THERAILWAY:TheIndustrializationofTimeandSpacein

the19thCentury
WolfgangSchivelbusch
Therailroadbroughtmoderntechnologyintoeverydaylifeinaradicallynewway
andgavebirthtonewperceptions,newhopes,andnewfears.Itcreated,inthewordsof
WolfgangSchivelbusch,arevolutionaryrupturewith[all]pastformsofexperience.
Nothinginthenineteenthcenturyprovidedsuchadramaticconfirmationofchangeand
technicalprogressasthecomingoftherailway.Therailwaywithitspowerfulsteam
locomotivesfascinatedandimpressedourancestorsinmuchthesamewaythataSpace
Shuttleflightimpressesustoday.Forthefirsttimeinhumanhistory,therailwayfreed
travelfromtheconstraintsofhumanandanimalmusclepowerandeventheconstraintsof
geography.Ineconomicterms,therailwaywasthegreatproductofthefirstphaseofthe
industrialrevolution.Railwayconstructionwasanenormouseconomicincentiveforthe
ironindustry.Inotherwords,anarmyofcoalminersandanotherarmyofironworkers
(nottomentionthemassesofmenswingingsledgehammerslayingtherails)was
necessarytoproducetherawmaterialoftheworld'srailsystem.
Therailwaywasaconcretesymboloftheunlimitedpotentialofsciencetoimprove
everyoneslives.Beyondthat,theconstructionoftheEuropeanrailwaysystem,largely
completeinGreatBritainby1850,seemedtodemonstratethathumanlaborcouldreshape
theearthtofithumannecessity.Thenetofrailroadtracksdidnotfollowthecontoursof
naturethewaythatroadsdid.Therailwaywentthroughnatureinastraight,levelline.
Becausethelocomotive'sironwheelsplacedlimitationsontractionorsomanyengineers
believedtherailsystemhadtoeliminatesteepgradesasmuchaspossible.Thereforethe
railwayencouragedlevelroadbedsaswellasstraightrightsofway.Therailwayrequired
anenormousexpenditureoflabortoblast,dig,andtunnelitswaythroughthephysical
landscape.
ThiswasnecessaryinEuropebecauselandwasscarcewhilelaborwasplentiful.
Cuttings,embankments,andbridgeswerenecessarytoallowtherailwaytomovethrough
thelandscapeinitsstraightandlevelcourse.Theoldnaturalirregularitiesthatroad
buildershadrespectedformillennianowdisappearedreplacedbythesharplinearityofthe
railroad.AsonetravelerdescribedajourneyfromLondontoBirminghamin1839: As
farastheeyecanrange,oneimmensechasmthroughtheearthappearsbeforethe
observer,andatintervalsarebridgescarryingroadsacrosstherailwayatafrightful
height.Theechoesinthisplaceareverydistinct,andwhiletraversingitsextentyou
seemshutoutfromallcommunicationwiththeworld. (Schivelbusch,p.24)

PsychologicalPerspectives
Likethefactorysystemitselftheothergreatsymbolofindustrialsocietyrail
travelintroducedanumberofnewsensoryandpsychologicalexperiencesuniqueinhuman
history.Arailwayjourneydifferedfromastagecoachjourneyinmanysignificantways.
Throughouthistory,peopleperceivedspatialrelationshipsintermsofanimalexhaustion.
Ahorseoramancanonlywalkorrunsofarinagivenperiodoftime.Forstagecoach

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passengers,goingacertaindistancemeantstoppingtorestorchangethehorsesthatdrew
thecoach.AstheBritishessayistThomasdeQuinceyputitin1839:
Whenwearetravelingbystagecoachattherateofeightortenmilesanhour,we
canunderstandthenatureoftheforce,whichsetsthevehicleinmotion:we
understandthenatureofanimalpower:weseehowsoonitisexhaustedevery
successivehourdowewatchthepantingandreekinganimals.Inthecourseofa
day'sjourney,wecanappreciatetheenormoussuccessionofeffortsrequiredto
transportaloadedvehiclefromLondontoadistanttown. (Schivelbusch,p.12)
Itwasnotsowiththerailroad.TheaveragespeedoftheearlyrailwaysinEnglandwas
twentytothirtymilesperhourorroughlythreetimesthespeedofthestagecoach.In
otherwords,evenataveryearlyperiodofraildevelopment,anygivendistancecouldbe
coveredinonethirdthetime.
Manypeopleexperiencedfeelingsofanxietywhentheycontemplatedthe
implicationsofrailwayspeed.ThomasCreevy,aliberalpolitician,rodealongbehind
Stephenson'slocomotiveonitsfirsttripin1829andcommentedthat: Itisreallyflying,
anditisimpossibletodivestyourselfofthenotionofinstantdeathtoallupontheleast
accidenthappening.(Schivelbusch,p.15)Somerailpassengers,likemodernpeople
whofearairtravel,dislikethefeelingofhelplessness,theknowledgethatonehasno
powertocontrolthepowerfulmachinethatencompasseseveryone.CharlesDickens,for
example,experiencedacuteanxietyfordecadesaftersurvivingadeadlytraincrashin
1865.Slowtrainsboredhimandfasttrainsfrightenedsomuchthathecouldnotstanda
railjourneywithoutabottleofbrandyforhisnerves.Hissonrecalled,Ihaveseenhim
sometimesinarailwaycarriagewhentherewasaslightjolt.Whenthishappenedhewas
almostinastateofpanicandgrippedtheseatwithbothhands. (Hibbert,p.267)
Manypassengerscommentedthattheyfeltasifthetrainwereaprojectile.Thusallthose
railcuttings,bridgesandtunnelsappearedlikethebarrelofacannonthroughwhichthe
projectileofthetrainpassed.
Othertravelersweremoreimpressedbythedisorientationofthetraditionaltime
spaceconsciousnessexperiencedbytherailwaytraveler.Othertravelers,likethe
GermanJewishpoetHeinrichHeineweremoreimpressedbythewayinwhichtherailway
seemedtoshrinkspace:
Whatchangesmustnowoccur,inourwayoflookingatthings.Eventhe
elementaryconceptsofspaceandtimehavebeguntovacillate. Spaceiskilledby
therailways,andweareleftwithtimealone.NowyoucantraveltoOrleansin
fourandahalfhours,andittakesnolongertogettoRouen.Justimaginewhat
willhappenwhenthelinestoBelgiumandGermanyarecompleted!Ifeelasifthe
mountainsandforestsofallcountrieswereadvancingonParis.Evennow,Ican
smelltheGermanlindentreestheNorthSeasbreakersarerollingagainstmy
door. (Schivelbusch,p.37)

AUselessSpectacle
Nineteenthcenturytravelerswerealsostruckbysomethingweexperiencequite
oftentoday.IfweflytoLasVegas,weexperiencethedesertonlyasablurthroughthe
aircraft'swindows.EvenifwedrivealongI15,thedesertismerelyavistaweexperience
outsidetheairconditionedinteriorofourvehicle.Railtravelturnedthelandscapeintoa
merepanorama.Sometravelersregardedtheexperienceasunpleasant.TheVictorian
essayistJohnRuskincommented,toanypersonwhohasallhissensesabouthim,a
quietwalkalong[a]roadisthemostamusingofalltravelingandalltravelingbecomes
dullinexactproportiontoitsrapidity. ThenovelistGustaveFlaubertstayedupall
nightbeforerailtripsbecause,asheputittoafriendin1864,Igetsoboredonthetrain
thatIamabouttohowlwithtediumafterfiveminutesofit. (Schivelbusch,p.58)
Othersenjoyedtheexperience.AnAmericanvisitortoGreatBritainwrotehome: The
beautiesofEngland,beingthoseofadream,shouldbeasfleeting.Theyneverappearso
charmingaswhendashingonafteralocomotiveatfortymilesanhours.Everythingisso
quiet,sofresh,sofullofhome,anddestituteofprominentobjectstodetaintheeye,or
distracttheattentionfromthecharmingwhole,thatIlovetodreamthroughtheseplacid
beautieswhilstsailingintheair,quick,asifastrideatornado. (Schivelbusch,p.60)
VictorHugodescribedtheviewfromatrainwindowin1837: Theflowersbythe
sideoftheroadarenolongerflowersbutflecks,orratherstreaks,ofredorwhitethere
arenolongeranypoints,everythingbecomesastreakthegrainfieldsaregreatshocks
ofyellowhairfieldsofalfalfa,longgreentressesthetowns,thesteeples,andthetrees
performacrazy,minglingdance. (Schivelbusch,pp.5556) Theresultofthis
accordingtotheBritishmedicaljournal,Lancet,isnervousfatigue.Accordingtothe
sociologistGeorgSimmel,thismultiplicationofvisualimpressionstodaywecallit
sensoryoverloadisadefiningcharacteristicofmoderntimes.Simmelcalledthisprocess
thedevelopmentofurbanperception.Hecharacterizeditasan intensificationof
nervousstimulationwhichresultsfromtheswiftanduninterruptedchangeofouterand
innerstimuli.(Schivelbusch,p.57)

IndustrialTime
Iftherailways"annihilated"spacetheysanctifiedtimeinanewway.TheFrench
socialscientistMichelleFoucaulttheorizedthataprocessofsocialdisciplinewas
necessarytodevelopthesocialandeconomicstructuresofindustrialsociety.Anew
appreciationoftheimportanceoftimewasamongthechangesofhumanconsciousness
associatedwiththisprocessandwiththeindustrialrevolutiontimeisMoney,etc.Inthe
1840s,astheBritishrailnetnearedcompletion,theBritishRailroadClearingHouse
decidedtoimposeastandardtimeupontheentireBritishIsles.Inotherwords,theneeds
oftherailwayindustryrequiredastandardtimeforeveryoneintheGreatBritain.Initially,
GreenwichTimewasintroducedasthestandardtime.In1880,Railroadtimebecame
standardtimeinEngland.SherlockHolmeswasneverwithouthishandypocketuniversal
Britishrailwaytimetable,heesteemeditanecessityforanycriminologist.Germany
followedsuitin1893.In1889,theUnitedStateswasdividedintofourtimezones,which

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remainunchangedtothisday.Atfirst,thesetimezoneswereregardedonlyasa
conveniencefortheuseoftherailwaysinpracticetheybecameregionalstandardtime
zones. (Schivelbusch,p.44

TheCompartment
Arailwayjourneyalsoservedasanindextosocialdivisions.Railwaypassenger
carsinEuropestillaredividedintofirstandsecondclass.Unlikethemoredemocratic
Americanrailcars,whichweremodeleduponthesteamship,Europeanrailcoacheswere
similartotheoldhorsedrawncarriage.WhileAmericanstraveledinmixedsocialgroups
intheirlargepassengercars,noEuropeanwoulddreamoftravelingoutsidehisorher
socialclass.Thishyperclassconsciousnessledtosomeuniqueproblems.Froman
Americanperspective,thewholeideaofprivatecompartmentsreservedforFirstClass
wasmoreareflectionofEuropeanclasssnobberythananynaturalapproachtotravel.
EuropeanfirstclasspassengersonEuropeantrainsencounteredoneanotherinthe
ambiguous,sometimesembarrassing,sometimesdangerousspaceofthecompartment.In
theirearliestform,theEuropeanpassengercoachhadnocorridorandnoaccesstoa
commonspace.Thepassengerenteredhisorhercarriage,oftentobejoinedbystrangers,
andexitedthecompartmentonlyuponarrivalatthedestinationpoint.Atbest,railtravel
formiddleclasstravelerswasanisolatingexperienceatworst,thetravelerfoundhimself
placedinanunpleasant,orevendangeroussocialsituation.
Theseatinginthefirstclassrailwaycompartmentforcedtravelersintoan
uncomfortableencounterthatcouldleadtoembarrassment.AsthesociologistGeorg
Simmelputit:
Generallyspeaking,whatweseeofapersonisinterpretedbywhatwehearofhim.
Thereforeonewhoseeswithouthearingisfarmoreconfused,undecided,upset
thanonewhohearswithoutseeing.Beforethedevelopmentofbuses,trainsand
streetcarsinthenineteenthcentury,peoplewerequiteunabletolookateachother
forminutesorhoursatatime,ortobeforcedtodoso,withouttalkingtoeach
other.Moderntrafficincreasinglyreducesthemajorityofsensoryrelations
betweenhumanbeingstomeresightandthismustcreateentirelynewpremisesfor
theirgeneralsociologicalfeelings. (Schivelbusch,p.75)
Oftenpeoplesimplyrespondedtotheboredomandsocialdiscomfortofsharinga
confinedspacewithstrangersbyconcentratingontheirnewspaperorrailwaynovelinan
attempttoavoidtheeyesoftheirfellowtravelers.Forthemiddleclass,by1850reading
whiletravelingbecameanestablishedcustom.Theworkingclasshadneitherthedesire
northemoneyforsuchaluxuryasaRailwaynovel.Bythe1840s,bookseller'sstalls
begantoappearinalmosteveryrailstation.Asoneadvertisementputit:
Thetravelerfindshimselfcondemnedtoidlenessassoonasheentersthecarriage.
Themonotonyofthetripsoontakeseffect:boredomarrives,andwhatisworse,
impatienceengulfstheunfortunatetravelerpulledalonglikeapieceofbaggage.
L.HachetteandCompanyhavecomeupwithanideaforturningtheenforced
leisureandtheboredomofalongtriptotheenjoymentandinstructionofall.

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They[provide]arailwaylibrarythatwillprovideinterestingvolumesinahandy
formatandatamoderateprice. (Schivelbusch,pp.6566)
Inotherwords,therailwaywasdirectlyresponsibleforonedistinctfeatureofmodernlife:
thecheap,massmarketpaperbackbook.

Crime
Therailroaddisruptedthetravelers'relationshipstoeachotherasitdisruptedtheir
relationshiptothetraversedlandscape.Severalspectacularcrimesassociatedwithrailway
travel,galvanizedthepopularimagination,transformingembarrassmentintofear.In
GreatBritaininthemid1850s,robbersmanagedtostealashipmentofgoldfromasealed
baggagecaronatrainmovingat55mphafeatthatshockedandimpressedeveryone.
(TheGreatTrainRobbery) InDecemberof1860,atrainarrivedinParisandthe
conductordiscoveredthedeadbodyofChiefJusticePoinsotaloneinhiscompartment.
Nopassengerwasbookedwithhimandnooneintheneighboringcompartmentsheard
anythingsuspicious. ThepainfulinterestexcitedinParisbythedreadfuldeathof
MonsieurPoinsothasbeenextraordinarilygreat,reportedoneParisiannewspaper.
(Schivelbusch,p.80)AsimilarunsolvedmurderinGreatBritaincausedaParliamentary
commissiontolookintorailwaysecurityandinspiredhundredsofdetectivestories.
Sometimesthefearofsocialembarrassmentshadedoverintothefearofbeing
victimized.OnerailwayofficialreportedtoParliamentthat:
Therehasbeen,indeed,apanicamongstrailwaypassengers.Ladies,unable,of
course,todiscriminateatthemomentbetweenthosewhomtheyshouldavoidand
thosewhoshouldbetheirprotectors,shunallalikeandgentlemenpassengers
constantlyrefusetotravelsinglywithastrangeroftheweakersex,underthebelief
thatitisonlycommonprudencetoavoidinthismannerallriskofbeingaccused,
forpurposesofextortion,ofinsult,orassault. (Schivelbusch,p.82)

WorkingClassTravel
Travelonlybecameaccessibletoworkingclasspeoplewiththeadventofthe
railroad,andworkingclasspeopletendedtotravelinmuchthesamewaytheylivedand
workedcrowdedtogetherinthirdorfourthclasscarriages.Lowerclasscarriageswere
morelikeboxcarswithroofsandbenches.Whyafterall,shouldcommonersexpect
luxuriesreservedfortheirsocialbetters?TheymayhavebeenSpartan,buttheyallowed
forsociabilityandmovement.TheFrenchnovelistAlphonseDaudetrecalledatrain
journeyinthirdclass:
I'llneverforgetmytriptoParisinathirdclasscarriageinthemidstofdrunken
sailorssinging,big,fatpeasantssleepingwiththeirmouthsopenlikethoseofdead
fish,littleoldladieswiththeirbaskets,children,fleas,wetnurses,thewhole
paraphernaliaofthecarriageofthepoorwithitsodorofpipesmoke,brandy,
garlicsausageandwetstraw. (Schivelbusch,p.77)

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InEngland,untilthe1840s,lowerclassriderswerenotregardedasrecipientsof
passengerservice,butratherasfreightgoods.TheGladstoneActof1844requiredthe
thirdandfourthclasscarriagestobecoveredsothatpassengerswouldnotbeshowered
withhotcoalsandsootfromthelocomotive.

TheRailwayasPoliticalSymbol
Aboveall,thecomingoftherailwaysymbolizedthatprogressoratleast,
changewasonthemarch.Couldtherailwayusherinaperiodofpoliticalandeconomic
modernizationinthemorebackwardareasofEurope?In1846,theItalianjournalistand
politiciantheContediCavourpredicted,thelocomotiveisdestinedtodiminishthe
humiliatinginferioritytowhichmanybranchesofthegreatChristianfamilyare
reduced. CavourwentontopredictthatrailroadswouldbringItalianstogetherand
hastennationalunificationandanewprogressivesociety.InGermany,anothernation
laggingbehindWesternEuropeinpoliticalandeconomicterms,theliberaleconomist
FriedrichListpredictedthatthelocomotivewouldbethehearseofthearistocracyandthe
railwaywouldhastensocialandpoliticalliberalization.
Thispotentialforchangedidnotpleaseeveryone.Europehadnoshortageof
socialconservativeswhodoubtedthevalueofanysortofinnovationatallincluding
railwaytravel.TheseventysixyearoldpoetGoethewrote:
Wealthandspeedarethethingstheworldadmiresandforwhichallmenstrive.
Railways,expressmails,steamboats,andallpossiblemeansofcommunicationare
whattheeducatedworldseeks.Thisisthecenturyofcleverminds,ofpractical
menwhograspthingseasily,whoareendowedwithacertainfacility,andwhofeel
theirsuperioritytothemultitude,butwholackatalentforthemostexaltedtasks.
Manyaristocratswereoffendedattheveryideaofdemocratictravelitcouldeasilylead
toallsortsofotheroutrages.WilliamIII,KingofPrussia,sawnopointinarrivinghome
inBerlinanhourortwoearlier.TheGrandDukeofHanoverwasappalledbytheidea
that,anycobblerortailorcouldtravelasfastasI. InRussia,theImperialAcademyof
Scienceswasaskedtoproduceastudyonthequestionofwhetherornotthehumanbody
couldendurespeedsof25milesperhours.

TheUrbanLandscapeTransformed
Therailwaychangedthefaceoftheurbanlandscape.Justastwentiethcentury
citiesareconstructedtocatertotheautomobile,thenineteenthcenturycityreflectedthe
needsoftherailsystem.TherailwaytransformedthemedievalfaceofLondonandParis
andchangedBerlinfromaquietgarrisontowntoanindustrialgiant.Ingeneral,the
railwaywasresponsibleforthecreationofspecializeddistricts(residential,business,and
industrial).Asweshallsee,itrevolutionizedretailbusinessbymakinglargeretailoutlets
feasible.InthewordsoftheJ.R.Kellett,TheplansofBritishtowns,nomatterhow
individualanddiversebefore1830,areuniformlysuperinscribedwithinagenerationby
thegiganticgeometricalbrushstrokesoftheengineers'curvingapproachlinesandcut

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offs,and[decorated]withthesamebulkyandintrusive[Stations],sidings,and
marshalingyards.(Schivelbusch,p.179)
BeginningwithParisinthe1850s,almostallmajorEuropeancitiesundertook
greatreconstructionprojectstoaccommodateneedsoftherailwaysaswellasthegreat
growthintheurbanpopulation.In1800urbanareasaccountedfor40%ofthepopulation
ofBritainand25%oftheFrenchandGermanpopulation.By1914,urbancenters
accountedfor80%ofthepopulationofBritain,60%inGermany,and45%inFrance.
Therailwayplayedavitalroleinthissocialmigrationfromthecountrysidetothecity.
Butthestoryismorecomplexthanthat.ThereconstructionofParisbyNapoleonIIIwas
themostfamousurbanrenewalprojectofthecenturyandsetthemodelforLondon,
Berlin,andVienna.UnderthedirectionofBaronHaussmann,theoldresidentialareasin
thecitycenterofParis,manyofthemworkingclassslums,weredemolishedandreplaced
withgovernmentofficebuildings,retailstoresincludingnewdepartmentstores,public
plazasandbroadboulevards.IthasbeencommontoattributesomeoftheFrench
government'sfondnessforbroadParisianboulevardstopurelymilitarylogictomakeit
easiertosuppressrevolts.AsKarlMarxputit,thenewstreetswerebeautifullyaccessible
tolight,air,andinfantry.
Butthenewstreetswerealsonecessarysimplytoaccommodatethemassesof
peopledepositedattherailwaystationsandtodirectpeopletothecitycenterfor
shoppingandlodging.MostofthegreatEuropeanrailstationswerebuiltontheoutskirts
ofthecitycenternotinthebestpartsoftown.Thishadtheeffectofincreasingthe
numberofhorsecarriagesandcabstotransferthepassengerstothecitycenterwherethe
besthotelswere.InLondonthenewrailwaylineswerebuiltexclusivelythroughworking
classneighborhoodsbecausepropertyvalueswereconsiderablylowerthere.Government
andtherailwaysevictedAlmost120,000peoplefromtheirhomestomakewayforthe
newconstruction.In1855,thecityofLondonestimatedthedailycarriagetrafficonthe
mainarteriesleadingtothecitycentertobe75,000horsedrawnvehicles.
AllotherEuropeancitiestoldasimilartale.Therailwaydepositedanendless
streamofgoodsandpeopleatthegreatcentralstationsandafurtherinvestmentin
transportwasneededtomovethosegoodsandpeopletotheirurbandestinations.The
railwaytooktheplaceofhorsedrawnvehiclesforlongdistancetravel,butitalsogave
thehorseanewimportanceforcitytransportation.Themostcommonnoiseassaulting
theearsofanycitydwellerwasthesoundofthousandsofhorseshoovesoncobblestone
andtheshoutsofthedrivers.Itisdoubtfulwhetherevenmoderncarandtrucktraffic
wouldhavebeenasnoisyasthethousandsofHansomcabsplyingthemainstreetsof
London.Thetrafficjamandtrafficnoisepredatedtheautomobile.
Oneobviousbenefitofincreasedtrafficwasthegrowthofretailbusiness.The
firstmoderndepartmentstoretheBonMarchopeneditsdoorsinParisin1852.Such
largeretailoutletswereonlypossibleinarailwayage.Therailwaybroughtboththe
goodsandthecustomerstothecitythehorsedrawncabsandbusesdepositedthemboth
inthecentralshoppingareas.Infact,therailwaychangedeverything.Inthenew
departmentstores,thecustomershoppedinanewway.Everythinghadapriceandthat
pricewasnotsubjecttonegotiation.Inthetraditionalretailshop,buyerandsellerstill
confrontedoneanotherinperson.Thedepartmentstoreputanendtothousandsofyears
ofEuropeanhaggling. Thedepartmentstoreputanendtothissalesconversation,as
travelbyrailputanendtoverbalexchangesamongtravelers.Thelatterwerereplaced
byrailwaynovelstheformer,byamutepricetag. (Schivelbusch,p.189)

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Noteverycitydwellerwelcomedthesechanges.OneBerlinnewspapergroused
asearlyas1838uponthevolumeoftrafficalongtheformerlyquietLeipzigerstrasse:
WalkingalongtheLeipzigerStrassethatleadstotherailroadthereisaconstant
stream,inbothdirections,ofpedestrians,coaches,cabs,andothervehiclesthe
solid,massivebuildingsreverberatefromthecontinuousshocks,andinhabitants
whoformerlythoughttofindhereaquiet,beautifulstreet,withitsadvantagesof
proximitytothecountryside,greentreesandfields,arenowmovingbackintothe
citytoregaintheirlostserenity.InthefuturethegreatLeipzigerStrassewill
probablybeathoroughfareoffactories. (Schivelbusch,p.180)