Kashmir, and India one-half, with a dividing line of control established by
the United Nations. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 resulted in a stalemate and a UN-negotiated
ceasefire.
Demographics
In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, the population of the princely state of Kashmir
and Jammu was 2,905,578. Of these, 2,154,695 (74.16%) were Muslims, 689,073 (23.72%)
Hindus, 25,828 (0.89%) Sikhs, and 35,047 (1.21%) Buddhists (implying 935 (0.032%) others).
A Muslim shawl making family shown in Cashmere shawl manufactory, 1867, chromolith.,
William Simpson.
Kashmir Solidarity Day is celebrated in Pakistan on 5 February every year. This banner was
hung in Islamabad, Pakistan
Among the Muslims of the princely state, four divisions were recorded: "Shaikhs, Saiyids,
Mughals, and Pathans. The Shaikhs, who are by far the most numerous, are the descendants of
Hindus, but have retained none of the caste rules of their forefathers. They have clan names
known as krams ..."[34] It was recorded that these kram names included "Tantre", "Shaikh",
"Bhat", "Mantu", "Ganai", "Dar", "Damar", "Lon", etc. The Saiyids, it was recorded, "could be
divided into those who follow the profession of religion and those who have taken to agriculture
and other pursuits. Their kram name is 'Mir.' While a Saiyid retains his saintly profession Mir is a
prefix; if he has taken to agriculture, Mir is an affix to his name."[34][clarification needed] The Mughals
who were not numerous were recorded to have kram names like "Mir" (a corruption of "Mirza"),
"Beg", "Bandi", "Bach" and "Ashaye". Finally, it was recorded that the Pathans "who are more
numerous than the Mughals, ... are found chiefly in the south-west of the valley, where Pathan
colonies have from time to time been founded. The most interesting of these colonies is that of
Kuki-Khel Afridis at Dranghaihama, who retain all the old customs and speak Pashtu."[34] Among
the main tribes of Muslims in the princely state are the Butts, Dar, Lone, Jat, Gujjar, Rajput,
Sudhan and Khatri. A small number of Butts, Dar and Lone use the title Khawaja and the Khatri
use the title Shaikh the Gujjar use the title of Chaudhary. All these tribes are indigenous of the
princely state and many Hindus also belong to these tribes.
The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 60% of the
population.[34] In the Kashmir Valley, the Hindus represented "524 in every 10,000 of the
population (i.e. 5.24%), and in the frontier wazarats of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of every
10,000 persons (0.94%)."[34] In the same Census of 1901, in the Kashmir Valley, the total
population was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Muslim population was 1,083,766, or
93.6% and the Hindu population 60,641.[34] Among the Hindus of Jammu province, who
numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of the Hindu population of the princely state), the most important
castes recorded in the census were "Brahmans (186,000), the Rajputs (167,000), the Khattris
(48,000) and the Thakkars (93,000)."[34]
In the 1911 Census of the British Indian Empire, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu had
increased to 3,158,126. Of these, 2,398,320 (75.94%) were Muslims, 696,830 (22.06%) Hindus,
31,658 (1%) Sikhs, and 36,512 (1.16%) Buddhists. In the last census of British India in 1941, the
total population of Kashmir and Jammu (which as a result of the second world war, was
estimated from the 1931 census) was 3,945,000. Of these, the total Muslim population was
2,997,000 (75.97%), the Hindu population was 808,000 (20.48%), and the Sikh 55,000 (1.39%).
[35]
The Kashmiri Pandits, the only Hindus of the Kashmir valley, who had stably constituted
approximately 4 to 5% of the population of the valley during Dogra rule (18461947), and 20%
of whom had left the Kashmir valley by 1950,[36] began to leave in much greater numbers in the
1990s. According to a number of authors, approximately 100,000 of the total Kashmiri Pandit
population of 140,000 left the valley during that decade.[37] Other authors have suggested a
higher figure for the exodus, ranging from the entire population of over 150[38] to 190 thousand
(1.5 to 190,000) of a total Pandit population of 200 thousand (200,000)[39] to a number as high as
300 thousand[40] (300,000).
The total population of India's division of Jammu and Kashmir is 12,541,302[41] and Pakistan's
division of Azad Jammu and Kashmir is 2,580,000 and Gilgit-Baltistan is 870,347.[42]
Administered
by
India
Area
Kashmir
Valley
Jammu
Ladakh
Pakistan
China
Azad
Kashmir
Gilgit
Baltistan
Aksai Chin
%
Muslim
Population
~4 million
(4 million)
~3 million
(3 million)
~0.25 million
(250,000)
~2.6 million
(2.6 million)
~1 million
(1 million)
%
Hindu
%
Buddhist
%
Other
95%
4%*
30%
66%
4%
46%
50%
3%
100%
99%
for festive occasions, made with saffron and spices (cardamom, cinamon, sugar, noon chai
leaves), and black tea.
Economy
Further information: Economy of Azad Kashmir and Economy of Jammu and Kashmir
Tourism is one of the main sources of income for vast sections of the Kashmiri population.
Shown here is the famous Dal Lake in Srinagar, India.
Skardu in the Northern Areas, is the point of departure for mountaineering expeditions in the
Karakorams.
Kashmir's economy is centred around agriculture. Traditionally the staple crop of the valley was
rice, which formed the chief food of the people. In addition, Indian corn, wheat, barley and oats
were also grown. Given its temperate climate, it is suited for crops like asparagus, artichoke,
seakale, broad beans, scarletrunners, beetroot, cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are common
in the valley, and the cultivated orchards yield pears, apples, peaches, and cherries. The chief
trees are deodar, firs and pines, chenar or plane, maple, birch and walnut, apple, cherry.
Historically, Kashmir became known worldwide when Cashmere wool was exported to other
regions and nations (exports have ceased due to decreased abundance of the cashmere goat and
increased competition from China). Kashmiris are well adept at knitting and making Pashmina
shawls, silk carpets, rugs, kurtas, and pottery. Saffron, too, is grown in Kashmir. Efforts are on to
export the naturally grown fruits and vegetables as organic foods mainly to the Middle East.
Srinagar is known for its silver-work, papier mache, wood-carving, and the weaving of silk.
The economy was badly damaged by the 2005 Kashmir earthquake which, as of 8 October 2005,
resulted in over 70,000 deaths in the Pakistan-controlled part of Kashmir and around 1,500
deaths in Indian controlled Kashmir.
The Indian-administered portion of Kashmir is believed to have potentially rich rocks containing
hydrocarbon reserves.[43][44]
Transport
Transport is predominantly by air or road vehicles in the region.[45] Kashmir has a 119 km (74 mi)
long modern railway line that started in October 2009 and connects Baramulla in the western
part of Kashmir to Srinagar and Qazigund. It will link the Kashmir to Banihal across the Pir
Panjal mountains through the Banihal rail tunnel in 2013 and to the rest of India in another few
years as the construction of the railway line from Jammu to Banihal progresses steadily.
See also
Kargil War
Kashmir conflict
Line of Control
Notes
1.
Basham, A. L. (2005) The wonder that was India, Picador. Pp. 572. ISBN 0-330-43909-X, p.
110.
Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15. 1908. Oxford University Press, Oxford and
London. pp. 9395.
http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:2152.soas
A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass 2000, page 256.
A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass 2000, pages 263264.
Tapasyananda, Swami (2002), Sankara-Dig-Vijaya, pp. 186195
Triadic Heart of Shiva, Paul E. Muller-Ortega, page 12
Introduction to the Tantrloka, Navjivan Rastogi, page 27
Re-accessing Abhinavagupta, Navjivan Rastogi, page 4
Key to the Vedas, Nathalia Mikhailova, page 169
The Pratyabhij Philosophy, Ganesh Vasudeo Tagare, page 12
Companion to Tantra, S.C. Banerji, page 89
Doctrine of Divine Recognition, K. C. Pandey, page V
Introduction to the Tantrloka, Navjivan Rastogi, page 35
Luce dei Tantra, Tantrloka, Abhinavagupta, Raniero Gnoli, page LXXVII
Slaje, Walter. (2005). "Locating the Moks opya", in: Hanneder, Jrgen (Ed.). The
Moksopya,
Yogavsist ha
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm,
Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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Copland, Ian (2002), Princes of India in the Endgame of Empire, 19171947, Cambridge
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Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture?, Delhi: Manohar. Pp.
xviii, 758, pp. 207234, ISBN 978-81-7304-751-0
Keenan, Brigid (1989), Travels in Kashmir: A Popular History of Its People, Places, and
Crafts, Delhi: Oxford University Press. Pp. xii, 226, ISBN 0-19-562236-7
Khan, Mohammad Ishaq (2008), "Islam, State and Society in Medieval Kashmir: A
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of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture?, Delhi: Manohar. Pp.
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Haven and London: Yale University Press, 250 pages, ISBN 0-300-12078-8
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Pp. 368, ISBN 978-0-19-577423-8
Lamb, Alastair (1997), Incomplete partition: the genesis of the Kashmir dispute 1947
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Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pp. xxvi, 392, ISBN 0-19-579622-5
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Further reading
Drew, Federic. 1877. The Northern Barrier of India: a popular account of the Jammoo
and Kashmir Territories with Illustrations; 1st edition: Edward Stanford, London.
Reprint: Light & Life Publishers, Jammu. 1971.
Evans, Alexander. Why Peace Won't Come to Kashmir, Current History (Vol 100, No
645) April 2001 p. 170-175.
Irfani, Suroosh, ed "Fifty Years of the Kashmir Dispute": Based on the proceedings of the
International Seminar held at Muzaffarabad, Azad Jammu and Kashmir 2425 August
1997: University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Muzaffarabad, AJK, 1997.
Joshi, Manoj Lost Rebellion: Kashmir in the Nineties (Penguin, New Delhi, 1999).
Khan, L. Ali The Kashmir Dispute: A Plan for Regional Cooperation 31 Columbia
Journal of Transnational Law, 31, p. 495 (1994).
Knight, E. F. 1893. Where Three Empires Meet: A Narrative of Recent Travel in:
Kashmir, Western Tibet, Gilgit, and the adjoining countries. Longmans, Green, and Co.,
London. Reprint: Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company, Taipei. 1971.
Knight, William, Henry. 1863. Diary of a Pedestrian in Cashmere and Thibet. Richard
Bentley, London. Reprint 1998: Asian Educational Services, New Delhi.
Kchler, Hans. The Kashmir Problem between Law and Realpolitik. Reflections on a
Negotiated Settlement. Keynote speech delivered at the "Global Discourse on Kashmir
2008." European Parliament, Brussels, 1 April 2008.
Moorcroft, William and Trebeck, George. 1841. Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of
Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and
Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825, Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971.
Neve, Arthur. (Date unknown). The Tourist's Guide to Kashmir, Ladakh, Skardo &c. 18th
Edition. Civil and Military Gazette, Ltd., Lahore. (The date of this edition is unknown
but the 16th edition was published in 1938).
Stein, M. Aurel. 1900. Kalhan a's Rjataragin A Chronicle of the Kings of Kamr, 2
vols. London, A. Constable & Co. Ltd. 1900. Reprint, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1979.
Younghusband, Francis and Molyneux, Edward 1917. Kashmir. A. & C. Black, London.
Norelli-Bachelet, Patrizia. "Kashmir and the Convergence of Time, Space and Destiny",
2004; ISBN 0-945747-00-4. First published as a four-part series, March 2002 April
2003, in 'Prakash', a review of the Jagat Guru Bhagavaan Gopinath Ji Charitable
Foundation. [1]
Muhammad Ayub. An Army; Ita Role & Rule (A History of the Pakistan Army from
Independence to Kargil 19471999) Rosedog Books, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania USA
2005. ISBN 0-8059-9594-3.
External links
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Instrument of Accession
Coordinates:
34.5N 76E
[show]
Kashmir
Geography of India
Geography of Pakistan
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